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Discriminate analysis gender public school principal servant leadership differences
Leadership & Organization Development Journal
Abstract
Purpose
This paper seeks to apply discriminate analysis to determine principal's leadership styles differences between genders in USA Midwest public schools. A distinction is to be made between “servant” (seen as aligned with emotional intelligence) and “traditional” (or top‐down) leadership. The debate between the traditional (or, top‐down) leadership approach, versus the servant (which is seen as aligned with emotional intelligence) leadership approach is ripe for investigation.
Design/methodology/approach
E‐mail based surveys from 445 responding public school principals comprised of men ( n =265) and women ( n =180) were quantitatively analyzed. The self‐selected sample for the study was drawn from public schools in three Midwest states in the USA. The inventory contained 40 content items prepared on a five‐point Likert scale and one demographic question. Content and construct validity were evaluated and significant difference tests were performed. The study sought to clarify which cluster of items from the Servant‐leadership Styles Inventory (SSI) best described gender membership and, thereby, proffered possibly gender oriented servant‐leadership styles utilizing discriminant function analysis methods.
Findings
This study has established that SSI items identified with Servant‐leadership dimension are reliable and valid; however items aligned with Traditional leadership dimensions were found to be less reliable and valid. Additionally these results have shown that Servant‐leadership items can be effective in differentiating between men and women principals. It is important to note that both men and women equally reported that they were reluctant to use Traditional leadership styles. No differences between genders in Traditional leadership styles usage were found. However, there were significant differences between men's and women's Servant‐leadership style usage.
Research limitations/implications
Current research shows that men and women operate differently. What has been lacking, however, is an instrument that discriminated between male and female leadership styles. This study is bounded by the following limitations: by location, the study is restricted to USA Midwest practicing public school principals; to the gender based perceptions of principals in Midwest USA, other factors such a training, experience and longevity are unknown; and it is also unknown as to the instrument's cultural biases when applied to other countries and regions in the USA. However, the instrument may open opportunities for cultural and gender based leadership research studies when applied to new populations.
Practical implications
This paper reports the development of a new research instrument, the SSI. The instrument utilizes 20 traditional leadership styles and 20 servant leadership styles to query subjects. The instrument was found to be reliable and valid, especially the servant leadership items.
Originality/value
The paper shows that four Servant‐leadership styles lend understanding to the field, and help begin a discussion of feminine servant‐leadership style. These four newly identified styles are: daily reflection; consensus building; healing relationships; and drive sense of self worth. The feminine leader is more likely to hold and practice these values than male leaders.
... Another study by Fridell, Newcom Belcher, and Messner (2009) found a similar result as it relates to women and servant leadership. The study applied a discriminant analysis to determine if there were leadership styles differences between the principal's genders in Midwest public schools. ...
... These four areas consisted of daily reflection, consensus building, healing relationships, and the drive for a sense of self-worth. The results of the study found more female principals were likely to value and use servant leadership principles than their counterparts (Fridell et al., 2009). In this example, men and women are using servant leadership, but women are seen to have a unique way of implementing the style that is different from men. ...
... Contrary to the two studies, it is important to note that in a meta-analysis of servant leadership literature, Parris and Peachey (2013) found that in addition to Fridell et al. (2009) findings, other researchers "lacked methodological quality sufficient to support any conclusions" (p. 388) in identifying demographic characteristics conducive to practicing servant leadership. ...
... Research specific to school principals also offers contrasting views with regard to gender based differences in styles and effectiveness. Similar to findings in general management, some studies in school leadership research show that female principals adopt a more participatory style and pay more attention to relationships than their male counterparts (Eagly et al., 1992;Fridell, Newcom Belcher, & Messner, 2009;Grace, 1995;Shakeshaft, 1989). Shakeshaft (1989) proposed that women principals approached administrative tasks differently from men in several domains, including interpersonal relationship building, focus on curriculum and teaching, and participatory decision making. ...
... However, she did not find any gender based differences in leadership styles concerning power sharing and consultation; professional experiences, rather than gender, influenced the tendency to adopt relatively democratic and participatory decision-making behaviors. Fridell, Newcom Belcher, and Messner (2009) found that female principals reported higher use of servant-leadership styles, especially in four domains-daily reflection, consensus building, healing relationships, and developing sense of self-worth. ...
... It is intuitive to surmise that if developing a vision and promoting shared goals is a critical aspect of successful leadership, involving others in this core function would underpin the development of a successful distributed leadership model. Based on this logic, the findings of this study can be considered consistent with previous research, which has shown that female leaders have a more participatory style compared to their male peers (Eagly & Carli, 2003;Eagly & Johnson, 1990;Fridell et al., 2009;Post, 2015;Shakeshaft, 1989) in the critical domain of planning and setting goals. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine whether female principals have a more participatory style compared to their male counterparts by examining principals’ daily time allocation patterns. The study analyzed data from End of Day (EOD) survey logs from principals in an urban school district. Results from hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) results showed that female principals, when compare to male principals, spent a higher proportion of their time working with others in planning/setting goals. At the same time, there were no differences in how principals allocated their time total working alone or working with others and their time distribution in other leadership domains. The findings suggest that gender differences in leadership style depend on specific activity domains and that there are significant differences in the key domain of strategic planning.
... Servant leadership begins with a natural feel. It means that a person who has the innate desire to serve [9]. This conscious choice can enthusiastic person to lead others. ...
... Servant leadership is a subject that discuss about it in academic and general environment [9]. The definition of servant leadership is a leader who insisted on his followers benefits compare to personal benefit [26]. ...
... A society people can share its benefits and use its advantages. In his view for achieving to this society we should have the servant leaders in all organizations [9]. In fact, he imagined a society that serves to others is always the first choice [18]. ...
The purpose of this paper aims to clarify the relationship between servant leadership and organizational trust, and tries to demonstrate the mediator role of leader trust and organizational communication in this relationship. The study sample included 258 employees of Guilan province Tax Administration and for sampling we used cluster method. Previous studies have also focused on the positive impact of servant leadership in organizational trust and in this article the results show that there is a significant relationship between servant leadership, organizational trust, leader trust and organizational communication.
... One study tapped a survey designed by the U.S. Office of Personal Management (OPM). Four studies used surveys developed specifically for the research: Fridell et al. (2009), Reinke (2004), and McCuddy and Cavin (2008. In summary, out of 27 survey studies, there were 14 different measures used. ...
... Three studies (Fridell et al. 2009;McCuddy and Cavin 2009;Taylor et al. 2007) attempted to identify demographic characteristics conducive to practicing servant leadership. However, these studies lacked methodological quality sufficient to support any conclusions. ...
... In addition, many of the findings of these studies contradicted each other as well as other studies within our sample. For example, one study found significant differences between men and women's servant leadership style usage-female leaders were more likely to practice daily reflection and consensus building, foster self worth, and engage in healing relationships (Fridell et al. 2009), while another study found no difference (McCuddy and Cavin 2009). Also, one study found that socio-economic factors were positively related to servant behaviors (McCuddy and Cavin 2009), while another study found that no demographic variables were significantly related to servant leadership (Taylor et al. 2007) Therefore, it remains to be discovered if there are in fact demographic characteristics that are related to servant leadership. ...
A new research area linked to ethics, virtues, and morality is servant leadership. Scholars are currently seeking publication outlets as critics debate whether this new leadership theory is significantly distinct, viable, and valuable for organizational success. The aim of this study was to identify empirical studies that explored servant leadership theory by engaging a sample population in order to assess and synthesize the mechanisms, outcomes, and impacts of servant leadership. Thus, we sought to provide an evidence-informed answer to how does servant leadership work, and how can we apply it? We conducted a systematic literature review (SLR), a methodology adopted from the medical sciences to synthesize research in a systematic, transparent, and reproducible manner. A disciplined screening process resulted in a final sample population of 39 appropriate studies. The synthesis of these empirical studies revealed: (a) there is no consensus on the definition of servant leadership; (b) servant leadership theory is being investigated across a variety of contexts, cultures, and themes; (c) researchers are using multiple measures to explore servant leadership; and (d) servant leadership is a viable leadership theory that helps organizations and improves the well-being of followers. This study contributes to the development of servant leadership theory and practice. In addition, this study contributes to the methodology for conducting SLRs in the field of management, highlighting an effective method for mapping out thematically, and viewing holistically, new research topics. We conclude by offering suggestions for future research.
... Altogether, this more communal focus may explain why, unlike other more charismatic or leader-centric forms of leadership (Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt, 2002), servant leadership is negatively predicted by extraversion (Washington et al., 2006). Research indicating that women are more likely than men to act as servant leaders (Fridell, Belcher, & Messner, 2009) provide additional evidence of an enhanced communality. Servant leadership is also uniquely predicted by community-building (Parris & Peachey, 2013), demonstrating further alignment with a stakeholder focus. ...
... Due to these self-concordant behaviors, authentic leaders are viewed as possessing high levels of behavioral integrity (Leroy, Palanski, & Simons, 2012), and are therefore judged by followers as predictably consistent in their values and beliefs (Peus et al., 2012). Research also indicates that men are more likely than women to emerge as authentic leaders (Monzani, Bark, van Dick, & Peiro, 2015), whereas women were more often seen as servant leaders (Fridell et al., 2009). This finding might be explained by gender roles which position women as more caring and careful not to upset others whereas men are more independent and blunt. ...
Moral forms of leadership such as ethical, authentic, and servant leadership have seen a surge of interest in the 21st century. The proliferation of morally-based leadership approaches has resulted in theoretical confusion and empirical overlap that mirror substantive concerns within the larger leadership domain. Our integrative review of this literature reveals connections with moral philosophy that provide a useful framework to better differentiate the specific moral content (i.e., deontology, virtue ethics, and consequentialism) that undergirds ethical, authentic, and servant leadership respectively. Taken together, this integrative review clarifies points of integration and differentiation among moral approaches to leadership and delineates avenues for future research that promise to build complementary rather than redundant knowledge regarding how moral approaches to leadership inform the broader leadership domain.
... Taking into account gender stereotypes, it is possible to match different leadership styles with men and women. Stereotypically masculine traits are associated with an authoritarian, managerial and taskfocused leadership style, and stereotypically feminine traits are linked to a democratic, participative leadership style focused on interpersonal relations (Eagly & Johnson, 1990;Fridell, Newcom Belcher & Messner, 2009;Gartzia & Van Engen, 2012;Oakley, 2000;Post, 2015;Powell, 2011;Van Engen & Willemsen, 2004). Along the same lines, a transformational leadership style, based on aspects such as the motivation, guidance, stimulation and training of followers, is associated with the way women lead (Barberá Heredia & Ramos López, 2004;Dodd, 2012;Evans, 2010;Hoyt, 2010;Trinidad & Normore, 2005). ...
... Teniendo en cuenta los estereotipos de género es posible relacionar distintos estilos de liderazgo con hombres y mujeres. Los rasgos estereotípicamente masculinos se vinculan con un estilo de liderazgo autoritario, directivo y centrado en la tarea y los rasgos estereotípicamente femeninos con un estilo de liderazgo democrático, participativo y centrado en las relaciones interpersonales (Eagly & Johnson, 1990;Fridell, Newcom Belcher & Messner, 2009;Gartzia & Van Engen, 2012;Oakley, 2000;Post, 2015;Powell, 2011;Van Engen & Willemsen, 2004). En la misma línea, el estilo de liderazgo transformacional basado en aspectos como la motivación, orientación, estimulación o capacitación de los seguidores se relaciona con la forma de liderar de las mujeres (Barberá Heredia & Ramos López, 2004;Dodd, 2012;Evans, 2010;Hoyt, 2010;Trinidad & Normore, 2005). ...
Purpose: The purpose of this research is to show the representation of women in corporate leadership positions. It also aims to identify the key factors that determine the lower presence of women in senior management, as well as policies to achieve gender balance in decision-making positions.
Design/methodology/approach: In order to show the representation of women in senior positions, the information contained in the European Commission database Women and men in decision-making has been analyzed. This database contains information on the presence of women in key positions in the largest publicly-listed European companies. The analysis has been completed with the Economically Active Population Survey of the Spanish National Statistics Institute and Catalyst census, including Fortune 500 companies. A literature review was also conducted to find factors explaining the current situation of women in decision-making positions and to propose strategies that promote more women in senior management. The literature review was carried out by means of searches in Google Scholar and in the databases ABI/INFORM Global, Emerald and International Bibliography of the Social Sciences, which permitted the analysis of several journals.
Findings: This study highlights the gender imbalance in decision-making positions. Most barriers to senior management are related to gender stereotypes. Therefore, we propose combining short-term measures to provide the required support for women in order to access management positions with other long-term measures to boost analysis and the learning process throughout society.
Originality/value: The research assesses the magnitude of the gender imbalance still present in leadership positions today. It also highlights the need for short- and long-term measures.
... For example, studies by Hayden (2011) andLaub (1999) did not find significant gender differences in perceptions of servant leadership, and Bovee (2012) found that gender had no effect on teacher job satisfaction. However, other studies had similar results to ours, like those by Van Maele and Van Houtte (2012) and Fridell, Belcher, and Messner (2009), who found a number of significant differences for gender on job satisfaction and servant leadership; as in our study, women scored higher. Fridell et al. (2009) explain the uniqueness of women in servant-leadership styles in terms of their tendency to daily reflection, their ability to build consensus, their ability to emotionally heal relationships and ability to create a sense of selfworth in others. ...
... However, other studies had similar results to ours, like those by Van Maele and Van Houtte (2012) and Fridell, Belcher, and Messner (2009), who found a number of significant differences for gender on job satisfaction and servant leadership; as in our study, women scored higher. Fridell et al. (2009) explain the uniqueness of women in servant-leadership styles in terms of their tendency to daily reflection, their ability to build consensus, their ability to emotionally heal relationships and ability to create a sense of selfworth in others. Women are also "more likely than men to encourage the empowerment of their teachers" (Shakeshaft, Nowell, & Perry, 1991, p.38). ...
Perceptions of School Principals’ Servant Leadership and Their Teachers’ Job Satisfaction in Oman
ABSTRACT
This study identifies Omani teachers’ perceptions of servant leadership and teacher job satisfaction, and the impact of several demographic differences on their perceptions. The Servant Leadership Scale (SLS) of Barbuto and Wheeler and the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) of Spector are used to collect data from 356 teachers. With a few modifications, we found that both scales present measurement reliability in the Omani sample. Results showed that teachers indicate moderate levels of job satisfaction and servant leadership of school principals. There were significant differences based on gender and school type in the areas of emotional healing, promotion, and the nature of the work. Differences at the school level mostly favored the lower grades. This study contributes to the body of research on servant leadership and job satisfaction by explaining the relationship between the two variables from the Omani cultural context.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15700763.2015.1047032
... In addition to transformational leadership, recent literature cites other examples of relationship-based leadership that had positive effects on organizational outcomes. Servant leadership and its components overcome the weaknesses of traditional hierarchical leadership by establishing stronger bonds between leaders and followers (Fridell et al., 2009). For instance, mindfulness has been used as a means of enhancing mutual trust between leaders and members of an organization, facilitating inclusiveness in organizational decisions, and increasing creativity (Raney, 2014). ...
... For instance, mindfulness has been used as a means of enhancing mutual trust between leaders and members of an organization, facilitating inclusiveness in organizational decisions, and increasing creativity (Raney, 2014). Similarly, emotional intelligence, a component of servant leadership (Fridell et al., 2009) is predictive of leadership effectiveness in public leadership settings (Kotze and Venter, 2011). Empowering leadership, in which leaders empower subordinates to make decisions and pursue objectives on their own, was found to facilitate employee performance and satisfaction, and to suppress dysfunctional employee resistance (Vecchio et al., 2010). ...
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to find underlying causes of leadership failure in NPM-based reforms in the public service, and propose leadership principles to guard against such failure as leaders meet the demands of a changing, complex public service environment.
Design/methodology/approach – An analysis of the managerial philosophy of Dr Berwick and its effects on CMS overall performance and employee morale.
Findings – NPM-based reforms create an environment in which administrative wrongdoing can occur. The principles of leadership found in NPLT, which advocates values-based, relationship-based distributed leadership provide a template for effective leadership that can reverse and possibly prevent leadership failure due to NPM-based reforms.
Research limitations/implications – The authors used a single case to demonstrate NPLT leadership principles can reverse leadership failure in a Federal Agency. No quantitative analysis is attempted in this paper. The authors choice of papers to use in the literature review was subjective.
Originality/value – This paper identifies NPM-based reforms as a partial explanation for leadership failure in the public service, and also identifies the leadership principles needed to address and prevent such failures. It provides support for the use of NPLT as a template for effective public service leadership.
... Teniendo en consideración estas premisas, cabe preguntarse si realmente pueden existir diferencias de cierto calado en la manera de acceder y ejercer el liderazgo en función del género, una cuestión que viene siendo planteada académicamente desde hace décadas en diversos campos científicos y humanísticos como la psicología, la sociología, la ética, la gestión de recursos humanos o la administración de empresas (Moran, 1992;Fridell, Belcher y Messner, 2009;Snaebjornsson y Edvardsson, 2013;Shen y Joseph, 2021). En cuanto al acceso al liderazgo de las mujeres, no son pocos los estudios que, apoyándose en la teoría de la congruencia de roles, han detectado que el rol de líder tradicionalmente se ha ajustado más a los hombres que a las mujeres, existiendo ciertos prejuicios sociales que han dificultado a las mujeres en su camino hacía el liderazgo, pues son percibidas y, de igual modo, también son evaluadas de manera menos favorable que los hombres al ejercer estos roles (Eagly y Karau, 2002;Ferguson, 2017;Koburtay, Syed y Haloub, 2019;Kim et al., 2020). ...
ABSTRACT.
The automotive industry has traditionally been a very masculinized sector, with a minority of women, both in industrial and commercial positions. The main objective of this study is, on the one hand, to analyse the opinion about female leadership of the workers of the sector in Spain, and, on the other hand, of the female managers who work in it. Also, the possible causes of the low presence of women in leadership positions are addressed. The data of this study comes from primary sources and both quantitative (from the results of a survey of employees in the sector, to which bivariate analysis is applied) and qualitative (semi-structured interviews conducted with managers of different companies of the automotive sector) tools are used. The main results of the study show that, although a high percentage of women have felt undervalued because of their gender, the acceptance of female leadership by workers in the sector is very high. Despite this, not all the workers in a sector as masculinized as the automotive sector perceive this female leadership in the same way. Women, younger people and those with higher levels of education are more critical when they observe the stereotypes towards women and they are the most positive when considering a future with more female leadership. It is concluded that, due to the legislative changes that have favoured labour equality, as well as the opening of the sector towards female employment, more and more women work in the automotive industry and have access to leadership positions, and it is a trend that is expected to increase in the near future.
RESUMEN.
La automoción ha sido un sector tradicionalmente muy masculinizado. El objetivo de este trabajo es conocer la valoración del liderazgo femenino por parte de trabajadores y directivas del sector en España. Se aplica análisis cuantitativo (estadística descriptiva y bivariada sobre encuesta a empleados del sector) y cualitativo (entrevistas a directivas). Los resultados indican que la aceptación del liderazgo femenino es muy alta. Las mujeres, los jóvenes y quienes tienen estudios superiores son más críticos frente a estereotipos de género y más positivos ante un futuro con mayor liderazgo femenino. Se concluye que el empleo femenino y su acceso a puestos de liderazgo es una tendencia que se incrementará en el futuro.
... Arnold and Loughlin, 2010;Fridell et al., 2009) or show compassion (Sarros et al., 2006). Besides there are four main factors in women's leadership that are typical of Kanter (1976, in Nurlina, 2015) and affect her leadership, which will be seen in this study by combining them with Dennis's Servant leadership indicators (2004). ...
Servant leadership is an alternative solution for leadership in a disruptive era. The purpose of this study is to describe the effect of women servant leadership on employee creativity through organizational trust. The novelty contribution to this research is the synthesis of the concept of woman Servant leadership. The sample population of this study is 90 employees in the food and beverage business in Indonesia. This study uses the SEM Path Analysis approach. The results showed that women Servant leadership had a significant and positive influence on employee creativity and organizational trust; meanwhile, organizational trust also has a significant and positive impact on employee creativity; however organizational trust cannot be a mediator variable for women Servant leadership.
... Future research on women and leadership should make use of servant, transformational, and authentic leadership theories in developing more nuanced understandings of leadership, inclusive of how women and men across the world who engage in these specific leadership (Eagly et al., 2003;Fridell et al., 2009) and the impacts of varying styles on individuals and organizations will help us to understand the unique characteristics and advantages of women's leadership. Recent research by Hopkins et al. (2021) indicated that demonstrating relational behaviors had an adverse effect on women's leadership potential. ...
... Selforientation may have ramifications for decision-making and performance (De Dreu, 2006;Meglino & Korsgaard, 2004). We controlled for participant sex because prior research has demonstrated the potential for relationships with servant leadership and its effectiveness (Fridell et al., 2009;Lemoine & Blum, 2021). We also controlled for participants' tenure in their roles and with their leaders. ...
Servant leadership's unique focus on care and concern for multiple stakeholders has caught the attention of academic and practitioners alike. Its theoretical novelty, however, remains underutilized as a means to contribute unique insights to the leadership literature. We draw on servant leadership's moral foundation—utilitarian consequentialism—and social learning theory to identify cognitive mechanisms (follower other‐orientation and cognitive reflection) through which servant leadership affects employee behavior benefiting two stakeholder groups: a community nonprofit organization and the employing organization. Furthermore, we evaluate the degree to which an employee's moral identity internalization acts as a boundary condition of servant leadership's effects. Data were collected from 274 employee‐supervisor dyads across three waves with objective cognitive reflection scores and objective measures of workplace charitable giving and employee performance. Results supported all hypothesized predictions even after accounting for three alternative mediators. In particular, servant leadership had a positive indirect effect on workplace charitable giving through follower other‐orientation; it also had a positive indirect effect on objective follower financial performance through other‐orientation and cognitive reflection. Both indirect effects were significant at low levels of moral identity internalization but not at high levels. We discuss the implications of these findings and delineate directions for future research.
... Future research on women and leadership should make use of servant, transformational, and authentic leadership theories in developing more nuanced understandings of leadership, inclusive of how women and men across the world who engage in these specific leadership (Eagly et al., 2003;Fridell et al., 2009) and the impacts of varying styles on individuals and organizations will help us to understand the unique characteristics and advantages of women's leadership. Recent research by Hopkins et al. (2021) indicated that demonstrating relational behaviors had an adverse effect on women's leadership potential. ...
... Some studies suggest gender (measured as a dichotomy) may have some impact on servant leadership as females scored higher in aspects of servant leadership (C. D. Beck, 2014;Fridell et al., 2009;Xu et al., 2015), but results are not replicated in other studies (Diehl, 2015;Dimitrova, 2008;Rennaker, 2008;Rohm, 2013;T. A. Taylor, 2002;Ward, 2017) and even contradicted (Farmer, 2010;Politis & Politis, 2018). ...
Robert Greenleaf introduced servant leadership in 1970 as an ‘others first’ philosophy to benefit followers, organisations and society. While research suggests a link between servant leadership and spirituality—an individually constructed set of beliefs, practices, and experiences that may or may not draw from religion—research has yet to explore if and how spirituality develops across multi-faith, multi-ethnic aspiring servant leaders in Aotearoa-New Zealand. This study used a case study methodology to explore how 12 international students developed spiritually, as defined by the Spiritual Development Framework (SDF) proposed by Benson, Scales, Syvertson and & Roehlkepartain (2012), through an Aotearoa-New Zealand tertiary servant leader course. Development was also considered against the dimensions of Servant Leadership Behaviour Survey (SLBS) as proposed by Sendjaya, Sarros and Santora (2008).
The present study found evidence of spiritual and servant leader development before the course through mentoring and modelling by family and faith communities and evidence of development during the course in the spiritual development processes of awareness, connection and a way of living and through reciprocal and experiential learning based on professional practice and reflection. The findings support the inclusion of spirituality as a dimension of servant leadership and suggests further servant leader development should build on spiritual practice and formative mentoring by family and faith communities and provide emotional support for learners in their servant leader development.
... Last but not least, the organization under study has been chosen as it has several female leaders compared to other consulting firms. Females differ from males in their moral reasoning modes, as they are more communal and affiliative (Eagly, 1987) and generally display higher relationship and caring characteristics (Butz & Lewis, 1996;Fridell et al., 2009). Overall, women are reported to show behaviours of altruistic calling, emotional healing, and organizational stewardship, which have been identified as central in servant leadership (Beck, 2014;de Rubio & Kiser, 2015;Politis & Politis, 2012). ...
Servant Leadership is a holistic approach whereby leaders act with morality, showing great concern for the company’s stakeholders and engaging followers in multiple dimensions, such as emotional, relational and ethical, to bring out their full potential and empower them to grow into what they are capable of becoming. Servant leadership has been linked through various mediators to positive individual and collective outcomes, including behavioral, attitudinal, and performance. Among follower attitudinal outcomes, the present study aims at deepening the relationship between servant leadership and employee engagement in a large Italian consulting firm; first, by assessing the implementation of a servant leadership approach through a survey based on SL-7; second, by qualitatively investigating the servant leadership experiences lived by junior employees and their influence on individual engagement though a semi-structured questionnaire. The findings of the study suggest that employee engagement is positively influenced by servant leadership through various mediators, either leader-centered, such as empowerment, team-centered, such as team cohesion, organization-centered, such as positive organizational climate, job-centered, such as challenging tasks, and employee-centered, such as proactive personality. Some factors also emerged to hinder the relationship between servant leadership and employee engagement, particularly those related to the working environment: namely, high pressure, poor work-life balance and remote-working. The article also provides theoretical and practical implications and identifies potential areas for future research on servant leadership.
... Research emphasizes that leadership requires influence, followers and objectives (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2013;Northouse, 2018;Yukl, 1989). Beliefs and expectations that principals affect school performance are related to servant leadership style (Cerit, 2009;Messner, Newcom Belcher, & Fridell, 2009). Employees' needs and demands should be taken into account to discourage negative organizational behaviors. ...
The aim of this study was to determine teachers’ perceptions of the mediating role of supportive school culture in the relationship between school principals' servant leadership behaviors and teacher alienation. A correlational survey model was used. Study sample consisted of 244 teachers recruited using simple random sampling. Data were collected using the Servant Leadership Assessment Instrument, Teacher Alienation Scale and Supportive school culture Scale. Results show
that servant leadership is negatively correlated with teacher alienation and that school principals' servant leadership behaviors predict teacher alienation. Supportive school culture has a mediating
effect on school principals' servant leadership behaviors and teacher alienation. Results were compared with the literature, and recommendations were made to practitioners
... Research emphasizes that leadership requires influence, followers and objectives (Lunenburg & Ornstein, 2013;Northouse, 2018;Yukl, 1989). Beliefs and expectations that principals affect school performance are related to servant leadership style (Cerit, 2009;Messner, Newcom Belcher, & Fridell, 2009). ...
Available online: Tarih girmek için burayı tıklatın. The aim of this study was to determine teachers' perceptions of the mediating role of supportive school culture in the relationship between school principals' servant leadership behaviors and teacher alienation. A correlational survey model was used. Study sample consisted of 244 teachers recruited using simple random sampling. Data were collected using the Servant Leadership Assessment Instrument, Teacher Alienation Scale and Supportive school culture Scale. Results show that servant leadership is negatively correlated with teacher alienation and that school principals' servant leadership behaviors predict teacher alienation. Supportive school culture has a mediating effect on school principals' servant leadership behaviors and teacher alienation. Results were compared with the literature, and recommendations were made to practitioners.
... cognitive/motivational/mental traits used in the qEEG-screening profile, a series of regression analyses were conducted in agreement with the work of Thatcher, North, and Biver (2005), Thatcher et al. (2001) and others (e.g., Fridell, Newcom-Belcher, & Messner, 2009;Perreault, French, & Harris, 1977). The analyses revealed a high degree of association between selected metrics included in the qEEGscreening profile and particular cognitive, psychological, and motivational traits (independently measured) they are meant to represent (statistical significance was between p < .05 and p < .00004 ...
The rapid growth of coaching practices has outpaced the current best-practice empirical research and created a difficult landscape to navigate for coaches and consumers alike. To overcome these challenges the present study proposed to employ the neuro-screening measure to develop and monitor an individually tailored coaching intervention for training senior-managers' inspirational leadership. We have used the quantitative electroencephalogram (qEEG) screening to build the individual profiles of every coachee to assess their baseline (trait) characteristics in order to develop the coaching interventions to enhance effective and minimize ineffective behavior. The qEEG-screening profile resulted in nine metrics characterizing different traits and features of every coachee. Based on these profiles individualized 4-month coaching programs were suggested to coachees. The results indicated that participation in the individually designed 4-month coaching program was associated with significant improvement (70.7%) or optimization (55.6%) of metrics in the 71.7% of coachees. This was paralleled by reduced scores in independent Beck Anxiety Inventory and Beck Depression Inventory scales. We concluded that the employment of qEEG-screening profiling allows coaches and trainers to assess deep dynamic neurological mechanisms that underpin baseline traits and features essential for effective, flexible and sustainable leadership, as well as track their development over time.
... Women have a more relevant inclination than men have towards ethics, philanthropy and social themes (Eagly et al., 2003;Nielsen and Huse, 2010;Post et al., 2011;Wang and Coffey, 1992), with connected effects on CSR and corporate social strategies (Bear et al., 2010;Burton and Hegarty, 1999;Galbreath, 2011;Ibrahim and Angelidis, 1994;Kruger, 2009;Marz et al., 2003;Panwar et al., 2010;Smith et al., 2001;Zhang et al., 2013). Women among board members can drive a change in the leadership style (Paoloni and Lombardi, 2017): for some scholars women seem to adopt a servant leadership style focused on service to others and confident that the role of organization is to create people who can build a better tomorrow (Fridell et al., 2009;Parris and Peachey, 2013). ...
The top management characteristics can have an impact on corporate strategic goals and actions. The board diversity, with particular reference to gender issue, can influence Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and company's strategies toward a business model more oriented to sustainability. According to this this theoretical framework, two issues about women on boards and CSR are presented in this study: the situation of women in top positions in the light of the 2030 Agenda, considering this issue as a specific target of the Agenda, but also the direct and indirect effects that a more gender balance in corporate governance bodies could have for the achievement of the other Agenda's goals; the current situation in Europe to see if and how Europe is marking out the path for a more gender equality into the business. The methodology refers to a descriptive analysis of quantitative data based on secondary data sources together with a qualitative content analysis with a directed approach. In the face of its limits, this study contributes to the literature, nurturing the ongoing discussion about women on board and CSR, shifting the attention on the corporate culture of sustainability and the role women on board can have in a global vision tending to a more sustainable world. The main practical implications refer to the importance of gender diversity in the selection of board members, mainly in those countries where no binding rules exist, and the commitment by companies for the creation of a more inclusive working environment to increase retention and to help women to recognize their full potential, according with a gender mainstreaming (GM) approach. Finally, this study fillips future lines of research in the fields of diversity within boards, including also age and nationality dimensions.
... Future research on women and leadership should make use of servant, transformational, and authentic leadership theories in developing more nuanced understandings of leadership, inclusive of how women and men across the world who engage in these specific leadership (Eagly et al., 2003;Fridell et al., 2009) and the impacts of varying styles on individuals and organizations will help us to understand the unique characteristics and advantages of women's leadership. Recent research by Hopkins et al. (2021) indicated that demonstrating relational behaviors had an adverse effect on women's leadership potential. ...
... No significant difference in leadership style was found between and junior subordinates based on education, leadership satisfaction, or years of military service". Fridell et al. (2009) also observed the difference in servant leadership styles due to gender difference. Ozmen and Souryal. ...
In this article, drawing from an engineering students' perspective, we explore the servant leadership of teachers of engineering colleges. Our data collected from 2,112 male and 774 female demonstrate that 94.5% engineering students rate the servant leadership of engineering teachers at 50% and above level. Similarly, 52.4% engineering students rate the servant leadership of engineering teachers at 70% and above level. It is also observed that the 'age 'of the engineering students and the 'location' of the residence of engineering students affect their perception regarding servant leadership of engineering teachers. We also observed that the region of residence, gender and the education level of the engineering students do not have any significant effect on the perception of engineering students regarding servant leadership of engineering teachers. It contributes to the knowledge of the nature of servant leadership by giving insights to the servant leadership behaviour of the teachers of engineering colleges from students perceptive.
... No significant difference in leadership style was found between and junior subordinates based on education, leadership satisfaction, or years of military service". Fridell et al. (2009) also observed the difference in servant leadership styles due to gender difference. Ozmen and Souryal. ...
In this article, drawing from an engineering students' perspective, we explore the servant leadership of teachers of engineering colleges. Our data collected from 2,112 male and 774 female demonstrate that 94.5% engineering students rate the servant leadership of engineering teachers at 50% and above level. Similarly, 52.4% engineering students rate the servant leadership of engineering teachers at 70% and above level. It is also observed that the 'age 'of the engineering students and the 'location' of the residence of engineering students affect their perception regarding servant leadership of engineering teachers. We also observed that the region of residence, gender and the education level of the engineering students do not have any significant effect on the perception of engineering students regarding servant leadership of engineering teachers. It contributes to the knowledge of the nature of servant leadership by giving insights to the servant leadership behaviour of the teachers of engineering colleges from students perceptive.
... Olumlu bir okul kültürü okul etkinliğini ve verimliliğini artırır. Hizmetkâr liderlik sıcak bir öğrenme ortamı oluşturabilmek için karşılıklı saygıya dayanır (Fridell, Belcher ve Messner, 2009) ve olumlu okul kültürü bu sıcak öğrenme ortamını oluşturabilecek ve sürdürebilecek yapılardan biridir. Hoy ve Miskel (2012), 108 okulların öğrenme ve öğretmeye adanmış hizmet örgütleri olduklarını belirterek, nihai amacı öğrenci öğrenmesi olan okulların varlığının bu hizmet üzerine kurgulandığını ifade etmiştir. ...
Within the scope of the structural equation model, the purpose of this study was to test the theoretical framework that the servant leadership attitudes of primary school principals influence the process of establishing the school culture. With the thought that there is a reason-result relationship between these two basic variables, the study was designed on a causal basis. In the study, the servant leadership attitudes constituted the independent variable, and the school culture was taken as the dependent variable. The research universe included a total of 846 primary school teachers from 28 primary schools in a city center found in the Middle Black Sea Region in the academic year of 2011-2012. The research sample was made up of 282 primary school teachers from 12 primary schools determined with the triple stratified sampling method (upper-middle-lower) based on the socioeconomic structure of the region. The research data were collected with the Servant Leadership Scale (Barbuto and Wheeler, 2006) and with the School Culture Scale (Gruenert, 2000). In the study, while testing the theoretically-formed structural equation model, the Path analysis method was favored to search for the appropriate models and to combine the measurement error in both latent and observed variables. The findings obtained demonstrated that there were significant relationships between servant leadership and school culture but servant leadership did not have direct effects on school culture. SUMMARY As the symbols of the basic values and beliefs that constitute the sub-structure of school culture, school principals are supposed to choose the most effective leadership theory for their organizations and to take the philosophical basis of this theory into consideration (Karadağ, 2009). Servant leadership is one of such theories. Servant leadership starts with a person's innate feeling of providing service or of becoming the first person to provide that service, and then a conscious choice increases that person's willing to take the lead (Greenleaf, 1977). The servant leadership philosophy, which focuses on increasing workers' levels of motivation, total quality, encouraging team work, participatory management and civil service ethics (Page and Wong, 2000),
... As a result, both Lee et al. (1993) and Ion and Folch (2009) postulated that, when studying leadership issues, gender interaction and leadership characteristics are critical to understanding group and individual dynamics. Past research has attempted to link gender to overall leadership styles such as participative and democratic leadership (Gilbertson, 1981;Gross & Trask, 1976;Pitner, 1981), transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Van Engen, 2003), contingent reward (Northouse, 2012), and servant leadership (Fridell, Belcher, & Messner, 2009). The findings of several studies suggest females are more democratic and team oriented than males, who tend to manage more autocratically and are results oriented (Eagly & Johnston, 1990;Helgesen, 1990;Ion & Folch, 2009;Northouse, 2012). ...
... The role of leadership styles on staff´s job satisfaction in public organizations | Aida Mehrad, Bahareh Fallahi | pp. 27-32 roles of males and females that influence leadership style characteristics (Eckman, 2004;Fridell, Belcher & Messner, 2009;Meier, O'Toole & Goerdel, 2006;Silva, 2009;Walumbwa, Mayer, Wang, Wang, Workman & Christensen, 2011). ...
Satisfaction is a most important factor among staff at public educational organizations. Job satisfaction is located as an inner principle feeling that is created by various elements at work environment. Due to the role of various items on job satisfaction, educational organizations should be conscious of right leadership styles. Because lack of attention to this organizational behavior lead to multiple abnormal reactions between staff. This paper presents a literature review to identify the essential role of leadership styles on job satisfaction among staff at public educational organizations. Substantial attention should be dedicated to the precise leadership style at an organization. In the same way, specific leadership styles as external factors have an important role on job satisfaction at public educational organization because these styles can improve the commitment of staff toward organizations. This initiative is about enhancing satisfaction among staff and finding an effective style which is one of the main parts of educational organization improvement.
... As such, the third research question considered is the impact of gender on the propensity to adopt a servant leadership style. In doing so, this work builds on the work of and research suggesting that female leaders be more likely to engage in service behaviour (Arnold and Loughlin, 2010;Fridell, et al., 2009) or demonstrate compassion (Sarros et al., 2006) by considering team and situational considerations for the application of servant leadership, thus far unaddressed in organizational research. This consideration may provide further evidence of the benefits to organizations realized through increased female participation in leadership roles. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to consider theoretically the relationships between performance management, a servant leadership style and leader gender, drawing from Hackman and Wageman's theory of team coaching to suggest a servant leadership style being optimally suited to support the different leadership roles enacted at different stages of the performance management cycle. While recent research suggests that female managers may be more likely to enact a servant leadership style, team and process‐level considerations have yet to be addressed. This paper aims to theoretically address this topic.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper is conceptual based on theory with literature review.
Findings
Because the theory of team coaching suggests differential leader task delivery at various points in the coaching process, servant leadership's individually‐centred approach is suited to team coaching, particularly in the execution of performance management coaching.
Practical implications
Since research suggests that women are more likely to employ a servant leadership style, this paper explores whether gender plays a role in team coaching.
Originality/value
This study makes a novel contribution by considering the influence of a servant leadership style at the leadership process and team levels.
Schools are strategic institutions to fight for gender equality. There is one school in South Sumatera that applies the concept of gender, namely SMA 2 Sekayu. This study aims to analyze the social aspects of gender-responsiveness in schools. The approach used is descriptive qualitative phenomenological. The informants consisted of school principals, teachers, students, school committees, and education staff. Data were collected through observation, interviews, documentation and analyzed using an interactive model of analysis consisting of reduction, presentation, and verification. Meanwhile, the social aspects of gender-responsiveness were analyzed through Longwe. The results showed that the implementation of gender-oriented schools on social aspects involved women and men of the school committee. Teachers' and parents’ interactions run well. The school had a puberty management forum for male and female students. The interaction of all school members is in accordance with the concepts of gender equality. But the teacher did not yet have the ability to control and detect sexual harassment against students. To realize gender-responsiveness, all components in the school must have gender sensitivity.
هدفت الدراسة إلى تحديد درجة ممارسة قائدات مدارس المرحلة الثانوية للقيادة الخادمة من وجهة نظر المعلمات، واعتمدت الدراسة على المنهج الوصفي، وتم تطبيق الدراسة على مجتمع الدراسة المكون من جميع معلمات المرحلة الثانوية بمكة المكرمة، والبالغ عددهن (2953) معلمة، وتكونت عينة الدراسة من (481) معلمة تم اختيارهن بالطريقة العشوائية. تم استخــدام الاستبيان كأداة للدراسة باستــخدام مقياس (دينيس وبوكارنيا، 2005)Dennis & Bocarnea,2005)) للقيادة الخادمة. أظهرت نتائج الدراسة أن درجة ممارسة قائدات المرحلة الثانوية بمكة المكرمة لإبعاد القيادة الخادمة جاءت مرتفعة وكان ترتيبها على النحو التالي (المحبة والاهتمام بالآخرين، الثقة، خدمة الآخرين، التمكين، الإيثار، التواضع)، كما أشارت النتائج إلى عدم وجود فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية عند مستوى (0.05) بين متوسطات استجابات المعلمات في تحديد درجة ممارسة قائدات المرحلة الثانوية للقيادة الخادمة وفقًا لمتغير(المؤهل العلمي- سنوات الخبرة ) للمعلمات.
This chapter is believed to be an important work for several reasons. First of all, it references research done on Servant Leadership theories across a span of some 45 years since Greenleaf’s first work on the subject. Second, it catalogs 18 Servant Leadership theories based on Scripture. In doing so, it identifies a perceived gap in all of these SL theories using theological and hermeneutical arguments. It also considers where the redemptive work of Christ fits into leadership models that draw upon His life and work as their source and suggests a unique way to view the leadership of Jesus: “Acting Redemptively.”
Today’s working life is no longer as stable and predictable as it was in the past. Employees are therefore required to develop themselves and learn new things. This often takes place in a complex and multilevel organizational system where cooperation, open communication and courage to experiment with new things are central. Psychological safety is required for employees to have the courage to bring out their ideas and try new things. The aim of this study was to examine the level of psychological safety in the Finnish working life and its association with employees’ innovative behavior. The data was drawn from the Quality of Work Life Survey of Statistics Finland from 2018. Those who worked in teams, had a shared task and were able to plan their own work were included in this study (n=3,028). Logistic regression models were used in the analyses. According to the results, a high level of psychological safety was significantly associated with employees’ innovative behavior when it was assessed with the number of initiatives taken (OR=1.53, 95% CI 1.31, 1.78) and the possibility to apply new ideas (OR=3.28, 95% CI 2.76, 3.89). The results were similar in subgroups stratified by gender, professional status, predictability or digitality of work, and did not change essentially when age, gender or professional status were adjusted for in the models. Based on the results of this study, promoting psychological safety is important for organizational innovation in different professions and different types of work.
Özet: Bu çalışmanın amacı okul yöneticilerinin hizmetkâr liderlik düzeylerini ortaya çıkarabilmek için bir ölçme aracı geliştirmek, sonrasında okul yöneticilerinin hizmetkâr liderliklerini ve çeşitli değişkenlere göre farklılaşma durumunu ortaya çıkarmaktır. Temel araştırma niteliğinde olan bu çalışma gönüllü 229 öğretmenle yürütülmüştür. Verilerin toplanmasında kişisel bilgi formu ve hizmetkâr liderlik ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde betimsel ve kanıtlamasal istatistik teknikleri kullanılmıştır. Ölçeğin yapı geçerliği için de açıklayıcı ve doğrulayıcı faktör analizleri kullanılmıştır. Ölçeğin güvenirliği Cronbach Alpha iç tutarlık katsayıları ile hesaplanmıştır. Araştırmada; güçlendirme, etkili iletişim, güven, vizyon, okul çevre ilişkileri, etik davranma, otantiklik ve alçak gönüllülük şeklinde sekiz alt boyuttan oluşan hizmetkâr liderlik ölçeği ortaya çıkmıştır. Öğretmenlerin cinsiyetine, medeni durumuna, yaşına, eğitim durumuna göre okul yöneticilerinin hizmetkâr liderlik düzeylerine ilişkin öğretmen algılarında anlamlı farklılıklar bulunmuştur. Okul yöneticilerinin sergiledikleri hizmetkâr liderlik en yüksek düzeyde güven, en düşük düzeyde ise alçak gönüllülüktür. Hizmetkâr liderliğin geneli ile boyutları arasında pozitif, orta ve yüksek düzeyde anlamlı ilişkiler tespit edilmiştir. Elde edilen sonuçlara göre çeşitli öneriler verilmiştir.
Abstract :The aim of this study is to develop a scale to reveal the servant leadership levels of school administrators, and then to reveal the servant leadership of school administrators and their differentiation according to various variables. This study, which is a basic research, was carried out with 229 volunteer teachers. The data were collected by the personal information form and servant leadership scale. Descriptive and inferential statistics techniques were used in the analysis of the data, and explanatory and confirmatory factor analyzes were used for the construct validity of the scale. The reliability of the scale was calculated with Cronbach Alpha internal consistency coefficients. In the research, the servant leadership scale consisting of eight sub-dimensions such as empowerment, effective communication, trust, vision, school environment relations, ethical behavior, authenticity and humility was revealed. It was found significant differences in teacher perceptions of school administrators' servant leadership levels according to teachers' gender, marital status, age, and educational status. Servant leadership displayed by school administrators is trust at the highest level and humility at the lowest level. Positive, moderate and high-level significant relationships were found between the general and its dimensions of servant leadership. Various suggestions were given according to the results obtained.
Leadership is a highly sought-after and highly valued commodity. People continue to ask themselves and others what makes good leaders. Despite the multitude of ways leadership has been conceptualized, the following components can be identified as central to the phenomenon: (1) leadership is a process, (2) leadership involves influence, (3) leadership occurs in groups, and (4) leadership involves a common goal. This leadership panel will define leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal, explore three leadership models (Transformational, Servant, and Authentic) and provide practical applications, and close with the concept of Followership. Transformational Leadership (as the name implies) is a process that changes and transforms followers. It is concerned with emotions, values, ethics, standards, and vision. Randy Westfall will share his perspective from 35 years of Military and DOD Civilian service and the results of his dissertation on the effects of transformational leadership on organizational conflict. Servant leadership is a critical look at the issues of power and authority. A Servant Leader is a leader who believes they are principally in charge of empowering others for the greater good of the organization. Randy Winemiller will share his perspective from his 34-year career with USACE and, most recently, as a self-employed Consultant. Authentic Leadership (one of the newer approaches to leadership) focuses on the authenticity of a leader’s (1) self-awareness, (2) internalized moral perspective, (3) balanced processing, and (4) relational transparency. Tedd will share his current dissertation research on Authentic leadership and occupational well-being from his 35-year Military, Contractor, and Adjunct Faculty perspective.
The purpose of this systematic review is to explore the literature on emotional intelligence related to school leadership using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. The authors searched the electronic databases of Eric education, PsycINFO, Scopus and Psychology Database to find relevant articles. They used search criteria to identify a total of 110 references. Using rigorous selection methods, 35 articles were systematically reviewed. The results revealed that emotional intelligence is key for effective leadership and that the most commonly used skills/competences are self-awareness, self-management and empathy. Additionally, the literature makes it clear that the extent to which the leader builds trusting relationships contributes greatly to the development of teacher satisfaction and performance. These findings can help to inform the design of successful pre-service programmes for aspiring leaders and in-service programmes for school principals. Limitations and future lines of research are discussed.
The purpose of this systematic review is to explore the literature on emotional intelligence related to school leadership using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. The authors searched the electronic databases of Eric education, PsycINFO, Scopus and Psychology Database to find relevant articles. They used search criteria to identify a total of 110 references. Using rigorous selection methods, 35 articles were systematically reviewed. The results revealed that emotional intelligence is key for effective leadership and that the most commonly used skills/competences are self-awareness, self-management and empathy. Additionally, the literature makes it clear that the extent to which the leader builds trusting relationships contributes greatly to the development of teacher satisfaction and performance. These findings can help to inform the design of successful pre-service programmes for aspiring leaders and in-service programmes for school principals. Limitations and future lines of research are discussed.
Some scholars have stated there is a distinct difference between authentic versus inauthentic leadership (Shamir and Eilam, The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 395–417, 2005). Still other scholars have indicated servant leadership involves aspects of authenticity or a state of being authentic (Hotep, Journal of Pan African Studies, 3, 11–26, 2010; Malphurs, Being leaders: The nature of authentic Christian leadership. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2003). At first glance, the two concepts of authentic leadership and servant leadership may seem very similar, closely related (Avolio and Gardner, Leadership Quarterly, 16, 315, 2005), or almost interrelated, or that one may be considered subordinate to the other. Upon closer examination, the two appear to be quite distinguishable from one another. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a cross-sectional conspectus of the servant leadership construct in comparison to authentic leadership. Included are operational definitions of authentic leadership, transformational leadership, and servant leadership to provide discernable working distinctions between each construct based upon content discussed in previous chapters. Further, this chapter classifies fundamental details regarding the origin and progression of servant leadership as a distinct construct from authentic leadership. Then this chapter will discuss prevailing servant leadership themes found in academia, in theological/scripture, and among a sampling of worldviews. Finally, this chapter closes with a summarized comparison between servant leadership along with implications for research and praxis.
The information era we live in has brought about significant changes in leadership approaches. These changes have led to a
new model of leadership, called "servant leadership," which guides its members, acts with them and serves as a philosophy of life
instead of a leadership mentality that is served and pursues its own interests. Servant leadership, now the main dynamics of leadership
research, is the most important of different leadership approaches, and a modern leadership approach which has become the subject of
research in an increasing number of social sciences in recent years. This research was conducted to evaluate the teachers' perceptions of
the servant leadership behaviors of school principals (primary school - secondary school - high school). Survey research design was
used in this quantitative study. The research was carried out by consulting the opinions of 365 teachers in the province of Mardin.
"School Leaders' Servant Leadership Behavior Scale" developed by Ekinci (2015) was used in the study. Descriptive statistics,
Independent Sampling t-test and ANOVA tests were used in the analysis of the data. In the research findings, there was a significant
difference in the perceptions of teachers about the servant leadership behavioral dimensions according to the variables of gender,
seniority and school type, but there was no significant difference in the age variable.
Keywords: Leadership, Servant Leadership, School Principals.
The rapid growth of coaching practices has outpaced the current best-practice empirical research and created a difficult landscape to navigate for coaches and consumers alike. To overcome these challenges the present study proposed to employ the neuro-screening measure to develop and monitor an individually tailored coaching intervention for training senior-managers’ inspirational leadership. We have used the quantitative electroencephalogram (qEEG) screening to build the individual profiles of every coachee to assess their baseline (trait) characteristics in order to develop the coaching interventions to enhance effective and minimise ineffective behaviour. The qEEG-screening profile resulted in nine metrics characterising different traits and features of every coachee. Based on these profiles individualised 4-month coaching programmes were suggested to coachees. The results indicated that participation in the individually designed 4-month coaching programme was associated with significant improvement (70.7%) or optimisation (55.6%) of metrics in the 71.7% of coachees. This was paralleled by reduced scores in independent Beck Anxiety Inventory and Beck Depression Inventory scales. We concluded that the employment of qEEG-screening profiling allows coaches and trainers to assess deep dynamic neurological mechanisms that underpin baseline traits and features essential for effective, flexible and sustainable leadership, as well as track their development over time.
The history and sociology of faculty career transitions to academic deanships is an intriguing phenomenon, given that the skill sets of accomplished scholars vary immensely from the duties and responsibilities of academic deans. On top of that, today’s academic deans continue to face particularly challenging leadership dilemmas. This exploratory, qualitative study sought to learn if executive coaching is an effective strategy to swiftly and ably prepare deans for the unique requirements of the position, as well as to equip them with and/or improve transformational leadership skills. Results were favourable towards coaching and showed associations in transformational leadership to be strongest in the component of intellectual stimulation. Deans also described improvements in empathetic behaviour, self-awareness and self-care – outcomes that suggest deans received value on a personal level and not just professionally. As perceived by the deans, coaches achieved these outcomes by the superior quality of their listening skills, their ability to offer useful perspectives, and by building trust. The information provided in this study might challenge institutions of higher education to consider executive coaching as a way to eliminate blind spots and address personal and organisational challenges that academic deans and other senior-level administrators encounter.
This essay examines the challenges facing servant leadership as a theoretical construct, specifically the variety of definitions that results in a lack of construct clarity, the lack of agreed upon measures, and the sparse empirical evidence. This essay addresses the need for consensus, empirical research, and examination of the phenomenon of servant leadership across multiple levels of the organization.
Servant leadership was introduced by Robert Greenleaf in the 1970s. It is a very popular and influential approach to leadership, especially among evangelical Christians in the 21st century. Nevertheless, clear definitions have not been developed.
At least three factors contributed to this situation: (1) notions about servant leadership predate the development of the theory by thousands of years, (2) Greenleaf, himself, eschewed definitions and theory development, and (3) the word servant lacks clarity in contemporary American English usage. This lack of definition has hampered theory development, measurement, and theory testing.
The present research attempted to address the third factor, lack of clarity about the word servant. In contrast to contemporary English, Koine Greek had a robust vocabulary for servant. Eight nouns were translated as servant in modern English translations of the Bible. These words were studied to identify distinct conceptual streams within the literature. Specifically, a mixed-methods content analysis study was done to evaluate the taxonomical value of eight Koine Greek words translated servant in the NT for identifying distinct conceptual streams within contemporary servant leadership literature.
Through lexical semantic analysis, a list of semantic glosses was created for each of the eight Koine Greek words. A random sample (N=317) was selected from a comprehensive list of books and journal articles with the phrase servant leader or servant leadership in either the title or the abstract and published in English on or after January 1, 2005. A computerized content analysis of the glosses in the sample was completed and conceptual streams were identified. This was followed by a qualitative reading of representative works to confirm the findings and an analysis of all the findings.
Six potential conceptual streams were identified in the literature through quantitative content analysis. Two representative documents were selected from each potential stream and subjected to a qualitative reading to evaluate the quantitative results. Three distinct conceptual streams were supported by the qualitative readings. The other three streams were not supported as unique conceptual streams but were supported as identifiable streams in the literature.
Notwithstanding the proliferation of servant leadership studies with over 100 articles published in the last four years alone, a lack of coherence and clarity around the construct has impeded its theory development. We provide an integrative and comprehensive review of the 285 articles on servant leadership spanning 20 years (1998–2018), and in so doing extend the field in four different ways. First, we provide a conceptual clarity of servant leadership vis-à-vis other value-based leadership approaches and offer a new definition of servant leadership. Second, we evaluate 16 existing measures of servant leadership in light of their respective rigor of scale construction and validation. Third, we map the theoretical and nomological network of servant leadership in relation to its antecedents, outcomes, moderators, mediators. We finally conclude by presenting a detailed future research agenda to bring the field forward encompassing both theoretical and empirical advancement. All in all, our review paints a holistic picture of where the literature has been and where it should go into the future.
The theory of servant leadership is one of the recognized modern approaches to leadership phenomenon, but more empirical evidence is needed to develop this concept further. Little research of servant leadership is done in the research field of educational leadership in various contexts. In this paper the analysis is made, establishing the connection between the school principals‘ and teachers‘ servant leadership in Lithuanian educational context. The literature analysis reveals, that there is an interaction between school principals‘ and teachers‘ servant leadership. The model of Van Dierendonck and Nuijten (2011) was taken as a basis for research. The quantitative empirical research was conducted, which involved participation of heads of schools, teachers and pupils in the survey (N= 889). Statistical factor analysis and regression analysis were made. The results of the analysis revealed that servant leadership construct in Lithuanian schools differs from Van Dierendonck and Nuijten (2011) theoretical model. New factor of teachers servant leadership construct – development/coaching - was added. Keywords: School, teachers, leadership.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the viability of using neurological imaging to classify transformational leaders, versus non-transformational leaders, as identified through existing psychometric methods. Specifically, power spectral analysis measures based on electroencephalograms (EEG) were used to develop and validate a discriminant function that can classify individuals according to their transformational leadership behavior. Resting, eyes closed EEG was recorded from 19 scalp locations for 200 civilian and military leaders. We also assessed follower or peer perceptions of transformational leadership through the use of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). Our discriminant analysis, which involved a two-step, neural variable reduction and selection process, was 92.5% accurate in its classification of leaders. Patterns in the spectral measures of the brain of leaders, including activity and network dynamic metrics, are discussed as potential correlates of transformational leadership behavior. The current work provides a better understanding of the latent and dynamic neurological mechanisms that may underpin the transformational leadership qualities of individuals.
The paper describes an opponent-process model, which helps explain the belief- behaviour gap of Christian leaders, who claim to be servant leaders, but practice autocratic leadership. The paper also presents a typology of four leadership styles: autocratic, paternalistic, Laissez-faire, and servant leadership. Of these four leadership styles, only servant leadership commands the necessary flexibility and the range of skills to be effective in different situations. Finally, the paper discusses the practical and research implications of the opponent-process model and the typology of leadership styles.
This paper examines the philosophical foundation of servant leadership by extracting several value-laden principles drawn from Greenleafs and Jesus Christ's delineation of the concept. The primary intent and self-concept of servant leaders are singled out as the distinctive features of servant leadership. While empirical research studies are critically needed to develop the concepts underlying the servant leadership movement into sound theory, an accurate understanding of the conceptual roots of servant leadership is essential in the process. The current developmental stage of the servant leadership movement is explored in order to provide some useful signposts for future research directions.
Executive Summary Among the most prominent developments in recent years in the investigation of transformational leadership has been the confirmation of the utility of transformational leadership for increasing organizational satisfaction, commitment, and effectiveness, and the 6-factor model of the transformational-transactional factorial structure. Also, we have increased our understanding of transformational dynamics. In this paper, I hope to show how transformational leadership relates to the creation and maintenance of the learning organization. To do this, the meaning of transformational and transactional leadership and the Full Range of Leadership will be discussed and how the components of transformational and transactional leadership contribute to a learning organization will be examined. The future of leadership and administration will be considered in the light of the current state of affairs in educational leadership.
Executive Summary Servant Leadership received attention in the popular press, but little empirical research exists to support the theory or the anecdotal evidence used in the popular press material. The authors of this paper present a model of servant leadership based on the variables of vision, influence, credibility, trust, and service identified in the academic and popular press literature. Other researchers are encouraged to engage in the empirical research activities required to advance this stream of literature to its next phase of maturation.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to determine whether there is historical support for the proposal of Smith, Montagno and Kuzmenko that the specific cultures associated with transformational and/or servant leadership would be more or less applicable, based on context. Moreover, its purpose is also to demonstrate that a historical approach can be used effectively to examine such constructs.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper presents a historical examination of the military retreats of Xenophon, a transformational leader, and Chief Joseph, a servant leader, during very similar contextual crises.
Findings
Given similar contexts, the historical record offers support for the proposal of Smith et al.
Research limitations/implications
First, the retreats of Xenophon and Chief Joseph were separated by many hundreds of years and miles. Also inherent with this type of methodology is simple disagreement among readers. Although this author finds great similarity in the retreats of Xenophon and Chief Joseph, there are certainly differences that could be scrutinized as well. Moreover, others might be dissatisfied with the selection of Xenophon and Joseph to represent the leadership styles presented, or with the conclusions regarding their effectiveness. Such debate should be encouraged and could provide additional avenues for future research. Further, the current study considered leader effectiveness only as it related to the achievement of the organizational goal(s). It could be that Joseph's cohorts were more satisfied, committed, etc. than were the followers of Xenophon. This line of inquiry should also be pursued.
Practical implications
This research suggests that transformational leader behavior is likely to be more appropriate during times of significant organizational change.
Originality/value
This is the first study that has examined the speculation of Smith et al. and the first to demonstrate that a historical approach can add to one's understanding of such constructs.
This study conducted a factor analysis of Page and Wong’s servant leadership instrument and reduced the 99-item scale to 20 items yielding three factors: vision (0.97 Cronbach alpha), empowerment (0.89 Cronbach alpha), and service (0.94 Cronbach alpha). While this study only confirmed three of the original 12 factors sought by Page and Wong the results indicate that Page and Wong’s instrument has merit and deserves further development and modification.
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to scrutinise the concept of servant leadership from a business administration (management) point-of-view. Design/methodology/approach – A review of scholarly works on servant-leadership is presented. Findings – A generally accepted definition of servant-leadership is not available. There are no generally accepted instruments for measuring servant-leadership. It is unclear whether some leaders are servant-leaders while others are not, and whether leaders can be servant-leaders to different degrees. The positive effects of servant-leadership on organisational outcomes, a consideration highly relevant to management, have not been empirically established. Some studies have shown negative effects of servant-leadership on organisational effectiveness. Research limitations/implications – This literature review contains no empirical data. Practical implications – The argument that servant-leaders should be in charge of private companies and public organisations appears to be contrary to theoretical and empirical considerations. Servant-leaders, whose concerns are primarily focused on subordinates rather than customers (or citizens), are hardly able to attain organisational goals. Originality/value – The paper offers critical comments on the conceptual and empirically usefulness of servant-leadership when applied to business enterprises and public agencies.
Servant leadership is an increasingly popular concept in the repertoire of leadership styles. While an intuitively attractive concept, it is systematically undefined and not yet supported by empirical research. Reviews the servant leadership literature with the intent to develop a preliminary theoretical framework. Builds a foundation for categorizing and appraising the functional and accompanying attributes of servant leaders. Once categorized, a formative, rational servant leadership attribute model is constructed. The authors call for further development of the model and empirical research to support it.
Purpose
– Aims to explore the relationship between employee perceptions of servant leadership and leader trust, as well as organizational trust.
Design/methodology.approach
– Uses Laub's Organizational Leadership Assessment along with Nyhan and Marlowe's Organizational Trust Inventory.
Findings
– Perceptions of servant leadership correlated positively with both leader trust and organizational trust. The study also found that organizations perceived as servant‐led exhibited higher levels of both leader trust and organizational trust than organizations perceived as non‐servant‐led.
Originality/value
– The findings lend support to Greenleaf's view that servant leadership is an antecedent of leader and organizational trust, and to aspects of other servant leadership models.
The influx of women into student affairs administration raises questions about how gender is linked to organizational leadership. Case studies are presented of two student affairs midlevel leaders at opposite ends of a gender-related continuum. Student affairs leaders are challenged to recognize personal and cultural influences that promote or constrain effective leadership. (LSR)
This article explores the relationship between perceptions of leadership and the level of trust between employees and supervisors. More specifically, this article seeks to begin a theoretical discussion of a particular leadership approach, servant leadership, introduces an instrument for measuring servant leadership, and presents the result of its initial use in a survey of 651 employees in a suburban Georgia county. While the results are preliminary, they show that one component of servant leadership, stewardship, is a determinant of trust level, indicating that "service before self" is not just a slogan, but a powerful reality that builds trust between employees and supervisors.
Servant and leader — can these two roles be fused in one real person, in all levels of status or calling? If so, can that
person live and be productive in the real world of the present? My sense of the present leads me to say yes to both questions.
This chapter is an attempt to explain why and to suggest how.
Conducting surveys: everyone is doing it -- The survey form: questions, scales, and appearance -- Getting it together: some practical concerns -- Samplings -- Survey design: environmental control -- Analyzing data from surveys -- Presenting the survey results
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A correlation of servant leadership
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- S J Reinke