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A theory of adult intellectual development: Process, personality, interests, and knowledge
Abstract
The development of adult intelligence assessment early in this century as an upward extension of the Binet-Simon approach to child intelligence assessment is briefly reviewed. Problems with the use of IQ measures for adults are described, along with a discussion of related conceptualizations of adult intellectual performance. Prior intelligence theories that considered adult intelligence (Cattell, 1943, 1971/1987; Hebb, 1941, 1942, 1949; Vernon, 1950) are reviewed. Based on extensions of prior theory and new analyses of personality-ability and interest-ability relations, a developmental theory of adult intelligence is proposed, called PPIK. The PPIK theory of adult intellectual development integrates intelligence-as-process, personality, interests, and intelligence-as-knowledge. Data from the study of knowledge structures are examined in the context of the theory, and in relation to measures of content abilities (spatial and verbal abilities). New directions for the future of research on adult intellect are discussed in light of an approach that integrates personality, interests, process, and knowledge.
... Then we examined the predictive performance of the selected model and an ensemble model with the same architecture in the test set. We also tested some predictions from Ackerman's (1996) theory of intellectual development. He proposes that the personality feature of openness to experience often leads to the development of intellectual interests. ...
... Here we aim to build a theory-based, relatively closed vocabulary approach, because we test several hypotheses derived from Ackerman's (1996) theory, who proposed that intellectual development is a Process, in which Personality creates specific Interests and crystallized Knowledge (PPIK theory, Ackerman, 1996). He relies on Holland's (1959, p. 36) theory proposing that humans with a high intellectual interest have "marked needs to organize and understand the world". ...
... Here we aim to build a theory-based, relatively closed vocabulary approach, because we test several hypotheses derived from Ackerman's (1996) theory, who proposed that intellectual development is a Process, in which Personality creates specific Interests and crystallized Knowledge (PPIK theory, Ackerman, 1996). He relies on Holland's (1959, p. 36) theory proposing that humans with a high intellectual interest have "marked needs to organize and understand the world". ...
Here we examine whether the personality dimension of openness to experience can be predicted from the individual google search history. By web scraping, individual text corpora (ICs) were generated from 214 participants with a mean number of 5 million word tokens. We trained word2vec models and used the similarities of each IC to label words, which were derived from a lexical approach of personality. These IC-label-word similarities were utilized as predictive features in neural models. For training and validation, we relied on 179 participants and held out a test sample of 35 participants. A grid search with varying number of predictive features, hidden units and boost factor was performed. As model selection criterion, we used R2 in the validation samples penalized by the absolute R2 difference between training and validation. The selected neural model explained 35% of the openness variance in the test sample, while an ensemble model with the same architecture often provided slightly more stable predictions for intellectual interests, knowledge in humanities and level of education. Finally, a learning curve analysis suggested that around 500 training participants are required for generalizable predictions. We discuss ICs as a complement or replacement of survey-based psychodiagnostics.
... Reciprocal effects between psychological constructs are of central interest in many theories on personality and individual differences. For instance, Intellectual Investment Trait Theory posits that mutually reinforcing effects exist between intellectual investment traits (selected personality traits such as openness, intellectual curiosity, or interests) and cognitive abilities (Ackerman, 1996;von Stumm & Ackerman, 2013;Ziegler et al., 2012;Ziegler et al., 2018). Although clearly informative, Intellectual Investment Trait Theory is also restricted in some respects; for instance, it strongly focuses on longer term development and effects at the between-person level, whereas the interplay between within-person momentary expressions of investment personality traits and cognitive performance has been widely neglected so far. ...
... The interface of personality and cognitive abilities has sparked interest in psychological research for over a century (e.g., Webb, 1915). Intellectual Investment Trait Theory has provided a prominent perspective on associations between personality and cognitive abilities by proposing that personality traits, particularly so-called investment traits, are linked to cognitive abilities (Ackerman, 1996;Cattell, 1987;von Stumm & Ackerman, 2013;Ziegler et al., 2012;Ziegler et al., 2018). Note that, although we refer to Intellectual Investment Trait Theory, we acknowledge that the name actually refers to a family of theories (Ziegler et al., 2012). ...
... Cattell (1987) also theorized that higher intelligence and the success that is related to it prompt increases in certain personality traits (see also Ziegler et al., 2012). Expanding on this idea, Ackerman (1996) highlighted in his intelligence-as-process, personality, interests, and intelligence-asknowledge (PPIK) framework that selected personality traits, henceforth labeled intellectual investment traits, contribute to the development of cognitive abilities in terms of crystallized intelligence, above and beyond the contributions of fluid intelligence (see also, e.g., . Later, von Stumm and Ackerman (2013) advanced the theory by providing a systematization of intellectual investment traits and proposing that a variety of constructs span the intellectual investment trait construct space (e.g., need for cognition, typical intellectual engagement, interests, openness to experience). ...
This paper introduces Dynamic Intellectual Investment Trait and State Theory, an extension of Intellectual Investment Trait Theory. Our theory extension (a) centers on dynamic within-person reciprocal effects between cognitive performance states and intellectual investment personality states (b) integrates within-person dynamics and developmental trajectories, and (c) is embedded in a continuous-time modeling framework. Aligning personality theories with statistical models, we discuss the most appropriate model for testing Dynamic Intellectual Investment Trait and State Theory: a continuous-time model that combines dynamics and trends. We apply the Continuous-time Latent Curve Model with Structured Residuals (CT-LCM-SR) in an empirical illustration involving 204 German adults who were assessed roughly 100 times on cognitive abilities (working memory) and intellectual investment personality (interest).
... Gc results from socialization processes in the prevalent culture, it is acquired through collective as well as idiosyncratic experiences (Baltes et al., 1999). Ackerman (1996) introduced a theory of intellectual development (intelligence-as-process, personality, interests, and intelligence-as-knowledge; PPIK) in which he distinguishes between different types of declarative knowledge: general knowledge, avocational knowledge (e.g., hobbies), and occupational knowledge (i.e., knowledge specific to a vocation). However, the assignment of items to knowledge types by their content does not succeed unambiguously because the dividing lines are fuzzy. ...
... Relative to episodic memory, which is more age-sensitive and begins declining in middle adulthood, semantic memory often shows significant increases up to the 60s, cross-sectionally as well as longitudinally (Nyberg et al., 2003;Rönnlund et al., 2005). Accordingly, the lifetime trajectory of knowledge shows small, continued growth into late adulthood (Baltes et al., 1998;Horn, 1982;Horn & Cattell, 1967;Watrin et al., 2022), which has led to the assessment of adult intellect as age-or experienced-based (Ackerman, 1996). PEK presumably shares substantial variance with avocational and general knowledge because its acquisition is influenced by both, personal interests (Beier & Ackerman, 2003;Rolfhus & Ackerman, 1999) and collective experiences. ...
... Similar results were reported by Hambrick et al. (2007Hambrick et al. ( , 2008 for PEK spanning a smaller time frame of the most recent 2 years or recent 10 weeks. In the tradition of Ackerman's (1996) PPIK theory, important nonability drivers of knowledge acquisition are personality and individual interests. More specifically, intellectual investment traits such as openness to experience in conjunction with the level of personal interest in related topics regulate information-seeking activities in interaction with fluid intelligence. ...
The reminiscence bump describes an increased recollection of autobiographic experiences made in adolescence and early adulthood. It is unclear if this phenomenon can also be found in declarative knowledge of past public events. To answer this question, we assessed public events knowledge (PEK) about the past 6 decades with a 120-item knowledge test across six domains in a sample of 1,012 Germans that were sampled uniformly across the ages of 30–80 years. General and domain-specific PEK scores were analyzed as a function of age-at-event. Scores were lower for public events preceding participants’ birth and stayed stable from the age-at-event of 5–10 years onward. There was no significant peak in PEK in adolescence or early adulthood, arguing against an extension of the reminiscence effect to factual knowledge. We examined associations between PEK and relevant variables such as crystallized intelligence (Gc), news consumption, and openness to experience with structural equation models. Strong associations between PEK and Gc were established, whereas the associations of PEK with news consumption and openness were mainly driven by their link to declarative knowledge.
... Research has already identified factors such as biological maturation and cognitive stimulation individuals receive during their socialization by parents, the educational system, or intensive extracurricular long-term programs (e.g., Cahan & Cohen, 1989;Plomin & Spinath, 2004;Schmiedek et al., 2014;von Stumm & Plomin, 2015). By contrast, individual determinants such as personality traits driving individuals to engage in cognitive challenges (i.e., investment traits) have rarely been investigated, although investment theories attribute a central role to them (see Ackerman, 1996;Cattell, 1987;Ziegler et al., 2012). Moreover, theoretically plausible reciprocal effects between investment traits and intelligence (Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2004;Ziegler et al., 2012) have scarcely been examined up until now. ...
... As already Cattell (1987) pointed out, this individual difference might be a matter of personality and motivation. Ackerman (1996) elaborated on Cattell's (1987) theory and suggested that investment traits (personality and interests) determine how and how often individuals engage in opportunities to acquire new knowledge, whereas Gf determines how much individuals learn from each of those opportunities. Other authors added that investment traits might also impact Gf. ...
... Investment traits might not only be important for achievement-related attitudes and behavior but also for the development of academic abilities (e.g., Ackerman, 1996;Cattell, 1987). Although the correlations between investment traits and cognitive abilities were in line with both theoretical expectations and previous studies (see Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Anglim et al., 2022;Liu & Nesbit, 2023;von Stumm & Ackerman, 2013), there were no effects of the investment traits on change in either Gf or Gc, with the exception of an effect of NFC on reading comprehension. ...
Based on investment theories and guided by Mussel's (2013) intellect model, the present study investigated reciprocal relations over 1 year (2021–2022) between investment traits (need for cognition, achievement motives, epistemic curiosity) and fluid and crystallized cognitive abilities in 565 German elementary school children (298 girls; M age = 8.40, SD = 0.59; 59.5% with immigration background). Children's fluid and crystallized abilities increased over time, whereas fear of failure and curiosity decreased. Investment traits barely predicted change in cognitive abilities. However, mathematical ability predicted change in most investment traits (.14 ≤ | β | ≤ .20), even after accounting for control variables. Results largely contradict investment theories but support the role of crystallized abilities for the development of investment traits in elementary school age.
... Such a setup makes sense, as (the absence of) Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org behavior as a reaction to a situation can emerge as the result of the interaction between possible antecedents like the full spectrum of human personality and elements like experience, attitudes, motivation, and learning (Ackerman, 1996). For the present research, we thus aim to validate the DIES instrument as a direct simulation of intercultural effectiveness by tapping into an intercultural competence ITP. ...
... 1994; Stajkovic and Luthans, 1998). As a second process, (2) GDK (partly) originates from personality that drives the process of intellect development (Ackerman, 1996). For the present research, literature indeed shows that multicultural personality traits drive intercultural world views and attitudes (Nesdale et al., 2012;Horverak et al., 2013), and intercultural capabilities (Ang et al., 2006). ...
... To this day and to the best of our knowledge, it is remarkable that both ITP-literature as well as intercultural effectiveness literature do not yet model feedback of actual behavior back into the origins of that behavior. Indeed, elements like knowledge should work as both an antecedent as well as a consequence to behavior (Ackerman, 1996). However, there are accounts in literature like SCCT that do feature models in which elements like performance have an effect that feeds back into the origins of that behavior (Lent et al., 1994;Stajkovic and Luthans, 1998). ...
Background
An implicit trait policy (ITP) represents the interaction between a personal disposition and general domain knowledge on how to effectively handle a specific (intercultural) situation. Such an ITP is a proven construct to create instruments that can predict future effective behavior. Moreover, such a simulation can provide valuable proxies for actual (future) behavior, as measures of (future) real life intercultural interactions are not always available.
Methods
In a series of three studies (N1 = 224, N2 = 291, N3 = 478), the present research introduces a “Direct Intercultural Effectiveness Simulation” or DIES, an instrument that simulates intercultural effectiveness by directly tapping into an ITP on intercultural competence.
Results
First and foremost, the present research demonstrates that the DIES instrument generates reliable and construct-valid measures of intercultural effectiveness. Second, the DIES instrument also shows expected converging and diverging patterns when correlated with a nomological network on intercultural effectiveness. And third, the DIES measure is further validated by integration into an ITP framework of intercultural effectiveness based on theoretical and empirical accounts from literature.
Conclusion
The DIES instrument generates a reliable and valid measure of intercultural effectiveness by tapping into an ITP on intercultural competence. Theoretically, the present research integrates the instrument into literature by empirically verifying an ITP framework of intercultural effectiveness. In practice, the DIES instrument can be used as an awareness or training proxy for actual behavior to tackle important problems like ethnic prejudice and discrimination.
... To examine these results more specifically within the framework of the PPIK theory (Ackerman, 1996), the sample in the present analysis is expanded (n = 375). ...
... By intelligence as process, Ackerman (1996) basically understands fluid intelligence according to Cattell (1987), which includes the four components of processing capacity, perceptual speed, memory span and spatial rotation-all of which are necessary for the processing of information (Ackerman, 1996, p. 239). This is the general cognitive performance that is not tied to any specific context. ...
The present study focuses on the structure of domain-specific competence among technicians (EQF 6) at vocational schools in Germany. In a smaller sample (n = 243), domain-specific competence had already emerged as a multidimensional construct. Domain-specific competence can be subdivided into content knowledge and analytic problem-solving competence. Content knowledge turned out to be a two-dimensional construct and analytic problem-solving competence a five-dimensional construct. Content knowledge and fluid intelligence showed significant standardized regressions on the dimensions of problem-solving. The regressions of content knowledge on problem-solving were the strongest (cf. Walker & Huester, Applied degree education and the future of learning, Springer, 2022). Can the structure of domain-specific competence be confirmed in the larger sample? And how can the students’ professional interest be adequately taken into account according to Holland (Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments, Psychological Assessment Resources, 1997)? Six colleges (EQF 6) participated in the pretest (n = 375). Most of the data was collected via the digital learning platform Moodle. The data analysis is performed using SEM with Mplus. Results: Content knowledge and analytical problem-solving competence are multidimensional. The highest regressions in terms of analytical problem-solving competence are obtained for multidimensional content knowledge as outlined in the PPIK theory (Ackerman, 1996, pp. 227–257).
... Arguably, individuals with higher levels of cognitive ability (e.g., prior knowledge, vocabulary) will be better able to learn, retain (i.e., crystallise), comprehend, and communicate the concepts and principles they are exposed to, and be more knowledgeable (i.e., financially literate) as a result (Plomin & Petrill, 1997;Gignac, 2018; i.e., see the indirect effect of Gf and direct effect of Gc on financial literacy depicted in Fig. 1). Further, people's level of Gc may predispose them to opportunities to learn about financial literacy (e.g., exposure) as a result of a general interest in learning or interest in an adjacent content area (e.g., mathematics; Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997;Hambrick, Pink, Meinz, Pettibone, & Oswald, 2008;Ackerman, 1996;Ackerman, Bowen, Beier, & Kanfer, 2001). In addition to having similar modes of acquisition, developmental evidence for financial literacy across the lifespan follows the same pattern as Gc, peaking at age 45-54, whereas Gf peaks at age 20-24 and declines steadily into old age (Finke, Howe, & Huston, 2017;Hartshorne & Germine, 2015;Kaufman, 2001). ...
... Theoretically, numeracy and Gq may be considered inter-related but distinct constructs. Gq represents the acquired mathematical knowledge itself, whereas reasoning with this knowledge represents Gf (i.e., (Cattell, 1987); process, personality, interests, and knowledge model (Ackerman, 1996); and supportive knowledge hypothesis (Ackerman et al., 2001). Relationships are adapted from the structural equation model in Hambrick et al. (2008) and the path model in Beier and Ackerman (2005). ...
Financial literacy is positively associated with intelligence, with typically moderate to large effect sizes across studies. The magnitude of the effect, however, has not yet been estimated meta-analytically. Such results suggest financial literacy may be conceptualised as a possible cognitive ability within the Cattel-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model of cognitive abilities. Consequently, we present a psychometric meta-analysis that estimated the true score correlation between cognitive ability and financial literacy. We identified a large, positive correlation with general intelligence (r’ = .62; k = 64, N = 62,194). We also found that financial literacy shared a substantial amount of variance with quantitative knowledge (Gq; via numeracy; r’ = .69; k = 42, N = 35,611), comprehension knowledge (crystallised intelligence; Gc; r’ = .48; k = 14, N = 10,835), and fluid reasoning (fluid intelligence; Gf; r’ = .48; k =20, N = 15,101). Furthermore, meta-analytic structural equation modelling revealed Gq partially mediated the association between cognitive ability (excluding Gq) and financial literacy. Additionally, both Gc and Gq had significant direct effects on financial literacy, whereas the total effect of Gf on financial literacy was fully mediated by a combination of Gc and Gq. While the meta-analyses provide preliminary support for the potential inclusion of financial literacy as primarily a Gc or Gq ability within the CHC taxonomy (rather than Gf), the review revealed that very few studies employed comprehensive cognitive ability measures and/or psychometrically robust financial literacy tests. Consequently, the review highlighted the need for future factor analytic research to evaluate financial literacy as a candidate for inclusion in the CHC taxonomy.
... These models utilize constellations of cognitive abilities, educational/occupational interests, and personality to identify differential degrees of promise for contrasting learning and work environments (Corno et al., 2002;Cronbach, 1957). Labels denoting these constellations include trait clusters for conceptualizing intellectual development (Ackerman, 1996;Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997), trait complexes for conceptualizing educational readiness (Corno et al., 2002;Snow et al., 1996), and taxons for conceptualizing occupational potential (Dawis, 2005;Dawis & Lofquist, 1984). ...
... This holds even among profoundly gifted mathematical reasoners (individuals whose mathematical acumen is well beyond the typical STEM doctorate ; see Makel et al., 2016, Figure 1]). One reason for this is that many educational/occupational interests outside of STEM covary positively with verbal reasoning ability and negatively with mathematical and spatial ability, the latter in particular (Ackerman, 1996;Schmidt et al., 1998;Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997). Therefore, individuals whose intellectual profile is dominated by verbal ability relative to mathematical/spatial ability tend to be more interested in areas outside of STEM (Austin & Hanisch, 1990;Browne, 2023;Gohm et al., 1998;Gottfredson, 2003;Humphreys et al., 1993;Wai et al., 2009;Webb et al., 2002Webb et al., , 2007. ...
To understand divergent and remarkable lives lived, we examined the accomplishments, family dynamics, life orientation, psychological well-being, and definition of a meaningful life among two exceptional groups at age 50: Top Science, Technology, Engineering, & Mathematics (STEM) doctoral students (270 males, 255 females, originally surveyed in their mid-20s) and profoundly gifted adolescents (263 males, 71 females, top 0.01% in ability, first studied at age 12). The creativity and occupational stature of both cohorts were extraordinary and commensurate. Life priorities, time allocation, and breadth of interests created paths that differed for women and men, resulting in contrasting, but equally exceptional, life outcomes across career, life, and relationship satisfaction. Distinct constellations of personal attributes of intellectually and scientifically brilliant women, relative to such men, operated to form satisfying and productive lives that differed for the women and men as a whole. Findings cast light on the participation of women and men in STEM and conceptually demanding leadership positions.
... Instead, they provide clues as to which underlying mechanisms are involved when suboptimal thinking is taking place (Baron 1993(Baron , 2008Stanovich 2011). The distinction between cognitive capacities and thinking dispositions is an old one in psychology (Ackerman 1996;Ackerman and Heggestad 1997;Cronbach 1949). Cognitive capacities refer to the types of abilities underlying performance on IQ tests. ...
There has been considerable conceptual and empirical progress on the measurement of rational thinking in adult samples. Studies in developmental samples have demonstrated that many of these domains and paradigms can also be assessed in children and youth, especially in adolescent samples. Here, we present an efficient rationality assessment battery for adolescents and youth—the Assessment of Rational Thinking for Youth (ART‐Y). The ART‐Y consists of five subtests: Probabilistic and Statistical Thinking, Scientific Thinking, Avoidance of Framing, Knowledge Calibration, and Rational Temporal Discounting. Two supplementary measures of thinking dispositions are included in the ART‐Y: Actively Open‐Minded Thinking (AOT) and Deliberative Thinking. The ART‐Y battery was examined in a sample of 143 adolescents (mean age = 15.4 years). The five rational thinking subtests displayed intercorrelations largely consistent with those obtained in the adult literature. Age, cognitive ability, problem solving, probabilistic numeracy, and thinking dispositions predicted variance differently across the five subtests of the ART‐Y, but again largely consistent with the adult literature. These measures, along with the ART‐Y subtests, were examined as predictors of two real‐world skills: financial literacy and academic achievement. Scientific thinking, knowledge calibration, and rational temporal discounting were significant unique predictors of financial literacy when statistically controlling for cognitive ability. Scientific thinking predicted academic achievement when statistically controlling for cognitive ability.
... Several theories have proposed possible explanations for the personality-cognitive ability relationship, such as Ackerman's (1996) theory of adult intellectual development, and DeYoung's (2015) cybernetic Big Five theory. These theories suggest that personality traits influence how people gain, use, and maintain cognitive ability through various processes such as interest, self-regulation, feedback-seeking, or learning strategies. ...
The differentiation of personality by the cognitive ability hypothesis proposes that individuals with higher cognitive ability have more variability in their personality structure than those with lower cognitive ability. A large sample of actual job candidates (n = 14,462) who participated in an online proctored test session, providing socio-demographic information and completing cognitive ability, personality, and language proficiency assessments, was used to test this hypothesis. The total sample was divided into three equal groups (low, average, high) using percentiles as the cutoff point to investigate the effects of cognitive ability. An ANCOVA demonstrated the significant effect of cognitive ability on personality traits, controlling for language proficiency. Principal component analyses showed that the personality structure differed between the cognitive ability groups, with the high-cognitive-ability group having an additional personality component. Similarly, analyses across job complexity levels indicated more personality components for high-job-complexity positions. The implications, limitations, and future directions of this study are discussed.
... Kognitive Voraussetzungen gelten als wichtiger Prädiktor für die professionelle Entwicklung, denn sie beeinflussen beispielsweise die Schwierigkeiten bei der Aneignung neuen Wissens Ackerman, 1996). Zur Erfassung dieser Voraussetzungen wird häufig die Abiturnote genutzt (Cramer, 2016 Abiturnote einen guten Prädiktor für den Studienerfolg bzw. ...
Der "Masterstudiengang für das Lehramt an Integrierten Sekundarschulen und Gymnasien mit dem Profil Quereinstieg" (Q-Master) stellt einen alternativen Weg in das Lehramt dar. Es ist wenig darüber bekannt, ob ein solcher Qualifikationsweg in adäquater Weise auf die beruflichen Herausforderungen vorbereitet.
Mit der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Ausprägung und Entwicklung fachspezifischer professioneller Kompetenzen der Studierenden des Q-Masterstudiengangs (N=14) im Fach Physik längsschnittlich erhoben und mit den Studierenden des regulären Lehramtsmasterstudiengangs (N=30) verglichen. Ergänzend wurden Interviews zu den motivationalen Eingangsbedingungen der Q-Masterstudierenden sowie Aspekten der individuellen Nutzung der Lernangebote des Lehramtstudiums durchgeführt.
Als Ergebnis zeigt sich ein großer Zuwachs des fachdidaktischen Wissens der Q-Masterstudierenden im Verlauf des Q-Masterstudiums. Im Vergleich zu den regulären Lehramtsmasterstudieren werden keine Unterschiede in der Kompetenzausprägung und -entwicklung nachgewiesen. Die motivationalen Eingangsbedingungen der Q-Masterstudierenden scheinen günstig für die professionelle Entwicklung zu sein und die Lerngelegenheiten des Studiums werden als überwiegend nützlich erlebt. Damit scheint der Modellstudiengang geeignet zu sein, um einen qualitätsgesicherten Wechsel in das Lehramt innerhalb eines überschaubaren Zeitraums zu ermöglichen.
... However, relations between related constructs assessed using different measuring methods can be expected to correlate only modestly and effect sizes can be expected to be relatively small [69]. Furthermore, and more importantly, low correlations and low effect sizes could also be logical since the measurement contexts for our self-report and performance tasks in neuropsychological and psychopathology measures differ in their timeframe of action (i.e., life-long timeframe vs current moment 'snapshot'; [70,71]). Considering this, it could be reasonable to expect that higher order dimensions of psychopathology that may have trait-like characteristic may not strongly align with momentary fluctuations in cognitive performance. ...
Impaired executive functions (EF) have been found within various mental disorders (e.g., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia spectrum disorders) as described in DSM-5. However, although impaired EF has been observed within several categories of mental disorders, empirical research on direct relations between EF and broader dimension of psychopathology is still scarce. Therefore, in the current investigation we examined relations between three EF performance tasks and self-reported dimensions of psychopathology (i.e., the internalizing, externalizing, and thought disorder spectra) in a combined dataset of patients with a broad range of mental disorders (N = 440). Despite previously reported results that indicate impaired EF in several categories of mental disorders, in this study no direct relations were found between EF performance tasks and self-reported broader dimensions of psychopathology. These results indicate that relations between EF and psychopathology could be more complex and non-linear in nature. We evaluate the need for integration of EF and dimensional models of psychopathology and reflect on EF as a possible transdiagnostic factor of psychopathology.
... It is also important to consider the content of domain-specific knowledge, in understanding figurative language, especially among adult participants. Ackerman and colleagues (Ackerman 1987(Ackerman , 1996(Ackerman , 2000Ackerman and Heggestad 1997;Ackerman and Rolfhus 1999;Beier and Ackerman 2005;Ackerman 1996, 1999) have extensively studied the domain of gkn in adults (also see Rusche and Ziegler (2023) for an example in German culture). Their research has demonstrated that learning new domainspecific knowledge, including declarative knowledge, is influenced not only by cognitive abilities but also by situational and individual interests as well as personality characteristics such as Openness and intellectual engagement. ...
The study aimed to investigate the allocation of figurative language comprehension (FLC) within the Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) model of cognitive abilities, using three newly developed tests: the Reverse Paraphrase Test (RPT), the Literal Paraphrase Test (LPT), and the Proverb Test (PT). The analysis of a sample of 909 participants revealed that the RPT and LPT measured a unidimensional construct of FLC, while the PT was excluded due to insufficient fit. Combining RPT and LPT items, various models were evaluated, with a bifactor S-1 model showing the best fit, indicating the influence of a general factor (representing FLC) and test-specific method factors. The study explored FLC allocation within the CHC model, supporting its consideration as a distinct factor under the g factor. Examining the nomological network, significant correlations emerged between the Intellectual Curiosity and Aesthetic Sensitivity facets of Openness and FLC, which were comparable in size to the relation with general ability. In conclusion, the study enhances the understanding of FLC within the CHC model, advocating its recognition as a distinct factor. Correlations with Openness facets suggest valuable insights into the interplay between cognitive abilities and personality, necessitating further research for a deeper exploration of this relation.
... This information, in turn, is the target of typical Gc measures (e.g., Wilhelm & Kyllonen, 2021). Whereas Gc should be understood as the product of fluid abilities (Cattell, 1987), an ongoing acculturation process (Ackerman, 1996), and of intellectual investment traits (e.g., von Stumm, 2013; Ziegler et al., 2012) such as openness, retrieval ability, on the other hand, might be considered the mechanic capability to access and recall all this accumulated information quickly and efficiently. ...
Broad retrieval ability (Gr) posits an essential factor of human cognitive abilities. Previous literature indicates Gr is best modeled as a higher-order factor model with lower-level factors such as ideational fluency (IF), word fluency (WF), expressional fluency (EF), or figural fluency (FF). However, the dimensionality of Gr is not well studied. Furthermore, it remains unclear whether specific retrieval affordances such as differing retrieval time periods (e.g., short vs. long) can be psychometrically separated from more general retrieval affordances. Such a distinction would imply differential associations between specific retrieval, general retrieval, and other cognitive abilities, which, in turn, depict a vital part of explanatory models of individual differences in Gr. To test these assumptions, we conducted a multivariate study (N = 331) and evaluated competing latent variable measurement models for a variety of Gr tests. We then regressed the best measurement model onto working memory capacity, secondary memory, mental speed, and crystallized intelligence in order to evaluate the distinctiveness of Gr. Our results suggest that no specific retrieval affordances with regard to time periods can be distinguished. A higher-order model, with a second-order Gr factor above three first-order factors (IF, WF, EF, and FF) fitted the data best, extending previous literature by increasing construct coverage through the implementation of FF. All covariates show incremental predictive validity, beyond their communality. Summarizing, our results endorse a perspective on Gr as a strong and discriminant factor of cognitive abilities that is not affected by time constraints, and show that Gr is more than a linear combination of its parts.
... With the replication crises ever present in the psych ological t/ educationaVoccupational interests covary in different ways with measures of mathematical, spatial, and verbal reasoning. Appreciable intraindividual differences in cognitive abilities reflect motivational differences for gravitating toward contrasting opportunities in educational and occupational settings (Ackerman, 1996;Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997). ...
... This means that it is not possible to reach a high level of skill by means of ability alone or effort alone; conceptually and mathematically, neither can be zero as both are needed for the best performance. At the same time, the rise to the top is simply not possible without "profound" innate abilities (e.g., Ackerman, 1996Ackerman, , 2014Lubinski and Benbow, 2000;Kell et al., 2013). Abilities matter and are "fundamental prerequisites for high achievement" (Subotnik et al., 2011). ...
The skill-performance relationship is a cornerstone of a meritocratic society. People are selected for schools, colleges and jobs based on the premise that more skillful individuals perform better. Scientific understanding of the skill-performance relationship demands that the effect of skill on performance is objectively assessed without subjective, social, and political considerations. One of the best areas for this analysis is sports. In many sports settings, the skill-performance relationship can objectively be examined at the technical, behavioral, psychological, and neurological levels. This examination reveals that skill and performance are inextricably intertwined. While skill affects performance, performance in turn defines and affects skill. To disentangle the previously confusing and interchangeable use of these key constructs, the paper presents a theoretical model specifying that ability and effort have their own direct effects on performance, as well as indirect effects on performance through skill possession and skill execution in cognitive and physical domains of human performance. Thus, ability and skill are not the same. Although skill is a key determinant of performance, recent theory and research suggests that successful performers are successful not just because of their skills per se, but because they take advantage of their skills by creating more occurrences of momentum, making them last longer, and using them to bounce back faster from streaks of unsuccessful performance. Thus, momentum is an important mediator of the effects of skill on performance.
... Simulating these aspects requires extensive knowledge about the constructs under consideration and the items used to study them. For example, in knowledge assessment, one would need to vary the dimensionality of the initial item pool (e.g., Steger et al., 2019), group differences (e.g., Schroeders et al., 2016b;Watrin et al., 2023), correlations with covariates (e.g., Ackerman, 1996;Cattell, 1987) and itemlevel correlations (i.e., within-item multidimensionality; Schroeders et al., 2021). However, all these phenomena have been insufficiently studied so far. ...
Ant colony optimization (ACO) algorithms have previously been used to compile single short scales of psychological constructs. In the present article, we showcase the versatility of the ACO to construct multiple parallel short scales that adhere to several competing and interacting criteria simultaneously. Based on an initial pool of 120 knowledge items, we assembled three 12-item tests that (a) adequately cover the construct at the domain level, (b) follow a unidimensional measurement model, (c) allow reliable and (d) precise measurement of factual knowledge, and (e) are gender-fair. Moreover, we aligned the test characteristic and test information functions of the three tests to establish the equivalence of the tests. We cross-validated the assembled short scales and investigated their association with the full scale and covariates that were not included in the optimization procedure. Finally, we discuss potential extensions to metaheuristic test assembly and the equivalence of parallel knowledge tests in general.
... There is a significant risk that the motivation cannot be mustered either. Instead, energy flows into maintaining previous knowledge and skills acquired rather than expanding them (Ackerman, 1996). The maxim is primarily to maintain the status quo (Waelchli & Zeller, 2013). ...
The analysis of the relationship between board diversity and corporate performance is a well-documented area of research. Our analysis of the stock market in Germany and the United Kingdom (UK) from 2005 to 2018 contributes to the literature by considering different corporate constitutions (monistic and dualistic) as well as a variety of diversity factors and diversity potential factors in a uniform analytical framework. We implement the stock price performance as a company performance proxy because this can be observed more easily by non-professional investors than Tobin's Q, commonly used in former studies, and represents a pure market-based view of the company performance. Based on generalized least squares panel regressions (GLS), our results reveal no significant difference between monistic and dualistic corporate constitutions regarding a possible relationship between diversity and company performance. They support former studies that the size of a top management board is significantly negatively related to company performance in the long run. Furthermore, no significant correlation can be found between changes in a board in a fiscal year and company performance, which was analyzed for the first time in such a framework. K E Y W O R D S corporate governance and control, diversity, financial performance J E L C L A S S I F I C AT I O N G15, G30
... Strong working memory, for instance, aids in the learning of basic arithmetic facts that then reduces working memory demands and further facilitates arithmetic learning. This leap-frogging process increases the correlations among these domains, even if the working memory and learning systems underlying fact memorization are relatively independent (see also Ackerman, 1996). ...
Meta-analytic structural equation modeling was used to estimate the relative contributions of general cognitive ability or g (defined by executive functions, short-term memory, and intelligence) and basic domain-specific mathematical abilities to performance in more complex mathematics domains. The domain-specific abilities included mathematics fluency (e.g., speed of retrieving basic facts), computational skills (i.e., accuracy at solving multi-step arithmetic, algebra, or geometry problems), and word problems (i.e., mathematics problems presented in narrative form). The core analysis included 448 independent samples and 431,344 participants and revealed that g predicted performance in all three mathematics domains. Mathematics fluency contributed to the prediction of computational skills, and both mathematics fluency and computational skills predicted word problem performance, controlling g. The relative contribution of g was consistently larger than basic domain-specific abilities, although the latter may be underestimated. The patterns were similar across younger and older individuals, individuals with and without a disability (e.g., learning disability), concurrent and longitudinal assessments, and family socioeconomic status, and have implications for fostering mathematical development.
... Contemporary theories of human intelligence make clear conceptual distinctions between constructs. For example, Ackerman's (1996) process, personality, interests, and knowledge theory recognizes raw fluid intelligence (Gf) as invested in the acquisition of the general high-level cognitive skills referred to as crystallized intelligence (Gc). In turn, Gc supports the acquisition of explicit, declarative knowledge in specific topic areas such as physics and literature, influenced by factors such as typical intellectual engagement and personality. ...
Commentators on the R. D. Roberts, M. Zeidner, and G. Matthews (2001) article on the measurement of emotional intelligence (EI) made various pertinent observations that confirm the growing interest in this topic. This rejoinder finds general agreement on some key issues: learning from the history of ability testing, developing more sophisticated structural models of ability, studying emotional abilities across the life span, and establishing predictive and construct validity. However, scoring methods for tests of EI remain problematic. This rejoinder acknowledges recent improvements in convergence between different scoring methods but discusses further difficulties related to (a) neglect of group differences in normative social behaviors, (b) segregation of separate domains of knowledge linked to cognitive and emotional intelligences, (c) potential confounding of competence with learned skills and cultural factors, and (d) lack of specification of adaptive functions of EI. Empirical studies have not yet established that the Multi-Factor Emotional Intelligence Scale and related tests assess a broad EI factor of real-world significance.
... Knowledge plays a prominent role in theories of intelligence (cf. Ackerman, 1996;Horn & Cattel, 1966), knowledge is commonly measured when assessing human intelligence (for example, on individual intelligence tests such as the Stanford Binet or Wechsler Scales), and meta-analytic data show that general cognitive ability correlates approximately .80 with job knowledge (Hunter, 1986). Thus, controlling for job knowledge may also help to control for differences in cognitive ability. ...
This field study addressed the question of whether voluntary participation in interview coaching is related to performance in situational interviews. Promotional procedures in 4 different police and fire department jobs were involved, allowing replication in separate samples. In 3 of 4 jobs, when controlling for indicators of candidates’ precoaching job knowledge and motivation to do well on the promotional procedures, attendance at a coaching session was significantly related to interview performance. Following a discussion of study limitations, an agenda for future research is discussed, including a proposed general model of coaching process and outcome variables.
... It is imperative for individuals to develop a positive image of themselves to have stable emotional regulation (47,48). It is believed that perception of one's behavior is directly linked to emotional adaptation. ...
... It is imperative for individuals to develop a positive image of themselves to have stable emotional regulation (47,48). It is believed that perception of one's behavior is directly linked to emotional adaptation. ...
Owing to the dearth of scholarly works to understand the presence of Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder (FNSD) among mental health patients in Pakistan, this study sought to understand how cultural and religious conflicts are implicated in the aetiology of FNSD. The study recruited 22 participants, comprising five men and 17 women. The participants were recruited from the Department of Psychiatry at Services Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed through Thematic Analysis. The two main themes identified in this study were cultural and religious values and beliefs about romantic relationships. Within the cultural and religious values theme, subthemes of self-perception, a conviction in religious beliefs, and sexual suppression were identified. Furthermore, the subthemes of beliefs about romantic relationships were family’s approval, engagement against wishes, and fear of exposure. The two main themes are interconnected: beliefs about romantic relationships were interpreted and experienced through the perspective of religion and culture. To summarize, this study concluded that stressors related to culture and religion are significant contributing factors in the development of FNSD. This study has important implications for mental health professionals, as awareness around the interplay of cultural as well as religious beliefs and FNSD will enable them to devise effective and holistic therapeutic intervention.
... The connection between interest and knowledge has long been recognized. Interests provide the direction and motivation through which individuals apply their intellect to accumulate knowledge, which in turn strengthens their ability to excel in specific domains (Ackerman, 1996;Hyland et al., 2022;Nye et al., 2021). In the context of work, research has shown that vocational interests are positively correlated with corresponding job knowledge (Reeve & Hakel, 2000, Table 1), and when people work in occupations that better fit their interests, they acquire higher levels of relevant job knowledge and show better job performance (Van Iddekinge et al., 2011). ...
Over the past half-century, Holland’s RIASEC model has dominated vocational interest research. Although the RIASEC categories effectively capture general occupational domains, their breadth obscures meaningful variability across underlying basic interests. In this research, we adapted the Comprehensive Assessment of Basic Interests (CABIN; Su et al., 2019) to be used alongside O*NET for assessing interest fit, resulting in the 60-item CABIN-NET that measures 20 basic interest scales nested within RIASEC domains. To construct the CABIN-NET, we selected basic interest scales central to the broader RIASEC types, then connected each scale to an O*NET knowledge variable. In Study 1, we refined items for the CABIN-NET using a nationally representative adult sample (N = 768). In Studies 2 and 3, we collected extensive reliability and validity evidence using longitudinal samples of graduates from four-year universities (N = 816) and community colleges (N = 560). Across samples, results consistently showed that basic interest fit had stronger predictive power for career outcomes compared to RIASEC interest fit, highlighting the CABIN-NET’s utility in research and applied settings. Overall, the CABIN-NET provides a short, reliable measure of both basic interests and RIASEC interests, offering two ways of objectively assessing person-occupation interest fit. The CABIN-NET also advances interest measurement by providing a standardized, hierarchical structure for grouping basic interests into RIASEC types, balancing bandwidth and fidelity.
... Assim, o achado, contrastando a prova de Raciocínio Verbal versus Mecânico/Espacial/Numérico, é condizente com esse padrão, já que o Raciocínio Verbal é a prova mais influenciada pela inteligência cristalizada. As três provas restantes são mais associadas à capacidade de processamento visual -Gv (Ackerman, 1996;Horn & Blankson, 2012). ...
The Reasoning Tests Battery (BPR-5) is widely used in Brazil for the assessment of intelligence. It has three different forms: children (1st to 6th grade of elementary school), Form A (7th to 9th grade of elementary school) and Form B (high school and higher education). This study describes the steps followed to create a common metric across the forms. It aimed to: (a) calibrate the items of the three forms using Rasch model, link items and equate subjects' scores across forms using the anchoring of common items method, (b) update the norms by expanding the representativeness of the samples by producing norms for different combinations of age, education and sex, and (c) describe the developmental patterns of the BPR-5 subtests across a wide age range, from 6 to 52 years. We present two studies, the first reporting the calibration of item and person parameters with the Rasch model and a good fit to the model. The second illustrated the use of multiple regression analysis to create norms for the psychological tests considering the variables age, education and gender as predictors of the BPR-5 scores. These three variables had significant effects explaining 8% (Abstract Reasoning), 13% (Verbal Reasoning), 12% (Spatial Reasoning), 8% (Numerical Reasoning) and 22% (Mechanical Reasoning) of the variance.
... The assessments included those pertaining to classical liberal arts outcomes (e.g., openness and curiosity), as well as practical skills (critical thinking). 1 In a similar vein, Arum and Roska (2011) famously evaluated critical thinking skills in higher education, showing minimal growth on the Collegiate Learning Assessment across two years of college. Their follow-up initiative, the Measuring College Learning Project, aimed at providing a framework for which faculty-inspired, discipline-specific assessments could be generated to track student skill development in college (Arum et al., 2016). ...
The onus of preparing skilled employees for the modern workforce is largely placed on institutions of higher education. However, recent surveys consistently show a skills gap between what employers’ desire and what graduates possess. This review engages this discussion in the context of measuring and assessing 21st century skills. We begin by succinctly reviewing literature pertaining to the skills gap, including what types of skills are commonly referenced, before moving to examine literature indicating the relations between current 21st century skills and job-related outcomes. Finally, we conclude with recommendations for higher education researchers examining skill development. Our recommendations cover three key corresponding areas: theories of cognitive development, intervention design, measurement and assessment.
... Spengler stellt das Epochenwissen verschiedener Kulturen aufgereiht "wie über die Gipfelreihe eines Gebirges am Horizont" (Spengler, 1981(Spengler, -(zuerst 1918(Spengler, und 1922, S. 126) dar und reduziert dieses Metagebirge aus kosmischer Entfernung auf seine Gipfelpunkte, womit er eine Synthese und Diffusion des gesamten Menschheitswissens schafft (Gittel, 2018, S. 100). (Gleick, 1992, S. 25, 38, 49), so hätte dies nur einen geringen Einfluss auf das Ergebnis der klassischen IQ-Tests (Ackerman, 1996, S. 230-231 (Ackerman, 1996). Die aktuelle Forschung auf diesem Gebiet und auch dieser Artikel basiert auf diesen Ergebnissen (vgl. ...
The term mobility has different meanings in the following science disciplines. In economics, mobility is the ability of an individual or a group to improve their eco-nomic status in relation to income and wealth within their lifetime or between gen-erations. In information systems and computer science, mobility is used for the concept of mobile computing, in which a computer is transported by a person during normal use. Logistics creates by the design of logistics networks the infrastructure for the mobility of people and goods. Electric mobility is one of today’s solutions from an engineering perspective to reduce the need of energy resources and environmental impact. Moreover, for urban planning, mobility is the crunch question about how to optimise the different needs for mobility and how to link different transportation systems. In this publication we collected the ideas of practitioners, researchers, and govern-ment officials regarding the different modes of mobility in a globalised world, fo-cusing on both domestic and international issues.
... It is common knowledge that both cognitive and non-cognitive psychological processes influence life outcomes (see Ackerman 1996;Stankov 1999). This view was accepted by the participants in a recent debate about the relative roles of intelligence and personality. ...
This article examines the psychological measures employed in studies that compared the predictive validity of personality and intelligence for important life outcomes and came to divergent conclusions. At least some discrepant findings can be accounted for by the fine-grained analysis of measures employed in the assessment of intelligence and personality. The use of Big Five measures of personality traits for predicting life outcomes appear to be poorly supported—other ways of assessing personality need to be explored. Methods used to study cause–effect relationships in non-experimental studies will need to be employed in future.
Intellectual curiosity and personal interest are both believed to spark information seeking and facilitate learning. In two preregistered studies (Study 1: exploratory lab study, N = 312; Study 2: online conceptual replication study, N = 960), we investigated effects of curiosity and interest on participants’ information seeking as they studied a hypertext on a historical topic. We captured their behavioral traces with log files. We also examined effects of curiosity, interest, and information-seeking behaviors on knowledge attainment. In both studies, latent profile analyses based on behavioral trace data revealed more adaptive information-seeking profiles (e.g., broad and deep-diving information searches, Study 1, or only broad information search, Study 2) and less adaptive (e.g., disengaged) information-seeking profiles. More adaptive profiles were consistently related to better knowledge test performance. Curiosity and interest positively predicted more adaptive information seeking (Study 1) and knowledge test performance (Study 2); however, these effects were inconsistent across study contexts. Furthermore, curiosity and interest did not interact in predicting information seeking and knowledge attainment (Studies 1 and 2). Overall, our work extends the understanding of how intellectually curious and interested individuals learn and attain knowledge and underscores the promise of using behavioral trace data to study interindividual differences.
The present quantitative analysis of empirical research focuses on the structure of professional interests of technicians (EQF 6). A study with a larger sample is already available (cf. Huester in Diagnose und Förderung der berufsfachlichen Kompetenz zur Erfassung und Interpretation Technischer Zeichnungen bei Technikern, Logos Verlag, 2023, pp.192–200). Hypothesis: With regard to technicians, can the hexagonal structure of occupational interests according to (Holland in Psychol Assess Resour in 1997; Nagy in Berufliche Interessen, kognitive und fachgebundene Kompetenzen. Ihre Bedeutung für die Studienfachwahl und die Bewährung im Studium.: Dissertationschrift in 2005). The present study was conducted at six technical colleges in a longitudinal control experimental group design (n = 243) in regular classes. Data analysis was performed with SEM using Mplus software. Results: Vocational interests can be represented as a quasi-complex, thus maintaining the RIASEC model. In further research, these findings can be integrated into PPIK theory. Then, it can also be shown whether there is an influence of vocational interests on domain-specific competence.
Achievement motivation is an important predictor for academic performance. For a better understanding of the mechanisms explaining this relation, it is necessary to shift from a trait to a state perspective to unravel underlying dynamic processes and take the influence of the situation into account. However, there were only few empirical attempts to analyze achievement motivation at the within-person level and they did not yet investigate relations to situation perception. Hence, we examined whether achievement motivation traits manifest as states and if those are related to specific situation characteristics. Utilizing the experience sampling method (N = 8,592 assessments), we obtained self-reports from N = 223 school and university students and applied multilevel modeling. Results revealed fluctuation of achievement motivation at state level and exclusive relations with situation characteristics (especially Duty and Intellect) for various motivational constructs. We discuss theoretical and practical implications as well as prospects for future studies.
This volume provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date compendium of theory and research in the field of human intelligence. Each of the 42 chapters is written by world-renowned experts in their respective fields, and collectively, they cover the full range of topics of contemporary interest in the study of intelligence. The handbook is divided into nine parts: Part I covers intelligence and its measurement; Part II deals with the development of intelligence; Part III discusses intelligence and group differences; Part IV concerns the biology of intelligence; Part V is about intelligence and information processing; Part VI discusses different kinds of intelligence; Part VII covers intelligence and society; Part VIII concerns intelligence in relation to allied constructs; and Part IX is the concluding chapter, which reflects on where the field is currently and where it still needs to go.
This volume provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date compendium of theory and research in the field of human intelligence. Each of the 42 chapters is written by world-renowned experts in their respective fields, and collectively, they cover the full range of topics of contemporary interest in the study of intelligence. The handbook is divided into nine parts: Part I covers intelligence and its measurement; Part II deals with the development of intelligence; Part III discusses intelligence and group differences; Part IV concerns the biology of intelligence; Part V is about intelligence and information processing; Part VI discusses different kinds of intelligence; Part VII covers intelligence and society; Part VIII concerns intelligence in relation to allied constructs; and Part IX is the concluding chapter, which reflects on where the field is currently and where it still needs to go.
This volume provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date compendium of theory and research in the field of human intelligence. Each of the 42 chapters is written by world-renowned experts in their respective fields, and collectively, they cover the full range of topics of contemporary interest in the study of intelligence. The handbook is divided into nine parts: Part I covers intelligence and its measurement; Part II deals with the development of intelligence; Part III discusses intelligence and group differences; Part IV concerns the biology of intelligence; Part V is about intelligence and information processing; Part VI discusses different kinds of intelligence; Part VII covers intelligence and society; Part VIII concerns intelligence in relation to allied constructs; and Part IX is the concluding chapter, which reflects on where the field is currently and where it still needs to go.
This book is the first international handbook of intelligence ever published. It is intended to prove a truly international perspective on the nature of intelligence. It covers intelligence theory, research, and practice from all over the globe. Areas covered include Great Britain, Australia, French-speaking countries, German-speaking countries, Spanish-speaking countries, India, Japan, Israel, Turkey, and China. Each author is an internationally recognized expert in the field of intelligence. Authors represent not just their own viewpoint, but rather, the full variety of viewpoints indigenous to the area about which they write. Each chapter deals with, for its area, definitions and theories of intelligence, history of research, current research, assessment techniques, and comparison across geographical areas. An integrative final chapter synthesizes the diverse international viewpoints.
Understanding how personality (e.g., DeNeve and Cooper 1998; Steel et al. 2019) and intellectual abilities (e.g., Gottfredson 1997, 2004b; Brown et al. 2021; Kulikowski 2021) contribute to shaping aspects of individuals’ lives is essential for in the advancement of many scientific disciplines such as psychology, management and medicine. However, although personality and intelligence and their impacts on life outcomes have been a subject of extensive research and interest among scholars across different disciplines, personality and intellectual abilities are most often studied in separation. When delving into the research on important life outcomes such as educational outcomes, career success, interpersonal relationships, mental health and overall well-being, it is vital to recognize that it is the joint influence of personality and intelligence that determines life outcomes (see, e.g., Deary et al. 2010; Damian et al. 2015; Cheng and Furnham 2012). Solely focusing on either intelligence or personality in isolation creates an artificial situation (Judge et al. 1999; Roberts et al. 2007), and only by considering them in tandem can we avoid oversimplifications and gain a deeper understanding of the processes that influence human lives (for more on the importance of ability–personality integration, see also Colom et al. (2019)). Therefore, this Special Issue serves a dual purpose. Firstly, we want to give a platform to papers that investigate the relationships between personality, intelligence and a wide range of life outcomes. Secondly, we aim to stimulate scholarly discourse by illuminating the often neglected and underexplored topic of the simultaneous effects of intelligence and personality in shaping individuals’ life trajectories. With this editorial, our objective is to highlight the main challenges that should be addressed to facilitate the research on the effects of intelligence and personality on life outcomes and offer a comprehensive overview of potential avenues for future exploration. We hope to inspire further research on personality and intelligence effects on important life outcomes.
Evidence from the literature reveals that customer loyalty research is growing and is becoming more widely integrated into related disciplines. This study evaluates the role of sales representatives' cultural intelligence (CI) in the behavioral loyalty (BL) of customers of SMEs in Nigeria, through the mechanism of customer involvement (CuI). Two sets of questionnaires were administered directly to the sales representatives, and indirectly to the customers, via the sales representatives. Three hundred and fifty copies of the sales representatives' questionnaire were administered, based on the population of 65 manufacturing SMEs and an average of 5.4 copies per SME, while 384 copies of the customers' questionnaire were sent to the unknown pool of customers. Data were collected from the two sets of respondents, which were analyzed through a variance-based structural equation modeling using Smart-PLS software. The results reveal a positive and significant relationship between cultural intelligence and behavioral loyalty, while the indirect relationship reveals customer involvement does strongly mediate the relationship between the antecedent and the outcome. The findings imply that behavioral loyalty is engendered when sales representatives possess high cultural intelligence, and customers are strategically involved through consultations and product co-creation.
Cultural diversity in the 21st century makes it imperative for managers to examine the multidimensional construct of cultural intelligence, aiming to solve cross-cultural problems, mitigate culture shock and promote a harmonious work environment. Using the quota sampling technique, this quantitative paper gathered data from three subgroups in Bangkok: Thai, Chinese and ASEAN employees from two organizations settings, consisting of heterogeneous and homogeneous employees. The relationship between the four dimensions of cultural intelligence proposed by Earley and Ang (2003), to sociocultural adaptation developed by Wilson (2013), and psychological adjustment developed by Demes and Geeraert (2014), was hypothesized. Results of Structural Equation Modeling, Multiple Group Analysis and ANOVA, fully or partially supported the predictions hypothesized, indicating differences on the dimensions of cultural intelligence and cultural adaptation across different sub-groups of expatriates, within a single national culture. The assumption of these findings is that expatriates exposed to a host culture, in contrast to their own, can be coached prior to an international assignment with cross-cultural capabilities, so as to avoid depersonalization while simultaneously mastering diverse skills in a cultural context in order to excel with job accomplishments and integration within a culture. The dual dimensions of sociocultural and psychological adjustment can be conceptualized independently, to procure an in-depth picture of expatriates from diverse cultural backgrounds.
This study focuses on the vocational interests of trainee teachers for kindergarten and primary school, investigating whether the RIASEC-interest dimensions are related to teaching preferences in the Swiss subject of Nature–Human–Society, which is characterized by its multidisciplinarity. Interests are a source of individual differences in people and important to study since they influence intrinsic motivation, and thus, behavior, effort, and occupational decisions. The results of the conducted survey, composed of the Nature–Human–Society questionnaire and the general interest structure test (AIST-R), show, in a sample of 220 participants, that trainee teachers’ vocational interests were partly related to their previous experiences in the specific content domains of Nature–Human–Society and slightly differed by gender. The RIASEC interest dimensions of social, investigative, realistic, and partly artistic evidence significant correlations with preferences in the teaching topics of the Nature–Human–Society subject. It became clear that trainee teachers with high realistic and investigative interests and low social and artistic interests tended to prefer thing-related teaching topics, while pronounced social and artistic interests with low realistic and investigative interests were associated with teaching preferences for people-related topics in the subject of Nature–Human–Society. The dominant role of Prediger’s people- versus thing-related interest orientation could thus also be confirmed in the choice of favorite teaching topics, signaling that teachers feel comfortable with those topics that match their interest structure.
In this revised and updated edition of Hunt's classic textbook, Human Intelligence, two research experts explain how key scientific studies have revealed exciting information about what intelligence is, where it comes from, why there are individual differences, and what the prospects are for enhancing it. The topics are chosen based on the weight of evidence, allowing readers to evaluate what ideas and theories the data support. Topics include IQ testing, mental processes, brain imaging, genetics, population differences, sex, aging, and likely prospects for enhancing intelligence based on current scientific evidence. Readers will confront ethical issues raised by research data and learn how scientists pursue answers to basic and socially relevant questions about why intelligence is important in everyday life. Many of the answers will be surprising and stimulate readers to think constructively about their own views.
Changes in intellectual ability over the adult years are complex and important to understand because they can inform social policies. There are 97 million people in the European Union at least sixty-five years old. Three out of 10 live alone, and only 9 out of 100 between sixty-five and seventy-five are economically active. In the United States, the number of people sixty-five or over is 48 million now, in 2023, and this number will rise to 98 million by 2060. In China, the estimate is 487 million people aged sixty-five or older by 2050. The number for Japan will be a quarter of its total population.
In this revised and updated edition of Hunt's classic textbook, Human Intelligence, two research experts explain how key scientific studies have revealed exciting information about what intelligence is, where it comes from, why there are individual differences, and what the prospects are for enhancing it. The topics are chosen based on the weight of evidence, allowing readers to evaluate what ideas and theories the data support. Topics include IQ testing, mental processes, brain imaging, genetics, population differences, sex, aging, and likely prospects for enhancing intelligence based on current scientific evidence. Readers will confront ethical issues raised by research data and learn how scientists pursue answers to basic and socially relevant questions about why intelligence is important in everyday life. Many of the answers will be surprising and stimulate readers to think constructively about their own views.
高等教育机构承担了为现代劳动力培养熟练员工的责任。然而，最近的调研一致显示雇 主期望与毕业生所拥有的技能差距。本综述在衡量和评估21世纪技能的语境中讨论这种差距。我们首先简要回顾有关技能差距的文献(包括哪些类型的技能最常被提及)，然后 探讨当前 21 世纪技能与工作相关成果之间关系的献。最后，我们总结出给高等教育研究人员探索技能发展的建议。我们的建议涵盖三个关键的相关领域:认知发展理论、干预设计、测量和评估。
Theories of cognitive development among emerging adults posit that environmental and age-related influences are responsible for individual differences in complex reasoning abilities. Exposure to and engagement with a diverse set of ideas and perspectives is stipulated to provide a context for which individuals are positioned to coordinate, integrate, and form new abstractions. This notion is implicit in the general education and elective requirements of university programs. In this study, we draw upon the cognitive psychology literature on emerging adult development to examine how intellectual breadth via course-taking patterns relates to gains in cognitive skills. Using recently collected longitudinal data of undergraduates enrolled at a large public university, we leverage a unique set of cognitive measures that tap a string of related constructs. We find moderate associations between intellectual breadth and reasoning skills, with notable differences across cognitive dimensions. Additionally, intellectual curiosity moderates the association between course breadth and cognition. Implications for theories of intellectual development are discussed in relation to undergraduate experiences.
Course-taking breadth is a longstanding university tradition stipulated to widen one’s perspective and introduce new concepts, spurring intellectual development. Remarkably, little empirical evidence has examined the influence of such course-taking patterns on cognitive development. In this study, we draw upon the cognitive psychology literature on emerging adult development to examine how intellectual breadth via course-taking patterns relates to gains in cognitive skills. We find moderate associations between intellectual breadth and reasoning skills, with notable differences across cognitive dimensions. Additionally, intellectual curiosity moderates the association between course breadth and cognition. Implications for theories of intellectual development are discussed in relation to undergraduate experiences.
This book was the first handbook where the world's foremost 'experts on expertise' reviewed our scientific knowledge on expertise and expert performance and how experts may differ from non-experts in terms of their development, training, reasoning, knowledge, social support, and innate talent. Methods are described for the study of experts' knowledge and their performance of representative tasks from their domain of expertise. The development of expertise is also studied by retrospective interviews and the daily lives of experts are studied with diaries. In 15 major domains of expertise, the leading researchers summarize our knowledge on the structure and acquisition of expert skill and knowledge and discuss future prospects. General issues that cut across most domains are reviewed in chapters on various aspects of expertise such as general and practical intelligence, differences in brain activity, self-regulated learning, deliberate practice, aging, knowledge management, and creativity.
The last few years have witnessed exponential growth in research output within the field of language aptitude. With contributions from an international team of leading experts, this volume provides the most comprehensive, authoritative and up-to-date overview of developments in language aptitude theory and practice. It addresses central and newly emerging methodological and theoretical issues, and revisits and re-examines the most popular language aptitude tests, including the most durable and innovative batteries. It also provides in-depth demonstrations of language aptitude research paradigms, including well-established and emerging ones, scrutinizing them from multidisciplinary perspectives. Aptitude treatment interactions studies are reported and discussed, and pedagogical implications are provided, to illuminate theory construction, test development, policymaking, curriculum design and classroom practice. Seamlessly integrating theory, research, assessment and practice, it is essential reading for anyone seeking to learn more about language learning, training and teaching, and will further advance the research in this exciting, fast-paced field.
The present study focuses on the structure of domain-specific competence among technicians at vocational schools. An article on the pretest of the study was published in 2022 (cf. Walker & Huester (2022). The structure of domain-specific competence in the occupation of technicians at vocational schools in Germany. In C. Hong (Ed.), Applied Degree Education and the Future of Work. Education 4. 0 (Lecture Notes in Educational Technology Ser). Singapore: Springer Singapore Pte. Limited.). In the pretest, multidimensional constructs already emerged for content knowledge and problem solving. Content knowledge and fluid intelligence showed significant standardized regressions on the dimensions of problem solving. The regressions of content knowledge on problem solving were the strongest. Is domain-specific competence also a multidimensional construct in the posttest? Sample: The posttest was equal to the pretest conducted by six colleges (EQR 6) both in a longitudinal control-experimental-group-design (n = 243) and as regular classes via the digital learning platform Moodle. The data analysis will be made by SEM with Mplus. Results: Content knowledge and problem-solving competence are multidimensional. The highest regressions related to problem-solving competence are obtained in the multidimensional content knowledge as outlined in the PPIK theory.KeywordsDomain specific competenceHigher educationLearning design
Relationships between abilities and performance in visual search were investigated for young and old adults. Ss received extensive practice on category search task. A consistent version allowed development of an automatic attention response; a varied version allowed general performance improvements. Transfer conditions assessed learning. General ability, induction, semantic knowledge, working memory, perceptual speed, semantic memory access, and psychomotor speed were assessed. LISREL models revealed that general ability and semantic memory access predicted initial performance for both ages. Improvements on both the consistent and varied tasks were predicted by perceptual speed. Ability–performance relationships indexed performance changes but were not predictive of learning (i.e., automatic process vs. general efficiency). Qualitative differences in the ability-transfer models suggest age differences in learning.
Nash has argued that individuals will perform better on cognitive tasks when their self-concepts match the gender stereotyping of the tasks. To evaluate this hypothesis, we reviewed studies on the relation between gender self-concept and performance on spatial, mathematical, and verbal tasks. Meta-analytic techniques were used to estimate the average effect sizes and to determine the significance of the combined probabilities. The influence of subjects' sex and age, date of study, type of spatial task, and type of self-concept measure on these associations was also examined. In general, the results from spatial and mathematical tasks, which are usually stereotyped as masculine, supported Nash's hypothesis. Higher masculine and lower feminine self-concept scores were associated with better performance. These relations were observed more consistently for female than for male subjects. Most notably, there was some evidence of better spatial and mathematical performance among adolescent boys who described themselves as feminine. Nash's hypothesis was not supported for verbal tasks. Finally, there was no evidence that androgyny, defined either as high masculine and high feminine scores or as a balance between masculine and feminine scores, is associated with better cognitive performance.
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning.
The authors review the development of the modern paradigm for intelligence assessment and application and consider the differentiation between intelligence-as-maximal performance and intelligence-as-typical performance. They review theories of intelligence, personality, and interest as a means to establish potential overlap. Consideration of intelligence-as-typical performance provides a basis for evaluation of intelligence–personality and intelligence–interest relations. Evaluation of relations among personality constructs, vocational interests, and intellectual abilities provides evidence for communality across the domains of personality of J. L. Holland's (1959) model of vocational interests. The authors provide an extensive meta-analysis of personality–intellectual ability correlations, and a review of interest–intellectual ability associations. They identify 4 trait complexes: social, clerical/conventional, science/math, and intellectual/cultural.
Two experiments were conducted to examine the scope and structure of tacit knowledge. In Experiment 1, three groups, whose members differed in level of professional advancement in the field of academic psychology, were presented with simulated work-related situations designed to measure their tacit knowledge. Between-group differences in tacit knowledge were found as a function of level of professional advancement, and strong within-group relations were found between tacit knowledge and external criteria such as rate of citation. The scope of tacit knowledge was found to include (a) knowledge useful in managing oneself, others, and one's tasks, (b) knowledge applicable to both short-term and long-term contexts, and (c) knowledge of ideal quality as well as practical reality. The results of testing four classes of alternative models of the structure of tacit knowledge supported a model characterized by a general factor, similar in form to Spearman's g for academic tasks. Experiment 2 replicated and extended these results to the domain of business management.
Our previous research, based on cross-sectional data, provided prima facie evidence of a reciprocal relationship between the substantive complesity of men's work and their intellectual flexibility. The present study employs longitudinal data to make a more definitive assessment. Using maximum-likelihood confirmatory factor analysis to separate measurement error from real change, it develops measurement models for both substantive complexity and intellectual flexibility. These models whos that, over a 10-year time span, the "stability" of both variables, shorn of measurment error, is high, that of intellectual flexibility specially so. Nevertheless, a structural equation causal analysis demonstrates that the effect of the substantive complexity of work on intellectual flexibility is real and remarkably strong-on the order of one-fourth is great as the effect of men's earlier levels of intellectual flexibility on their present intellectual flexibility. The reciprocal effect of intellectual flexibility on substantive complexity is even more pronounced. This effect, however, is not contemporaneous but, rather, a lagged effect occurring more gradually over time.
Three experiments investigated experts' and laypersons' conceptions of intelligence. In Exp I, 61 persons studying in a college library, 63 entering a supermarket, and 62 waiting for trains in a railroad station were asked to list behaviors characteristic of either "intelligence," "academic intelligence," "everyday intelligence," or "unintelligence," and to rate themselves on each. In Exp II, 140 experts and 122 laypersons (excluding students) were asked to rate various properties of the behaviors listed in Exp I; the laypersons also rated themselves on the 3 kinds of intelligence and took the Henmon-Nelson Tests of Mental Abilities. In Exp III, 65 laypersons received written descriptions of behaviors characterizing fictitious people and were asked to rate these people's intelligence. Results show that well-formed prototypes corresponding to the various kinds of intelligence, that these prototypes were quite similar for experts and laypersons, were closely related to certain psychological theories of intelligence, and were used in the evaluation of one's own and other's intelligence. Moreover, proximity of one's behavioral self-characterizations to an ideal prototype was strongly related to intelligence. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Comments on R. J. Sternberg and R. K. Wagner's (see record
1993-32168-001) article concerning the flaws of the "
g-ocentric" view of intelligence and job performance, arguing that Sternberg and Wagner attempt to introduce 2 new constructs, tacit knowledge and practical intelligence, that are not needed in determining job performance. These constructs are redundant with the existing construct of job knowledge, which is broader and more powerful. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Relations between personality and intelligence were investigated in the context of the distinction between intelligence as typical engagement and intelligence as maximal engagement. The traditional approach to investigating the association between intelligence as maximal performance and personality was reviewed, and suggestions were made, including the suggestion that intelligence as typical engagement results in clearer understanding of personality–intelligence relations. 13 personality/interest constructs hypothesized to surround a core construct of typical intellectual engagement and related to typical intellectual performance were operationalized. Relations found were modest, yet several personality scales differentially related to fluid and crystallized classes of intelligence. Relations between the personality constructs surrounding typical intellectual engagement and the broad personality domain are investigated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Questions the validity of fluid and crystallized intelligence (
gf and
gc, respectively) as promoted by J. L. Horn and R. B. Cattell (see record
1966-13188-001).
Gf is said to be more largely determined by heredity and
gc more by environmental conditions. Horn and Cattell cite factor analyses to support these 2 abilities, which they regard as 2nd-order factors, demonstrated from intercorrelations of scores representing 1st-order factors. In at least 1 of these analyses, the tested Ss varied widely in age and education and other conditions that are likely to bias intercorrelations of test scores. The 2 obtained factors purported to represent
gf and
gc could thus have been spurious. In other analyses with better controls, however, 2 such factors did also appear, with 2 or 3 in addition. However, the present author interprets these factors to be 2nd- or 3rd-order abilities differing along the lines of the categories of the present author's structure-of-intellect model. The fanciful names do not appear to represent valid constructs. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Skill specificity, the notion that task performance is based on unique underlying information-processing components at skilled levels of performance, is examined from the perspective of the ability determinants of individual differences in task performance during skill acquisition. The current investigation uses a dynamic ability-skill theoretical perspective to evaluate how individual differences in procedural learning for a complex criterion task relate to learning of procedures for other more basic tasks such as choice and simple reaction time (RT). An experiment with 86 college students was performed using a simulated Air Traffic Controller (ATC) task for assessment of procedural learning, along with practice on several perceptual speed measures and assessment of reference abilities. When Ss are allowed to practice tests of perceptual speed and psychomotor ability, some measures increase in their power to predict skilled performance on the complex ATC criterion task, a direct disconfirmation of the skill-specificity thesis. Discussion is devoted to the use of individual-differences approaches to address general transfer and skill specificity issues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
T. Rocklin (see record
1994-29650-001) examined the relations between M. Goff and P. L. Ackerman's (see record
1993-13529-001) measure of typical intellectual engagement (TIE) and a personality test measure of Openness. Rocklin's arguments are examined in the context of 3 themes: philosophical issues, TIE and Openness from a facet perspective, and the bandwidth-fidelity dilemma. Although Rocklin raised important issues about these constructs, it is demonstrated that measures of TIE and Openness, although significantly related, are theoretically and empirically distinguishable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Predictors of success in school, such as conventional psychometric intelligence (e.g., IQ) tests, are less predictive of success out of school. Even the most charitable estimates of the relation between intelligence test scores and real-world criteria such as job performance indicate that approximately three fourths of the variance in real-world performance is not accounted for by intelligence test performance. Researchers have begun to explore new constructs in search of measures to supplement existing cognitive ability tests as predictors of real-world performance. Among the most promising constructs is practical intelligence, or common sense. Performance on measures of practical intelligence predicts real-world criteria such as job performance but is relatively unrelated to performance on intelligence tests and other common selection measures. Consequently, its contribution to prediction is largely independent of the contributions of existing measures, including measures of cognitive ability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
M. Goff and P. L. Ackerman (see record
1993-13529-001) identified a personality trait that they called "typical intellectual engagement." Typical intellectual engagement represents a departure from the common conceptualization of intelligence as maximal performance, and a measure of the construct correlates with measures of crystallized intelligence but not with a measure of fluid intelligence. In this article, the relation between typical intellectual engagement and the personality trait of Openness is examined. In analyzing the relations between Typical Intellectual Engagement and variables in the ability, personality, and achievement domains, and between Openness and variables in the ability, personality and achievement domains, little support for a distinction between typical intellectual engagement and openness was found. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors describe an approach to adult intellect on the basis of content, unlike the traditional approach, which is mostly based on process. Thirty-two academic knowledge scales were rated by 202 college students, who also completed ability, vocational interest, and personality scales. Analyses of knowledge clusters and individual scales were used to evaluate commonality across ability constructs (verbal and spatial ability), vocational interests (realistic, investigative, and artistic), and personality (typical intellectual engagement and openness). The results support knowledge differentiation across fluid and crystallized abilities, show a pattern of positive correlations of arts and humanities knowledge with typical intellectual engagement and openness, and show correlations between math and physical sciences knowledge and realistic and investigative interests. Implications for the study of adult intelligence are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence propounded 20 years ago by the author has since accumulated support. However, the crucial issue of whether 1 or 2 general factors subtend intellectual performances has lacked an experiment adequately designed for accurate, determinate, simple-structure rotation at the 2nd order. By factoring culturally embedded with culture-fair intelligence measures on a background of pure personality primaries (N = 277 7th and 8th grade boys and girls), it is shown that 2 general factors indeed exist. A review, with some mathematical formulations, is given of the theory's implications for the nature-nurture ratio, brain injury, standard deviaiton of the IQ, growth curves, the concept of a relational difficulty hierarchy, test standardization, and the relative validities of traditional and culture-fair intelligence tests. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two central constructs of applied psychology, motivation and cognitive ability, were integrated within an information-processing (IPR) framework. This framework simultaneously considers individual differences in cognitive abilities, self-regulatory processes of motivation, and IPR demands. Evidence for the framework is provided in the context of skill acquisition, in which IPR and ability demands change as a function of practice, training paradigm, and timing of goal setting (GS). Three field-based lab experiments were conducted with 1,010 US Air Force trainees. Exp 1 evaluated the basic ability–performance parameters of the air traffic controller task and GS effects early in practice. Exp 2 evaluated GS later in practice. Exp 3 investigated the simultaneous effects of training content, GS and ability–performance interactions. Results support the theoretical framework and have implications for notions of ability–motivation interactions and design of training and motivation programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Faith has been defined as unfounded belief in the occurrence of the improbable. This seems to describe well the adherence of P. B. Baltes and K. W. Schaie (see PA, Vol 52:5053; also Schaie—Vol 53:7133) to a claim that little or no important age-related intellectual decline occurs. In replying to criticisms of their arguments that such decline is myth, the present paper argues that Baltes and Schaie (1976) have (a) obscured the basic points at issue by raising diversionary questions about plasticity and "dialectical posture"; (b) advanced the untenable argument that the search for lawful explanation of complex phenomena is futile; (c) fallaciously argued that criticisms are suspect unless they are based on a "theory-free" inductive interpretation of findings; (d) ignored results indicating decline and positive bias in the very data cited to support their argument for the myth of intellectual decline; (e) failed to explain what is systematic about the significance of the omnibus
F test for cohort "effects," beyond what can parsimoniously be accounted for in terms of the confounded age variable; (f) not responded to reasoning suggesting that between-cohort differences in education, if these account for important intellectual variation, should be reflected in a manner contrary to what is actually observed; and (g) asserted that no statistically reliable age decrement occurs in a set of data for which analyses demonstrate statistically significant linear decline. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Data pertaining to the development of intellectual abilities in childhood and adulthood are reviewed within the framework of a general theory in which the cohesion-producing influences associated with acculturation and neurophysiology are emphasized and contrasted. First, it is noted that a striking amount of interrelationship has been found among abilities which, on the face of it, could be quite different–and when abilities are measured at quite different points in development (excluding only the first two years of life wherein the measured abilities bear little resemblance to, and are not predictive of, intellectual abilities measured in later childhood and thereafter). This broad cohesiveness is seen to represent a fact of interdependence of acculturational and neurophysiological influences–the fact that, to some extent, one determines and is determined by the other. It is noted, next, that interwoven within this broad pattern of interdependence are subpatterns of varying degrees of generality. Some of these are seen to result from relatively focused kinds of training, as this derives from selective exposures, fairly specific kinds of motivations and similar factors. Quite broad patterns are found, however, and the evidence suggests that these represent more pervasive influences in development, such as those of acculturation, as such, and those associated with neurophysiological structure, maturation and damage. Indeed, accumulations of these pervasive influences throughout development appear to produce two broad patterns of the abilities which are identified as indicating intelligence. These patterns are said to indicate two intelligences, symbolized as Gf and Gc. In later childhood and adulthood the predictive and construct validities for these two become quite distinct. The abilities of Gc tend to increase–or at least not noticably decrease–with age in adulthood, but the abilities of Gf tend to decrease consistently and to a noteworthy extent throughout most of adulthood. Evidence indicating the neurophysiological and experiential factors associated with these changes is outlined.
Chronological aging as a frame of reference for the study of developmental phenomena is widely used but not very well understood. The three dimensions of age differences, age changes, and cultural change are often confused with one another and each in turn is at times erroneously taken as an estimate of developmental change. The general developmental model defining the interrelation between these dimensions is further explicated in this chapter. Particular attention is paid to the effect of generational differences and the literature is examined for examples where differentiation of generational effects from maturational change and environmental impact may properly be attempted. At the same time, attention is given to different classes of cognitive variables (i.e., crystallized and fluid intelligence) which by virtue of their presumed environmental or biogenic mediation are helpful in understanding the relationship between generational differences and common environmental impact at specified times of measurement. Environmental impact between times of measurement is found to be of marked importance in children and in measures of fluid intelligence in adults, while generational differences appear to account for substantial portions of variance in studies of adult age changes on measures of crystallized intelligence.
Comparative factor analytic research related to the investigation of age-related changes in the pattern of intelligence is reviewed. Particular attention is paid to studies examining various forms of the differentiation hypothesis of intelligence as originally proposed by Garrett and Burt. While there appears sufficient evidence to indicate the existence of age-related changes in the factorial pattern of intelligence, the data are too contradictory to permit a clear-cut description of the nature of these changes. Attention is drawn to a number of methodological problems associated with comparative factor analytic research, and some implications for the construction of developmental curves are discussed. Finally, suggestions are made for the use of manipulative experiments in the exploration of the developmental conditions that might produce changes in the structural organization of intelligence.
Models of the structure of cognitive abilities suggested by Spearman, Thurstone, Guilford, Vernon and Cattell-Horn are reviewed. It is noted that some of the models include a general intellectual factor (g) while others do not. It is also noted that some models are nonhierarchical, while in others more narrow abilities are subsumed under broader abilities in a hierarchical pattern. An empirical study in which a test battery of 16 tests was administered to some 1000 subjects in the 6th grade is reported. Using the LISREL technique to test different models, good support is obtained for oblique primary factors in the Thurstone tradition as well as for the second-order factors fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, and general visualization hypothesized by Cattell and Horn. It is also found, however, that the second-order factor of fluid intelligence i is identical with a third-order g-factor. On the basis of these results a three-level model (the HILI-model) is suggested, with the g-factor at the top, two broad factors reflecting the ability to deal with verbal and figural information, respectively, at the second-order level, and the primary factors in the Thurstone and Guilford tradition at the lowest level. It is argued that most previously suggested models are special cases of the HILI-model.
Improved selection procedures are likely to come from better definitions of "success.".
This supplement examines the correlation of mental and physical tests. The author notes that this research is occasioned by the fact that psychologists and students of education have proposed certain tests, put them to trial and recorded their results, hoping thereby to find a means by which the fundamental elements of general and specific ability could be isolated and valued. The author found that laboratory mental tests show little intercorrelation in the case of college students; that physical tests show a general tendency to correlate among themselves but only to a very slight degree with the mental tests; and the that markings of students in college classes correlate with themselves to a considerable degree but not with the tests made in the laboratory.
The author describes his career in psychology from its beginnings in the 1920's and his increasing interest in models of personality. He was initially influenced by C. Spearman and his work on the psychological logic of factor analysis. The author's clinical work led him to reject behavior therapy and to embark on research on personality and learning. For his research to be scientific, the author recognized the need to measure attributes of personality. Various dimensions of personality were explored, and ratings were developed that eventually led to the creation of the 16PF. As work on the concepts of source traits progressed, the author and his colleagues had to integrate group behaviors into the major meaningful dimensions, as well as to incorporate knowledge about the heritability of traits. Recognizing that emotional state can affect an individual's behavior, a modualation model for states was proposed in 1963, although experimental support was not found for it until 1984. The author's evolving research methods, statistical devices, and psychometric concepts are described, as is his development of the structured learning theory, which he shaped in the form of a dynamic systems theory model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper develops a technique for isolating and studying the per- ceptual structures that chess players perceive. Three chess players of varying strength - from master to novice - were confronted with two tasks: ( 1) A perception task, where the player reproduces a chess position in plain view, and (2) de Groot's ( 1965) short-term recall task, where the player reproduces a chess position after viewing it for 5 sec. The successive glances at the position in the perceptual task and long pauses in tbe memory task were used to segment the structures in the reconstruction protocol. The size and nature of these structures were then analyzed as a function of chess skill. What does an experienced chess player "see" when he looks at a chess position? By analyzing an expert player's eye movements, it has been shown that, among other things, he is looking at how pieces attack and defend each other (Simon & Barenfeld, 1969). But we know from other considerations that he is seeing much more. Our work is concerned with just what ahe expert chess pIayer perceives.
This chapter describes the psychological and philosophical aspects of the problem of knowing. Theories of knowledge are a major concern of epistemology, and, as such, they represent one of the cornerstones of philosophy. However, no existing theory is capable of accommodating all knowledge claims; it is also not possible to placate proponents of alternative theoretical positions. In short, detailed analysis of epistemic issues per se is properly left to the philosophers. However, as the topic is knowing, it is clear that the psychologist, despite his disclaimer as philosopher, cannot continue to get away with his usual gambit, namely, psychologism, or regarding cognition as synonymous with knowing. A theory of knowledge demands that something be said about knowability in addition to the knower. The term knowability means the grounds or criterion for a truth claim, that is, the issue of epistemic justifiability.
Although recent research indicates that children have better comprehension when they read material on topics which are highly interesting to them, the cause of this interest effect is unclear. The issue is whether or not the apparent impact of topic interest on reading comprehension is in reality a result of the fact that people tend to have more prior knowledge about topics in which they are especially interested. The purpose of this study was to separate the effects of prior knowledge and topic interest on reading comprehension. Subjects were 41 high-achieving seventh- and eighth-grade students who completed a 10-item interest inventory and took a 100-item prior knowledge test. Based on these measures, each subject read passages and took multiple-choice comprehension tests for which they had various combinations of high and low prior knowledge and topic interest. There were significant main effects for both prior knowledge and topic interest, p
Factor analyses have been computed in samples of white male and female and black male and fe male students for the same 16 cognitive variables at grade levels 5, 7, 9, and 11. Samples for each of the four independent groups remained constant at the four grade levels. The latent roots as analyzed in three ways show a clear but small increase in the number of common factors during this time period, particularly for the white groups. Rotated factor loadings also support the differentiation hypothesis. For the white males, who showed the clearest evi dence for differentiation of abilities, rotated load ings provide descriptions of the emerging factors. Although the evidence for differentiation is less clear in white females, the emerging factors appear to become identical by the 11th grade. Data for black males and females, which are based on small er Ns, are more ambiguous.
This article is continued from an article in the January issue (see record
1926-10117-008). It summarizes the results of a survey distributed to American universities on their use of intelligence tests. Each survey question is discussed individually. The growth of the use of intelligence tests has been steady and continuous since the war. Sixty-six out of 110 colleges sent the national questionnaire gave tests in 1923-24. Tests are primarily a pedagogical and administrative device, and in comparison are little used for entrance purposes. Sectioning students into classes of differing brightness has been slow in getting under way. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses nature and measurement of intelligence. Any test which requires mental processes, be they either on the sensory-motor level or on higher levels, which measures the sensitiveness, responsiveness, and retentiveness of the nervous system, is a test of intellectual capacity. It is only because of the absence of an absolute standard of reference, the inability to discount the effect of past experiences, and the narrow conception of the meaning of intelligence, that the tests of higher mental processes appear to be better measures of intellect, and not because they involve intellectual capacity any more evidently. The essential thing in a test of pure intellect is to secure such novelty as to reduce inequality in opportunity and training to a minimum, and such complexity as to reveal differences clearly and unambiguously. It is not a matter of the kind of mental process involved primarily. A properly constituted test of intellect ought, therefore, to take a wide sampling of so-called lower as well as higher processes and the relative weights to be assigned to each element determined. The tests must be extended to measure the capacity to learn in other directions than the ability to use words, signs, and symbols. Besides the need for critical evaluation, standardization and interpretation of tests of abstract intellect stands the need for tests of ability to manipulate things and the ability to deal with men, leadership and adaptability in social relationships to complete the so-called intellect profile. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
presents a framework of abilities that is important for learning, both for learning in specific domains and for knowledge acquisition and retention over the course of adult development and aging (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The aim of this paper is to summarize a considerable portion of the work that has been done in administering intelligence tests to college students. The material at my command is doubtless not exhaustive, but it is sufficiently complete to indicate the general situation in this field of intelligence testing. For convenience I have cast certain portions of this summary into semi-tabular form. The table contains first of all, a list of the 29 institutions reported upon. This list begins with Brown University and concludes with Yale. It includes both private institutions, like Brown, Dartmouth, and Harvard, and state universities, like Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Ohio, and Nebraska. It includes small institutions, like Clark, Hamline, and Reed, and large institutions like Chicago, Columbia, Harvard, and Michigan. It includes men's colleges, like Dartmouth, women's colleges, like Goucher, Sophie Newcomb, Wellesley, and Vassar, and co-educational institutions, like the majority of the list. On all these counts and in geographical distribution as well, the list may be regarded as sufficiently representative of the colleges of the United States, even if there have been important omissions. In the second column there appear the names of the tests that have been used (mostly prior to 1921) in these institutions. The reader will note in general two types of test; first what are known as tests of general intelligence (illustrated by the Army Alpha test and the Thorndike test), and second; what may be termed tests of special aspects of intelligence (illustrated by these that appear, for instance, for the University of Chicago--number checking, constant increment, directions, etc., or for the University of Iowa or the long list for Harvard). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
in recent years, there have been two fundamental and active debates regarding the nature of adult intellectual development / the first debate concerns changes in levels of intelligence with age / the second concerns changes in the nature of intelligence with age
the major claim of this chapter is that neither of these debates has been entirely well-conceived / chronological age may not be an ideal variable to index changes in levels of intelligence and changes in the nature of intelligence (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The concept of intelligence includes several factors. The cognitive ability such as abstract reasoning, verbal, spatial, numerical and other specific factors. The conative functions like drive, persistence, will, and/or some aspects of temperament. The non-intellective factors which include capacities and traits which are really factors of the personality per se. The discrepancy today lies in the fact that the clinical psychologist purports to measure mental abilities by psychometric tests; however, in his interpretation of the IQ or MA wide social, psychological and biological interpretations are made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
the purpose of the present chapter is to review some recent work in the study of everyday intelligence and cognition in adulthood and old age / as is the case for other domains of psychological inquiry, researchers have adopted both implicit and explicit approaches in the study of everyday intelligence
recent work on everyday cognitive abilities in adults and the elderly is reviewed / there has been a recurrent concern that traditional paradigms for assessing intellectual abilities are insensitive to cognitive skills adults use in adapting to the demands of everyday life / examine how this concern has been paralleled by recent studies of people's implicit theories of intelligence
research on adults' self-conceptions of intelligence and conceptions of ability tests is discussed
two tasks recently developed to assess adults' strategic knowledge about solutions to problems in everyday and stressful situations are described / results show differences and similarities between performance on everyday and traditional ability tests and suggest the potential for growth in everyday cognitive abilities during adulthood (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
intent of this chapter is to propose a description of adult cognitive development that gives emphasis to the emergence of and increased differentiation of domain-ordered knowledge specializations (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)