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Tourism, job vulnerability and income inequality during the COVID-19 pandemic
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated the vulnerability of tourism workers, but no detailed job loss figures are available that links tourism vulnerability with income inequality. This study evaluates how reduced international tourism consumption affects tourism employment and their income loss potential for 132 countries. This analysis shows that higher proportions of female (9.6%) and youth (10.1%) experienced unemployment whilst they were paid significantly less because they worked in tourism (−5%) and if they were women (−23%). Variations in policy support and pre-existing economic condition further created significant disparities on lost-income subsidies across countries. With the unequal financial burden across groups, income and regions, the collapse of international travel exacerbates short-term income inequality within and between countries.
... Therefore, it is essential to acknowledge that tourism is a labour-intensive activity that provides many jobs for skilled and unskilled workers, as well as for people who encounter/face difficulties in finding a job (Sun et al., 2022). The study by Sun et al. (2022) examines how the decline in international tourism consumption affects tourism employment and the potential for income loss. ...
... Therefore, it is essential to acknowledge that tourism is a labour-intensive activity that provides many jobs for skilled and unskilled workers, as well as for people who encounter/face difficulties in finding a job (Sun et al., 2022). The study by Sun et al. (2022) examines how the decline in international tourism consumption affects tourism employment and the potential for income loss. ...
... These individuals harness their skills, knowledge, and resources to establish new businesses, demonstrating innovation and initiative akin to their male counterparts (Gërguri-Rashiti & Rotabi, 2021). This aligns with Sun et al. (2022)'s results, emphasizing their role as instrumental agents of economic and social advancement. The contributions of women entrepreneurs span diverse sectors, encompassing poverty alleviation, education, and human development, particularly in less industrialized nations (Ranabahu & Tanima, 2022). ...
... In the tourism sector, untrained women often find themselves in lower positions with lower salaries compared to their male counterparts (Sun et al., 2022). The presence of financial skills and external support highlights the connection between entrepreneurship, gender, and disadvantage. ...
... Consequently, significant job losses were reported in the tourism sector. [26] estimated that due to a US$ 1.58 trillion loss in tourism revenues in 2020 across 132 countries, around 24 million direct tourism jobs were at risk. Given that the poverty alleviating role of tourism is mainly a result of job creation in the sector, poverty in countries with a large tourism sector likely increased substantially compared to other countries. ...
... Similarly, for the case of Indonesia, [28]highlight that poverty levels increased more for destinations/regions with international tourist attractions compared to destinations/regions that are not dependent on tourism. Similar findings were reported by [26], indicating that tourism-dependent countries were exposed to substantially more job losses. In addition, workers dependent on the tourism sector became poorer vis-à-vis non-tourism workers within and across countries. ...
The COVID-19 outbreak has had a catastrophic effect on the tourism sector and poverty alleviation efforts. This is especially the case, given the crucial role the tourism sector plays in poverty alleviation and the generation of foreign exchange earnings. This study investigates the moderating influence of extreme poverty on the underlying link between the size of the tourism industry and COVID-19 Economic Stimulus Packages (ESPs) while accounting for the influence of external debt. The results show that tourism-dependent economies with a larger share of individuals living in extreme poverty introduced larger ESPs to cushion the impacts of the COVID-19 outbreak. In addition, economies with larger external debt have less fiscal and monetary leeway to alleviate the negative effects of the COVID-19 outbreak.
... As one of the fastest growing, most diversified and largest industries in the world [1], tourism is the main source of income and employment opportunities for many countries in the world, promoting the development of local social productivity [2,3]. Climatic conditions are one of the main natural factors affecting tourism [4][5][6] The majority of outdoor tourism programs depend on pleasant and attractive climates [7]. ...
... Local tourists : TSV = 0.072PET − 1.315 R 2 = 0.920 (2) Non − local tourists : ...
The unique climate and the landscape of severely cold regions in winter attract many tourists. The outdoor thermal environment affects the space use and the tourist experience, becoming one of the key factors in the design of tourist attractions. The outdoor thermal comfort of tourists from different regions should be considered, but it has been poorly studied in winter in severely cold regions. This paper explores the differences in outdoor thermal comfort in winter between local and non-local tourists through the field measurement of the thermal environment and a questionnaire survey of thermal comfort at tourist attractions in Harbin, China. The results show that the proportion of local tourists who expect the air temperature and solar radiation to rise in winter is higher than that of non-local tourists. The thermal sensation vote of local tourists is generally higher than that of non-local tourists. When the Physiologically Equivalent Temperature (PET) < −6 °C, the thermal satisfaction of non-local tourists is higher than that of local tourists. When the PET value is −10 °C, the thermal comfort of non-local tourists is the highest. The thermal comfort decreases with the rise or fall of the PET value. When −28 °C < PET < −7 °C, the thermal comfort of non-local tourists is generally higher than that of local tourists. This paper provides a reference and evaluation basis for urban tourist attractions’ outdoor thermal environment design in severely cold regions.
... Many activities related to tourism need physical proximity and prevent the whole tourism experience from being done from home (Mongey and Weinberg, 2020;ILO, 2020). Sun et al. (2022) link the vulnerability of tourism employment with the exposure, risk, and coping capacities that characterize the sector and its relationship with the possibility of teleworking. The exposure factor refers to the physical proximity requirement mentioned above, the risk factor relates to job insecurity which is one of the crucial characteristics in our analysis, and coping capacities refer to the individual possibilities of locating in new positions. ...
... The results for the subsectors are presented in Fig. 8. Surprisingly, we find that teleworking potential had a positive effect on employment in the tourism subsectors (other services such as sports, cultural, and entertainment services activities) only for informal workers (Fig. 8A). The scarce literature focusing on the vulnerability of tourism employmentwhich considers job insecurity and individual characteristics and possibilities to locate in new positions-shows opposite results (Sun et al., 2022). The same occurs in the subsectors of construction, trade, transport, and communication (Fig. 8B), and industry (Fig. 8C). ...
We analyze the viability of teleworking in the tourism sector in Argentina by using the COVID-19 shock on employment as a case study. We pay special attention to the tourism sector and its sub-sectors because they comprise activities with low teleworking potential and high informality rates, which could further condition the effective implementation of new work arrangements, such as remote work. By using estimates of teleworking potential at the sectoral level, we study its relationship with the evolution of employment during the quarantines implemented in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic in Argentina. We find a positive effect of teleworking potential on employment in the tourism subsectors, such as food and accommodation and travel agencies activities, but more pronounced in the other services subsectors (sports, cultural, and entertainment service activities). This suggests that, despite having a low telework potential, certain tourism activities could be performed remotely. Surprisingly, we find that teleworking potential had a positive effect on employment in some tourism subsectors only for informal workers.
... Most experts (Bakar and Rosbi 2020, 189; Baum and Hai 2020, 2397) expect the pre-pandemic levels of 2019 to be reached no sooner than in 2023. Researchers also note (Sun et al. 2022) that some areas of the world's tourism sector will fall into a crisis. ...
... 2. The speed of adaptation: all levels of the leadership of Kazakhstan, as well as the private sector involved in the tourism industry, need to be ready and able to quickly respond and adapt to potential crises. This necessitates more robust risk assessments and crisis response mechanisms, as well as better coordination at the local, national, and international levels (Sun et al. 2022). For this purpose, for those regions of Kazakhstan that are attractive for domestic tourism, options for regional strategies to promote tourism and recreation in times of crisis need to be developed in advance. ...
The recent decades demonstrate that tourism is one of the sectors that develop the most consistently and form the backbone of the economies of many developed and developing countries. In this context, one of the main problems hindering the promotion of tourism services is the relatively high probability of force majeure situations. Whereas forced flight cancellations, floods, or hurricanes are local events, the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic have taken their toll on the entire tourism sector. Today, the tourism sector is one of the most affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. This may provoke further regression given the weak global economy, geopolitical, social, and trade tensions, and uneven performance among major outbound travel markets. At the same time, over many years, tourism has been consistently proving its resilience and ability not only to recover from economic crises but also to contribute to a broader economic and social recovery. The goal of the present study is to develop proposals for the introduction of financial and administrative measures for the development of the tourism industry in the post-pandemic period. Data for the study are collected by means of document analysis and an expert survey. The study concludes that in order to overcome the adverse economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic in the sphere of tourism, a number of financial and administrative measures need to be developed and implemented at the level of state and local government institutions, particularly in Kazakhstan, to support the development of the tourism sector and stimulate the activities of tourism enterprise. For their part, the authors propose the key measures that should improve the financial sustainability and organization of the tourism sector in Kazakhstan.
... [9,10] Decreased affordability of patients due to job losses, along with travel restrictions due to new variants emerging in COVID-19, still made it more difficult for the transportation of samples and patients to higher referral laboratories where NAAT was available. [11] Few studies are available in our country suggesting the use of rapid techniques, which can aid in diagnosing GUD, as most of the samples from suspected cases are sent to referral labs for PCR or diagnosed clinically and treated empirically. Thus, there is a need to know about simple techniques which can aid clinicians in prompt diagnosis and help switch precise therapy in patients with GUD. ...
A BSTRACT
Background
Genital ulcer disease (GUD) is regarded as the most difficult conundrum for clinicians, as valid and rapid methods to diagnose them are limited, especially in India. The sexual behavior of an individual plays a role in the causation of GUD, and it depends on psychological, behavioral, and social well-being, which was significantly affected during the COVID-19 pandemic. Hence, the present study was undertaken to determine the etiology of genital ulcers by using simple, rapid microbiological methods and to study various factors associated with them.
Materials and Methods
Various rapid tests like staining (Giemsa, Gram, and Diff Quick) and serology for antibody detection were used to diagnose agents causing genital ulcers among 71 suspected patients during the study period of 1 year. After due informed consent, sociodemographic and behavioral factors were recorded in proforma and analyzed.
Results
Rapid tests could aid in diagnosing 47.9% of cases of GUD. Turnaround time was less than 60 minutes for all tests carried out. Genital herpes was the most common GUD followed by syphilis. Male gender (74.6%), age group of more than 34 years old (62%), literate (71.8%), and earning (70.4%) constituted most of the population presenting with GUD. Behavioral factors like promiscuity with a known person (83.1%) had a significant association (P 0.04) with GUD.
Conclusion
Rapid diagnostic tests could assist in the early treatment of GUD cases. Factors like literacy, financial independence, and promiscuity with known individuals were associated with GUD in our study during the COVID-19 pandemic.
... The tourism sector is a unique sector compared to other service sectors, where women and young workers who work in this sector are at risk of becoming unemployed if a shock occurs, in case of Covid-19 pandemic (Sun et al., 2022;Sun et al., 2021). Therefore, during a pandemic, an indepth study is needed regarding the relationship between job threats in the tourism sector and employment opportunities. ...
Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) are the most important pillars of Indonesia’s economy. It has considerable contribution in providing employment in the informal sector. However, the high absorption of labor accompanied by the increased number in MSMEs in Indonesia cannot be separated from the existing challenges. This study aims to analyze the determinants of employment in the Micro and Small Enterprises sector (MSEs). MSEs actors in the tourism village area, Patuk sub-district, Gunungkidul, Yogyakarta. This research is focused on the role of the type of business and the status of the tourism village. The analytical tool used is the robust ordinary Least Square (OLS) method. The results showed that turnover and length of business had a real impact on increasing the absorption of MSEs workers according to the type of business and the status of the tourism village. Other findings show that Micro and Small handicraft businesses showed the highest employment absorption in tourism village with developed status, followed by businesses in the service, processed food, and trade sectors. The same results are also shown in the status of developing tourist villages. The potential of tourist villages with the advantages of the business sector has a real impact on increasing employment. Therefore, policymakers need to formulate strategies for the development of tourist villages to improve the welfare of local communities.
... In particular, UNESCO recognises that transferable skills play a crucial role in achieving SDG 4, which focuses on ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all. Around the world, finding a job is much tougher for women than it is for men (Sun et al., 2022). When women are employed, they tend to work in low-quality jobs in vulnerable conditions, and there is little improvement forecast in the near future (Markose et al., 2023). ...
The transition of women from tertiary education to gainful employment has remained low, despite efforts put in place to enhance this. This review paper is the outcome of a synthesis of the literature on transferable skills for women and girls to enhance their skills development and employability through evidence-based gender responsive policies. The study was based on an integrative review of literature on the nature of transferable skills in Kenya and their influence on employability of girls and women. To appropriately contextualise the problem, researchers sought to understand the nature of transferable skills. The literature search was conducted using several databases for literature published in the last 5-8 years. Using keywords such as transferable skills, employability, women, the initial search revealed over 150 references. A total of 58 sources were included in the review. The paper provides a typology of transferable skills that can enhance women’s empowerment, as to what the literature suggests, and also based on the Basic Employability Skills Training (BEST) model used by CAP YEI in Kenya. The study was guided by the question: What is the nature of transferable skills provided in Kenya and what is already available in the literature? The findings reveal that practitioners’ and researchers’ conceptualisation of transferable skills varied across a narrow spectrum. These skills are typified as managerial, entrepreneurial, psycho-social, soft skills, life skills and 21st century competencies. These skills are essential for empowering youth to improve their employability in labour markets, especially in an African setting.
... The findings confirm both favorable and unfavorable effects on the Australian labor market; however, they highlight that despite substantial negative media coverage of the impacts of the pandemic on the hospitality and tourism sectors (Chen et al., 2023), that tourism and hospitality graduates from VET programs were more likely to find employment during this time than other graduates. In this way, we extend the growing literature on tourism education (Zhang & Tong, 2023) and employment during COVID-19 (Baum & Hai, 2020;Sun et al., 2022), providing a nuanced view that highlights positive aspects in terms of sectoral job availability and opportunity once COVID-19 restrictions were lightened or lifted as many short-term visa holders would otherwise have been working in tourism and hospitality (United Workers Union, 2020) but had left the country by this time. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted employment, education, and the vocational education and training (VET) sector across the worldwide economy. This study examines the impact of the pandemic on VET enrollment figures and employment outcomes for graduates in the travel and tourism industry in Australia using data from the Student Outcome Surveys conducted from 2018 to 2021. We seek to determine if the pandemic had a negative impact on enrollment and post-VET employ ment outcomes in the tourism and hospitality sector. The findings suggest that employment out comes after training, tourism and hospitality graduates experienced a transitory decline in job prospects particularly during 2020 but recovered substantially during 2021. In the case of hospitality graduates, the probability of employment in 2021 exceeded pre-pandemic levels. We conclude that the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on VET enrollments and employment outcomes in the tourism and hospitality sector have been less devastating than public perception would suggest.
... The pandemic has turned into biggest fear for the world since it has turned the world into a whole messed especially the tourism sector. Based The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) in 2022, we lost approximately 1.58 trillion US Dollars across 132 countries in the world (Sun, Li, Lenzen, Malik, & Pomponi, 2022) The The contribution of North Sulawesi in Indonesia's GDP number was raising from the rank 9 th in 2014 with 2,14% to the 8 th in 2018 with 2,32% of contribution as shown in table 2 (BPS, 2019). This province also can be considered as the developing tourism area and might grow more than the number it was holding onto. ...
Extreme gastronomy tourism can usually be defined in many ways, be it because of the cooking methods or the interesting ingredients. Some countries like China and Thailand have unique gastronomy, and so does the city of Tomohon in Indonesia. In fact, it has turned into one of the world’s threads since the extreme ingredients were part of the pandemic’ causes. Not to mention, most of them are taken from the wildlife where we can not predict whether they have been vaccinated or not yet. This trouble will eventually cause the countries all over the world would start another lockdown which will also affect the tourism due to lack of mobility, on the other hand tourism has turned into one of the factors on why the world’s increased recently. In short, it can be concluded that the impact of pandemic can stop the tourism activity and affecting on a country’s economy too. This journal is reviewing journals literature where were taken from Google Scholar, Nature and Pubmed. Pandemic mostly happened due to the dissemination of virus in many ways which are direct contact or indirect contact. In fact, most of them are caused by food and spread through the physical touch and fluids, in addition the longer the chain of the virus will cause more toxicity to the other host. And the worst the diseases, the later will it resolves and causing an economic instability. It will eventually impact the economy flow and stability.
... However, given that only 1.0% of women in Victoria who gave birth in 2020 were under 20 years old [34], this is unlikely to account for the higher rates observed in younger women. Sex differences in help-seeking behaviour [35] and higher job-losses in female dominated industries [36] may be more important contributing factors. Similarly, the increase in presentations by young adults (18-24 years) suggests that lockdowns in Victoria were particularly difficult for younger people, who may have been especially vulnerable to restrictions on social gatherings and hospitality, retail, and tourism businesses. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic and associated public health measures altered patterns of help-seeking for mental health, with increases in emergency department utilisation reported. We examined the association between COVID-19 restrictions and adult emergency department (ED) mental health presentations in Victoria, Australia, through secondary analysis of data from 39 public EDs across the state. Participants were all patients (18+ years) presenting between 1 January 2018 and 31 October 2020 with mental health or intentional self-harm. The main outcome was number of presentations for each mental health condition, by patient age, socioeconomic status (SES), location, and ED triage category. We used a Poisson regression model to compare predicted monthly ED presentations based on trends from 2018, 2019 and 2020 (up to 31 March), with observed presentations during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic (1 April to 31 October 2020). There was an average of 4,967 adult mental health presentations per month pre-COVID-19 (1 January–31 March 2020) and 5,054 per month during the COVID-19 period (1 April–31 October 2020). Compared to predicted incidence, eating disorder presentations increased 24.0% in the COVID-19 period, primarily among higher SES females aged 18–24 years. Developmental/behavioural disorder presentations decreased by 19.7% for all age groups. Pandemic restrictions were associated with overall increases in monthly adult ED presentations for mental health, with some disorders increasing and others decreasing. Accessibility of acute mental health services needs to be addressed to meet changing demand and ensure services are responsive to changes in presentations resulting from future public health challenges.
... The tourism industry is widely acknowledged as a crucial driver of economic growth, and many countries have developed tourism as a critical industry and an essential source of revenue [2]. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2022) and World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC, 2022) report that the tourism sector generated approximately 11% of the global gross domestic product [3]. ...
Purpose: This study aims to investigate the correlation analysis between the aviation industry and the exchange rate of South Korea and the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic Era by applying the Vector Autoregression (VAR) model. Theoretical Framework: Research examined the correlation between the aviation industry and exchange rates in South Korea and the UK. Vector Autoregression (VAR) model was developed and daily data from January 01, 2020, to July 05, 2023, were collected from the official website for the research. Design/Methodology/Approach: The paper analyzes relationships among time-series variables using the VAR model. This analysis consisted of four steps, step 1, collecting data; step 2, data preprocessing; step 3, developing VAR model; and step 4, investigation. Findings: The analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between exchange rate fluctuations and the Korean aviation industry. In contrast, the UK aviation industry exhibited a significant negative correlation with exchange rate fluctuations. Research, Practical & Social Implications: This study contributes to existing literature on tourism and exchange rates during the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasizing the need for comparative analysis. According to the results, this study suggests Airlines can partner with financial institutions to offer financial products for passengers to book at desirable rates. Originality/Value: This paper successfully filled in the gaps in the research by providing a scientific and critical investigation of correlation analysis between the aviation industry and the exchange rate of South Korea and the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic Era.
... Accordingly, the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly reduced the number of tourists and the output value of the tourism industry and related industrial chains. Moreover, it also significantly decreased the ability to absorb employment and severely impacted the development of the tertiary industry and the job market in many countries, especially those that rely on tourism income (34)(35)(36). Of course, COVID-19 has also accelerated the adjustment of the tourism industry and the market competition pattern, such as digital tourism, innovation in tourism products, and the improvement of tourism services. ...
Objective
COVID-19 has negatively influenced industrial development, family consumption, and residents’ mental health. Unfortunately, it has not yet been studied whether this adverse situation can be alleviated after the relaxation of the COVID-19 control policy (RCC). Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the effect of the RCC on the resident’s mental health and the mediating effect of family tourism consumption.
Methods
By using the PSM and mediating effetc model to research the panel data of two periods (April 2021 and April 2023) for Shaanxi province, China.
Results
The RCC negatively inhibited the mental health severity of residents, and the mental health severity decreased by 0.602. In particular, the RCC showed the most substantial negative effect on residents’ stress, followed by anxiety and depression. Meanwhile, it is found that the impact of the RCC on the mental health of residents is highly heterogeneous. The RCC indicates a linear significant effect on the mental health of residents under 60 years of age, while the results were found insignificant for residents above 60 years of age. Meanwhile, the RCC’s improvement effect on urban residents’ mental health is greater than that of rural residents. In addition, mechanism analysis showed that tourism consumption plays a mediating role in the influence of the RCC on the mental health of residents, and the mediating effect accounted for 24.58% of the total effect.
Conclusion
Based on the findings, the study proposes that government and policymakers should strengthen mental health intervention, improve access to mental health counseling, stimulate economic development, expand the employment of residents, and track the mutation of the novel coronavirus.
... The tourism sector was also severely impacted by the pandemic. Specifically, tourism employees, especially women and young adults, evidenced income decrease or unemployment, with previous economic and social conditions playing a role in this effect [46]. Numerous tourism employees in China faced increasing stress due to unemployment, decreased labor hours, and employment unreliability. ...
In the 21st century, prior to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, numerous transformations were already underway in the field of employment. However, this unprecedented global health crisis has had a profound influence on employment worldwide, yielding both positive and negative outcomes across various labor aspects. Consequently, while certain effects are anticipated to be temporary, others are likely to instigate enduring changes in employment practices.
... COVID-19 struck the global tourism sector for over three years, and many tourism organisations had to reduce their staff to survive (Sun et al., 2022). There is a growing body of literature that recognises the importance of building resilience at different levels from the tourism sector , through to tourism organisations (Kuščer et al., 2022) and finally tourism employees (Božović et al., 2021;Li et al., 2022). ...
Until the COVID-19 pandemic, the volunteer tourism sector had experienced sustained growth around the world,
including in China where a dynamic volunteer tourism sector has emerged over the last decade. When analysing
this sector through a future-focused, post-pandemic lens, it is important to pay attention to the resilience building
of volunteer tourism staff to better respond to the recovery and restart stage of volunteer tourism. This reflects
the pivotal role that sending organisations and their staff play in maximising good practice during volunteer
tourists’ selection, pre-departure preparation, orientation, and post-trip evaluation. Drawing on role identity
theory, this paper explores how volunteer tourism staff in Chinese sending organisations perceive their role
identities. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 current and former Chinese volunteer tourist staff.
The transcribed interviews were analysed through thematic template analysis. Results show that there are both
conventional and idiosyncratic dimensions of Chinese volunteer tourism staff’s role identity, and the 17 identified
roles were grouped into four overarching roles, professional, supporter, influencer, and self-actualiser.
Comprehending the role identity of volunteer tourism staff is crucial for shaping a robust career belief, as
well as enhancing staff recruitment, training, and retention. This, in turn, can boost staff resilience in the
volunteer tourism sector post-pandemic.
... Ironically, the existence of rural tourism in times of tense situations, such as unforeseen events, causes the loss of livelihoods for the people around the tourist villages (Priyanto et al., 2020;I. Singh et al., 2020;Sun et al., 2022). As a result, this worsens the resilience of rural communities and their groups to survive shocks; besides, there is a need for resources to maintain the sustainability of rural tourism. ...
This article examines recovery strategies in post-COVID-19 tourism villages in Bantul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, utilising a rural tourism resilience approach involving multi-stakeholder participation. This qualitative study collected data through interviews, literature, social media, and local news online observations. The data obtained were then analysed with the help of a code from NVivo 12 Plus to visualise the multi-stakeholder network in the five tourism village recovery strategies through the sociogram network, group queries, and concept mapping queries. The results of this study reveal the following: First, the five tourist villages have different ways of getting back on their feet and getting more substantial for a massive recovery. Second, all government levels strongly support accelerating the five tourist villages' recovery via various media promotions of the four (Tembi, Kakilangit, Kebonagung, and Kampung Santan), except for Lopati's tourism village destinations. In addition, the two villages, in terms of the resilience of social networks, mostly need support in increasing institutional capacity (Kampung Santan and Lopati), fostering collaboration, and requiring creativity. Therefore, post-COVID, mechanisms for development and new ideas in two tourist villages (Lopati and Kampung Santan) were relatively noticeable. Some tourism villages still need leaders for programmes and activities. Further, the government's persistence in popularising tourist villages requires further improvement through media promotion, tourism awareness groups, and participation in the tertiary sector.
... They looked at the potential impact of decreasing global tourist consumption on 132 nations' employment in the tourism sector and prospective income loss. [6]. ...
The sudden beginning of COVID-19 pandemic of 2019 has had an extraordinary influence on the world's tourist economy, especially for some developing countries, as those countries rely on tourism to gain a large amount of their national income. Many scholars believed that this severe pandemic made the tourism stock market more volatile, and a significant decrease in tourism stock prices could always be found. This Paper looks at how the COVID-19 epidemic has affected the tourist stock market in some developing countries. Tourism stocks in China, India, and Thailand will be three examples of countries to discuss in this paper. In the research of this paper, it is observed that COVID-19 negatively affects the tourism stock prices in the market.
... Studies illustrate that women around the world have suffered particular hardship in relation to work in the tourism sector (Claudio-Quiroga et al., 2022;Sun et al., 2022). The shock of the pandemic has made tourism activities much more challenging, but some women in our study are responding by trying to develop new markets or improve their own skills to enable them to set up a tourism business in the future. ...
Globally, the tourism industry has been devastated by the COVID-19 pandemic and associated changes in international travel. This paper draws on interviews with 51 women working in the tourism sector in Tanzania and examines gendered impacts of the pandemic on their welfare, which instigated or accelerated entrepreneurial activities as an attempt to protect women’s incomes and security. Women in the study adopted one of three entrepreneurial strategies: they (re)committed to the tourism industry, working on developing their own skills and business ideas; they diversified their business interests to have a ‘Plan B’ in addition to tourism to safeguard against future crises; or they moved away from tourism altogether, focusing instead on other less volatile sectors. The crisis caused by the pandemic exposed tourism as a risky business and a gamble for many women, who are considering leaving the sector. This represents a significant obstacle for the tourism industry’s recovery and sustainability and illustrates some of the limitations of tourism entrepreneurship for supporting and empowering women in the Global South. Priority policy areas for supporting women to remain within tourism are identified to help support women entrepreneurs and ensure their skills and enthusiasm contribute to rebuilding and reshaping the sector.
... With a million hotel rooms across the globe, the International hotel company Hilton demonstrated supremacy in the hotel industry (Statista Research Service, 2022). Jobs in tourism can be recouped by developing IT skills, strengthening creative capacity and enhancing software, and developing networking capabilities regardless of the number of hours spent overtime, knowing that tourism is the never-sleeping sector (Sun et al., 2022). Hilton Worldwide Holdings Inc., the global hotel company, has made about 5.79 billion U.S. dollars in revenue in 2021, up from the preceding year's total revenue of 4.31 billion. ...
Tourism has been severely and directly affected by the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic, as the economic contribution of tourism in 2021 was US$1.9 trillion, below the pre-pandemic value of US$ 3.5 trillion in 2019. The tourism management was confronted with the restriction of the activities carried out, the dismissal of the staff, the impossibility of paying the taxes, the stagnation of the planned events. Innovative solutions had to sprout in the minds of managers through new and thriving strategies. This paper explores the management strategies introduced by major hotel chains to revitalize and relaunch their business. The results show an involvement of managers to increase guest loyalty, to provide excellence in services, and to create memorable experiences for guests. Also, new concepts, such as workcation, staycation, revenge travel have taken shape in managerial tourism strategies.
... These impacts have especially affected both urban and rural areas where the economy is primarily driven by tourism-for example, Zanzibar or Moshi in the Kilimanjaro area-when compared to places that can also rely on other sources of income and economic sectors. In this context, the most vulnerable communities and individuals, including women, youth, and people working precarious or informal jobs without access to social security benefits or governmental support (such as cooks, guides, porters, and food vendors), have been the most severely affected [75][76][77]. ...
Tourism strategies implemented all over the world have often been demonstrably far from sustainable. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and its dramatic effects on the tourism sector worldwide present a unique transformative opportunity to reframe tourism in more sustainable ways. This article uses qualitative research methods and ethnography to advance knowledge on the impacts, both positive and negative, of the COVID-19 pandemic on tourism and heritage sites, as perceived by local stakeholders living and/or working at six popular heritage destinations in Sub-Saharan Africa, located in Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa. The article discusses ways to rethink heritage-based tourism strategies more sustainably, according to the viewpoint of the research participants, and identifies new emerging tourism opportunities triggered by the pandemic, cutting across different local contexts to highlight more widely generalisable research findings. Identified strategies include diversifying tourism products at heritage sites; improving tourism marketing, visitors’ experience, and infrastructures; fostering more inclusive, co-operative, and integrated tourism and heritage management systems; increasing awareness of local resources while promoting ecotourism and responsible travel; and supporting economic diversification and local entrepreneurship.
... Эдгээр хүчин зүйлийн улмаас аялал жуулчлал, зочлох үйлчилгээний салбарын ажилчид нь стресс ихтэй, түгшүүртэй, ирээдүй тодорхойгүй байдалд ажиллаж, бэрхшээлийг даван туулах шаардлагатай болоод байна (Hartman, Nickerson, 2020). Зураг 1. А. 2020 оны АЖ-ын салбарт ажлын байраа алдсан байдал Б. 2020 оны АЖ-ын салбарын ажлын байрны бууралтын хувь (Sun et al., 2022) Аялал жуулчлал, зочлох үйлчилгээний салбарын ажилчдын ажлын байрны стресстэй холбоотой судалгаа өмнө нь хийгдэж байсан ч ажилчдын сэтгэл ханамж, ажлын гүйцэтгэл зэрэгтэй уялдуулан судалсан судалгаа ховор байдаг (Алтанчимэг нар., 2022). Ялангуяа Ковид-19 цар тахлын үеийн ажлын байран дахь стрессийг судлах нь чухал бөгөөд энэ төрлийн судалгаа өмнө нь олон улсын түвшинд эрүүл мэндийн байгууллагуудад хийгдсэн байдаг (Santarone et al., 2020). ...
This research examines how COVID-19 induced stress affects organizational trust, job satisfaction, self-esteem, and commitment in tourism and hospitality organizations in Ulaanbaatar, the capital city of Mongolia. A total of 140 tourism affiliated employees in Ulaanbaatar participated in a paper-based questionnaire. Using linear regression analysis, the proposed conceptual model reveals that the employees working in the tourism and hospitality industries were stressed during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, COVID-19-induced stress is not negatively related to organizational trust, job satisfaction, and self-esteem. The findings suggest that organizational trust, job satisfaction, and self-esteem positively affect organizational commitment. The study has significant implications for tourism and hospitality organizations to determine challenges for the workforce after the COVID-19 pandemic. Relevant recommendations are suggested to effectively manage them during the unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic.
... Some authors have indicated an opportunity to develop new proposals for more sustainable tourism (Gómez, 2021). The pandemic has caused a massive loss in tourism employment in a generalized way (Sun et al., 2022) that is more pronounced in the low-level social sectors, further widening the social and economic gaps in the city. ...
The spatial distribution of the COVID-19 infection rate in the city of Palma (Balearic Islands)is analyzed from the geolocation of positive cases by census tract and its relationship with socioeconomicvariables is evaluated. Data on infections have been provided by the Health Service of the Ministry of Healthand Consumption of the Government of the Balearic Islands. The study combines several methods of analysis:spatial autocorrelation, calculation of the Gini index and least squares regression, and weighted geographicalregression. The results show that the pandemic comprised five waves in the March 2020–March 2022 period,corresponding to the months of April 2020, August 2020, December 2020, July 2021, and January 2022. Eachwave shows a particular geographical distribution pattern, however, the second and third waves show higherlevels of spatial concentration. In this sense, the second wave, affecting the peripheral neighborhoods of theeastern part of the city. The Gini index confirms geographical imbalances in the distribution of infections in thefirst waves of the pandemic. In addition, the regression models indicate that the most significant socioeconomicvariables in the prediction of COVID-19 infection are average income, percentage of children under 18 years ofage, average size of the household, and percentage of single-person households. The study shows that economicimbalances in the city have had a clear influence on the spatial pattern of pandemic distribution. It shows theneed to implement spatial justice policies in income distribution to balance the effects of the pandemic.
... COVID-19 has also changed the effect of many things on our lives and created changes in people's perceptions and preferences. The bottlenecks in global supply chains, difficulties in production, and the differences in the economic policies of the countries have increased the real income divergence among the citizens of different countries (Sun et al., 2022;Wildman, 2021). Therefore, the importance of price-based decision variables is expected to increase in global tourism competition. ...
It is of great importance for countries to increase the contribution of the tourism sector to the economy. Therefore, the authorities focus on how to increase the demand for tourism. However, the most important issue is to define the factors that influence the demand for tourism in a complex environment and this study attempts to contribute to this field. Specifically, the study examines the effects of REER (Real Effective Exchange Rate) and security conditions on tourism demand using panel data methods for 73 countries, in the tourism ranking list from UNWTO reports, over the period 2003-2018. The main results of this study show that while the effect of REER on tourism demand is negative, the security condition has a positive effect on the demand for the tourism sector. In addition to these findings which confirm the existing literature, the innovative character of the methodology – fixed-effect panel quantile regression analysis - allowed us to check whether the effects of these variables may vary in different percentiles of tourism demand. Estimation result reveals that the effect of change in REER on tourism demand increases in high percentiles. Nevertheless, the effect of the security on tourism demand decreases as percentiles increase.
... The pandemic COVID-19 created the unprecedented challenges of dynamic development for enterprises, when the trend of increasing demand for skilled labor comes to the fore, because the best workers must work for maximum profit in the enterprise (Sun et al., 2022;Simionescu et al., 2021;Vasilyeva et al., 2021;Kravchenko et al., 2021;Srinok and Zandi, 2021;Halmai, 2022;Baryhnikova et al. 2021;Corejova et al. 2022;Kot, 2022). Indeed, in recent years, employers have seen staff as the most valuable resource and preferred direction of investment. ...
Theoretical generalization is carried out in this paper, and the digital transformation of remote staff selection processes is developed through Smart HR Recruiting technology. The work aims to develop modern methods of remote personnel selection in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. The research methodology is based on forming a program of measures to improve the HR recruitment model based on Smart recruiting, considering the trending areas of digital recruiting. As a result of the study, an assessment was made of the effectiveness of remote recruitment in the Smart HR Recruiting process. The economic effect of recruiting processes according to the Smart HR-Recruiting method has been confirmed.
... Over the past two years, more countries or particular regions within a country have turned to tourism vouchers under one form or another (staycation vouchers/travel subsidies) to sustain inbound tourism. Due to restrictions generated by the COVID-19 pandemic, the tourism industry was one of the hardest hit economic sectors [25][26][27][28][29][30]. The introduction of social vouchers in an attempt to boost domestic travel was justified by a sharp decline in tourism demand, loss of jobs and closure of non-essential industries [31]; this measure was reported in countries such as Island, Japan, Slovenia, Ireland, Italy, Poland, South Korea, Taiwan, China, etc. [31][32][33][34]. ...
Holiday vouchers are a tool that have been used for 40 years to encourage employees' access to vacation and have been highlighted during the recent pandemic, when governments used them to support the tourism industry. Using a naturalistic inquiry that combined focus groups with workers from travel agencies and semi-structured interviews with tourists, we analysed the influence of the Romanian holiday voucher scheme on the tourist behaviour of employees in order to establish the holiday vouchers' usefulness as a tool in social tourism or for the development of the tourism industry. An overwhelming share of the interviewees considered the granting of holiday vouchers beneficial. First and foremost, holiday vouchers enabled some people with blue-collar jobs to have their first holiday in decades. Secondly, vouchers influenced tourist behaviour mainly in terms of destination choice, services purchased and holiday frequency and/or duration. Moreover, for the past couple of years when there were major events with impacts on the entire economy worldwide, holiday vouchers proved to be a lifesaver for the Romanian tourism industry.
... During 2021, the direct economic impact of traveling tourism was estimated to be USD 5.8 billion worldwide [1]; however, a catastrophic loss of USD 3.8-4.7 trillion in export revenue per year due to COVID-19 restrictions highlighted tourism's vulnerabilities [2]. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council [3], the global tourism industry lost 174.4 million jobs in 2020, along with suppliers and businesses that rely on employee labor. ...
This concept paper presents our viewpoint regarding the exploitation of cutting-edge technologies for the delivery of smart tourism cultural tours. Specifically, the paper reports preliminary work on the design of a novel smart tourism solution tailored to a multiobjective optimization system based on factors such as the preferences and constraints of the tourist/visitor, the city’s accessibility and traffic, the weather conditions, and others. By optimizing cultural tours and delivering comfortable, easy-to-follow, green, acceptable visiting experiences, the proposed solution, namely, OptiTours, aims to become a leading actor in tourism industry transformation. Moreover, specific actions, applications, and methodologies target increasing touring acceptance while advancing the overall (smart) city impression. OptiTours aims to deliver a novel system to attract visitors and guide them to enjoy a city’s possible points of interest, achieving high visitor acceptance. Advanced technologies in semantic trajectories’ management and optimization in route planning will be exploited towards the discovery of optimal, smart, green, and comfortable routes/tours. A novel multiscale and multifactor optimization system aims to deliver not only optimal personalized routes but also alternative routes, ranked based on visitors’ preferences and constraints. In this concept paper, we contribute a detailed description of the OptiTours approach for ICT-based smart tourism, and a high-level architectural design of the solution that is planned to be implemented in the near future.
... Finalmente hay que señalar que además de la inequidad social en la distribución de la pandemia, los efectos económicos del COVID-19 en Palma han sido devastadores por el hecho de afectar de forma directa a la actividad turística. La pandemia ha provocado una pérdida masiva de empleo turístico de forma generalizada (Sun et al., 2022) siendo más acusada en los sectores sociales de bajo nivel de rentas. Esta circunstancia todavía ha hecho que la brecha económica haya ahondado la brecha social y económica de la ciudad. ...
Bajo el lema "TIG al servicio de los ODS", con el XIX Congreso de Tecnologías de la Información Geográfica se ha querido contribuir a la consecución de los ODS 2030, evidenciando la potencialidad de las geotecnologías e identificando los objetivos y las metas a los que colabora la actividad de la comunidad TIG para transformar el contexto económico, social y ambiental hacia un futuro más sostenible en todas las escalas, a nivel global, regional y local. Las TIG ofrecen herramientas de representación, análisis, integración, comprensión, proyección y modelado de la realidad espacial o geográfica. Las TIG, al igual que todas las partes interesadas, están llamadas a contribuir a la consecución de la nueva Agenda y a colaborar en el proceso de seguimiento de los progresos conseguidos en el cumplimiento de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (ODS) y las metas, aportando información y sistematizando indicadores transversales para su evaluación. La publicación incluye las contribuciones científicas presentadas en el Congreso, celebrado en Zaragoza entre los días 12 y 14 de septiembre de 2022.
The tourism industry is vulnerable to external shocks. Various crises inevitably impact the tourism industry and tourist destinations negatively but at the same time bring opportunities to examine destination resilience in response to a real shock that is hard to simulate. To manage a crisis more effectively, two critical issues should be addressed: the duration of the impact of the crisis (i.e., temporal perspective) and the affected geographical scale (i.e., spatial perspective), which have been neglected in previous studies on destination resilience. To address the above gaps, this research develops a comprehensive, multi-stage, dynamic spatiotemporal analytical framework to firstly measure two aspects of tourism resilience (i.e., resistance and recovery), and secondly analyze the influencing factors of tourism resilience. The empirical context of international tourism in Europe during the COVID-19 pandemic is used to demonstrate the applicability of the developed framework and relevant policy implications.
The COVID-19 pandemic wreaked havoc in all sectors of the economy globally. Tourism remains the most negatively impacted industry. Mitigation measures and plans were implemented to curb the damage by nations. The chapter explores the impact of COVID-19, mitigation, response, and recovery strategies different governments in West Africa through their Ministry of Tourism implemented in response to the gruesome impact of the pandemic. Qualitative research analysis was utilized on secondary data analysis such as plans by different governments and peer-reviewed articles from Google Scholar, Tourism Integrated Annual Reports, and National Statistics offices. The study found that there was limited and slow government support for the recovery of the tourism industry in the West African countries, limited funding, limited digitization, limited social media and limited domestic tourism, and lack of all stakeholder solutions to the industry, unclear messages being disseminated to tourists, and businesses creating uncertainty in the industry. The study implications are that all West African countries heavily depend on tourism, which exerts pressure on the government to have other alternative measures to boost foreign currency besides tourism. Further implications are the heavy reliance on international tourists by West African countries without utilizing local tourism, and the dependency syndrome of Africa on Europe for solutions that guided them in resolving the COVID-19 disaster. Other implications are the lack of technology to detect coronavirus at international airports and the lack of support on research, technology, and development in getting quick solutions to crises and pandemics, painting Africa as a follower and not a leader in tourism decision-making platforms. The study recommends close cooperation between nations to avoid the spread of pandemics in the future, taking lessons learned seriously from the COVID-19 pandemic to avoid worst-case scenarios next time, promotion of domestic tourism, aggressive tourism, practice customized tourism, widening the source markets for tourists, invest and improve in tourism research, technology and ensure sustainable tourism.
This paper aims to conceptualize whether revenge tourism is an apt description of travel in the post global health emergency period from the perspective of travelers. Furthermore, it examines the outcomes of post global health emergency travel. The multiphase work included screening and three phases of qualitative study. Participants perceived the term “ revenge” with skepticism, although the nature of travel and activities and consumption in the post global health emergency have changed for them. In this period, the need for introspection was greater, and travel was a way of rediscovering oneself. Furthermore, participants were negotiating new, different boundaries again after a tumultuous period, which indicated tourism travel was inextricably intertwined with several important aspects of their lives. The most important implication of the study is that it enables us to understand the connectedness between the process by which the post global health emergency phenomenon influences travel and its outcomes.
Coastal tourism's surge raises concerns for Morocco's Agadir marine environment, notably with Taghazout Bay's impact. Our study assesses Taghazout's health, employing a comprehensive approach. Our study evaluates Taghazout's health, adopting a comprehensive approach covering physicochemical, microbiological aspects, macrobenthic fauna, metal pollution, and biomarkers in D. trunculus mollusks. Seawater quality aligns with Moroccan standards, indicating good bathing water. The intertidal zone hosts ten species, dominated by D. trunculus. Biomarker responses in D. trunculus suggest chemical stress. Land-use maps expose significant changes driven by the Taghazout Bay project, impacting approximately 37.99 % of the landscape. Construction activities notably encroached upon the Arganeraie and the coastal zone, creating a stark contrast from 2003. These findings form a crucial database for future studies, contributing significantly to environmental management and sustainable development, aiding informed decision-making and effective coastal ecosystem preservation strategies.
2023). Tourists' behavior and importance of marketing mix factors in decision to use community-based agritourism services under the new normal era in Abstract The results showed that the majority of tourists visiting the site were female, between the ages of 20-30, single, and had completed a bachelor's degree. Most of the tourists were students and had a monthly income of at most 15,000 THB. In terms of agritourism behavior, the study found that most tourists visited the site during weekends and holidays for study tours before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. First-time visitors were prevalent, and most were influenced by friends and colleagues before the pandemic. During the pandemic, self-decision became the primary factor for traveling. Tourists preferred day trips to the Suan Yai Da agritourism site, with a majority intending to revisit the site. People's recommendations and Facebook fan pages were the top sources of information for tourists. Regarding the perception of marketing mix factors, tourists gave the highest importance to the awards received by the agritourism site as the best tourist attraction (= 4.25). This indicates that the reputation and recognition of the agritourism site play a significant role in attracting visitors. Other product factors that were highly rated included processed products available (= 4.20), lectures for agricultural knowledge (= 4.20), and the ability of tourists to visit all year round (= 4.14). In terms of price factors, tourists rated all of them as important, with mean ratings () ranging from 4.12 to 4.25. Overall, the study provides insights into the socio-demographic profile, agritourism behavior, and perceptions of marketing mix factors of tourists visiting the Suan Yai Da agritourism site. The findings can serve as a basis for agritourism service providers to improve their services and attract more tourists.
The rising opportunities of sustainable tourism have brought many policies to control the exploitation of the environment and increase the reach of luxurious, safe, and authentic experiences to the different segments of tourists. This study seeks to prioritize the variables influencing the development of sustainable tourism and pinpoint key success factors that align with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It adopts a tri-dimensional framework encompassing economic, social, and environmental aspects, further delineated into eleven sub-dimensions, to provide a quantitative evaluation of sustainable tourism. We conducted interviews with 26 tourism industry experts hailing from eight countries, analyzing their responses using interval type-2 fuzzy sets. The results underscore the critical role of specific components in advancing sustainable tourism. In the economic dimension, “financial resources and tourism costs” emerge as vital factors. In the social dimension, “health and safety” takes center stage, while “green infrastructure” plays a pivotal role in the environmental dimension. These findings underscore the significance of these aspects in promoting sustainable tourism. Furthermore, this study explores the strategic importance of sustainable tourism equity in shaping tourism planning and development for emerging markets.
The contagious COVID-19 pandemic has been considered a massive global crisis since World War II and has disturbed business and economic activities across the globe. The current study examined the reaction of the stock market’s to the outbreak of COVID-19, considering the extreme inter-day movements in the Indian stock market. The extreme inter-day movements in S&P CNX Nifty-50 have been identified during the study period from January 2020 to December 2021 and further classified into decline and gain events based on positive and negative announcements related to COVID-19. The study utilized an event study approach and panel regression for empirical investigation. The results of the event study analysis illustrate that the significant abnormal loss ranges from 12.86% to 2.47% for the major decline events and significant abnormal return from 8.43% to 3.23% for the gain events. The regression analysis results showed that real return and Central Bank Policy rate have a considerable impact on the abnormal returns during COVID-19. The study’s findings are helpful to policy implications that identified the need to focus on financial education and strengthen the health and finance-related policies to deal with such pandemics in the future.
The Covid-19 pandemic caused the unprecedent disruption in our lives. The aim of the article is to examine whether Slovak residents felt a change in the amount of income during the COVID-19 pandemic and whether they felt worried about a change in their employment at this time.To study these changes, we used the secondary analysis of data about employment and incomes in Slovakia and primary research of Slovak residents.Although unemployment rose and incomes fell during the pandemic, this was only a temporary phenomenon and both indicators returned to pre-pandemic levels. According to the primary result, the majority of Slovak residents did not experience a change in income. Of those whose income decreased, they were largely unemployed and recipients of parental benefits, or child care benefits. On the other hand, the majority of residents were afraid of a change in their employment during the pandemic, regardless of age, gender, education or household structure.
In this chapter, the focus is on the various challenges related to workforce conditions in the tourism industry and how human rights can play a role in alleviating these challenges. The chapter draws from a review of literature and offers a global perspective. Topics covered include the treatment of employees in the tourism sector, adherence to human rights and labor standards in the industry, the prevalence of mandatory and forced labor, collective bargaining, the use of child labor, fair treatment for all workers, and employee discrimination. The chapter will feature examples from different countries and conclude with recommendations for improvement.
Despite the fact that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment and management are now considerably regulated, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is still one of the leading causes of death in 2022. The availability of COVID-19 vaccines, FDA-approved antivirals, and monoclonal antibodies in low-income countries still poses an issue to be addressed. Natural products, particularly traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) and medicinal plant extracts (or their active component), have challenged the dominance of drug repurposing and synthetic compound libraries in COVID-19 therapeutics. Their abundant resources and excellent antiviral performance make natural products a relatively cheap and readily available alternative for COVID-19 therapeutics. Here, we deliberately review the anti-SARS-CoV-2 mechanisms of the natural products, their potency (pharmacological profiles), and application strategies for COVID-19 intervention. In light of their advantages, this review is intended to acknowledge the potential of natural products as COVID-19 therapeutic candidates.
This study examines the determinants of tourist arrivals at hotels and short-stay accommodations for nine EU countries from January 2010 to March 2022. We identify four driving channels of foreign and domestic tourism flows: a traditional, a sentiment, a technological and a health channel. The latter comprises two novel variables: the museum search interest and the infectious disease equity market volatility tracker. The results reveal that traditional and new drivers related to market sentiments and interest in online tourism experiences affect arrivals. Notably, there is a substitution effect between online and in-presence tourism, and the larger the uncertainty, the more substantial the reduction in tourist arrivals. COVID-19 has affected especially Spain and Italy and more foreign than domestic tourists.
The COVID-19 pandemic is the most difficult challenge that has affected humanity in recent decades. It has disrupted many features of development with domino effects in the social sphere. This study reviews the literature on the social effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and identifies the affected social areas that have undergone dramatic changes during the pandemic. We use inductive content analysis and thematic analysis to review the literature. The results show that there are seven major areas that have been negatively affected by the COVID-19 pandemic: health, social vulnerability, education, social capital, social relationships, social mobility, and social welfare. The literature has reported dramatic psychological and emotional effects, exacerbation of segregation and poverty, disruption in educational systems and formation of an information gap, as well as a declining trends of social capital among communities. We highlight some lessons that can be learned from the pandemic to enhance social resilience in future. Among others, to effectively respond to the pandemic and other potential future adverse events, governments should adopt fair policies, identify the required changes in the socially affected contexts and take necessary responsive actions, and adopt collaboratively designed approaches to increase social resilience.
The COVID-19 pandemic has negatively affected the tourist markets of many countries. This study develops a small, open macro model of tourism to analyze the price and revenue effects of establishing tourism target zones on tourism revenue in response to industry disturbances resulting from the pandemic. Such target zones improve tourism revenue and stabilize the economy by stabilizing tourism goods prices and exchange rates when domestic or foreign demand is strong and regardless of whether national borders are open. A tourism goods price subsidy can be employed to revitalize the tourism industry and improve tourism revenue after the pandemic.
In this work, we explore the role of agglomeration economies on unemployment‐to‐work transition rates in French employment areas. Mobilizing administrative exhaustive data files from individuals registered at the employment agency, we estimate local transition rates that are independent of differences in local characteristics of job seekers. Then, observed disparities between areas are explained by population density, our measure for agglomeration effects, and some demographic and labor market characteristics. We retain econometrics models considering spatial dependency for our dependent variable but also endogeneity of our main variable of interest. We find a negative relationship between population density and unemployment to work.
There are many studies that have focussed on the different dimensions of employment in several industries during COVID-19. However, the impact of the pandemic on employment in the tourism industries has been underexplored. Moreover, we are not aware of any study that has considered the impact of the pandemic on employment in different sub-sectors within the tourism industries. This paper analyzes the effect of COVID-19 on employment in Australian tourism industries using fractional integration. Using quarterly data (2004-2021) and disaggregating data by sectors, we examine two samples, one ending in December 2019 and the other one in December 2021. The novelty of this study is the consideration of the effect of this pandemic on employment in different sub-sectors that constitute the tourism industry. Our results indicate that the current pandemic has not produced significant changes in the persistence of the series. The only significant changes take place for the retail trade industry that moves from mean reversion to lack of it, and the cafes and restaurants in the opposite direction. One of the implications of the results is that interventions before the pandemic, such as concerted marketing efforts, are useful to reduce the impact of COVID-19 on tourism related industries.
Purpose
Tourism is a labor-intensive sector with extensive links to other industries and plays a vital role in creating employment. This study aims to propose a new framework to analyze the intrinsic structure of the employment effects of tourism-related sectors and their drivers.
Design/methodology/approach
This study uses input–output and structural decomposition analysis (IO-SDA) to quantify the employment effects of tourism-related sectors and their driving mechanisms based on China’s I-O tables of 2002, 2007, 2012 and 2017.
Findings
The results show a declining trend in the intensity of direct or indirect employment effects in tourism-related sectors, indicating a decreasing number of jobs directly or indirectly required to create a unit of tourism output. Among tourism-related sectors, catering has the highest intensity of indirect employment effects over the study period. Catering stimulates the indirect employment of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishery and food and tobacco manufacturing. The decomposition analysis reveals that final demand is the largest contributor to the increase in tourism employment, while technological progress shifts from an employment-creation effect in 2002–2012 to an employment-destruction effect in 2012–2017.
Originality/value
This study proposes a new analytical framework to investigate the structural proportional relationship between the direct and indirect employment effects of various tourism-related sectors and their dynamic changes. Doing so, it provides valuable references for policymakers to promote tourism employment.
Purpose: This study seeks to explore the transformative power of covid-19 in the tourism sector of Japan, with attention to the unprecedented changes, growing activities and interconnectedness caused by covid-19 crisis through multiple case studies conducted among foreign tourism professionals in Kyoto. Design/methodology/approach: This study applies participant observation, in-depth interviews and narrative analysis. Findings: Tourism shifted to offer experiences in a digital way and new forms of digital travelling became popular like travel live streaming, virtual tours, virtual experiences. Not just previous travelers, but people who don't have the chance to travel became digital tourists and frequent interactions happen between tourists and guides, forming new communities in virtual space. The role of tour guides in digital context became more important as their interpretation reach a wider audience and shape the image of Japan. The data also shows that live streams increase the willingness to visit the destination and create connections among digital tourists as well. Originality/value: Shifting away from the negative impacts of covid-19 in tourism, this study shows the growth and industry shaping transformations in the tourism sector during the pandemic era, and presents forward-looking solutions through increased interconnectedness in virtual space.
Purpose
Taking a global perspective, this research examines the impacts of COVID-19 on Airbnb booking activities through three critical perspectives - the initial Wuhan lockdown, local COVID-19 cases, and local lockdowns.
Design/methodology/approach
Using Airbnb reviews and cancellations as proxies for Airbnb bookings on a global scale, econometrics was used to examine the impacts of the initial Wuhan lockdown, local COVID-19 cases, and local lockdowns on Airbnb bookings.
Findings
We find that local lockdowns result in a 57.8% fall in global booking activities. Every doubling of newly infected cases is associated with a 4.16% fall in bookings. The sensitivity of bookings to COVID-19 decreases with geographic distance to Wuhan, and increases with government stringency of lockdown policies and human mobility within a market.
Practical Implications
The empirical evidence from this research can provide governments with insights into more accurate assessment of the financial loss of Airbnb hosts so that proper support can be offered based on the financial needs due to sudden lockdown.
Originality/Value
This research contributes to new knowledge on peer-to-peer accommodation during a time of crisis and provides much needed global evidence to understand the impacts of COVID-19 on the accommodation industry.
The COVID-19 crisis is dramatically affecting the world economy and, particularly, the tourism sector. In the context of extreme uncertainty, the use of probabilistic forecasting models is especially suitable. We use Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate the outcomes of four possible tourism demand recovery scenarios in the Balearic Islands, which are further used to measure the risks and vulnerability of Balearic economy to the COVID-19 crisis. Our results show that fear of contagion and loss of income in tourism emitting countries will result in a maximum 89% drop in arrivals in the Balearic Islands in 2020.Given that most tourism-related occupations are not highly skilled and are characterized by lower salaries, there are greater risks of loss of welfare, especially for women, who are a major share of the tourism labour force.The model shows important differences among minimum, average and maximum estimates for tourism sector production in 2021, reflecting considerable uncertainty regarding the speed of the sector's recovery. The results serve as a basis to prepare a range of policies to reduce destination vulnerability under different crisis outcomes.
This analysis makes use of economic forecasts for 2020 issued by the European Commission in Autumn 2019 and Spring 2020, and of a counterfactual under a no-policy change assumption, to analyse the impact of the COVID-19 crisis on EU households´ income. Additionally, our analysis assesses the cushioning effect of discretionary fiscal policy measures taken by the EU Member States. We find that the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to affect significantly households' disposable income in the EU, with lower income households being more severely hit. However, our results show that due to policy intervention, the impact of the crisis is expected to be similar to the one experienced during the 2008-2009 financial crisis. In detail, our results indicate that discretionary fiscal policy measures will play a significant cushioning role, reducing the size of the income loss (from -9.3% to -4.3% for the average equivalised disposable income), its regressivity and mitigating the poverty impact of the pandemic. We conclude that policy interventions are therefore instrumental in cushioning against the impact of the crisis on inequality and poverty.
Supplementary information:
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10888-021-09485-8.
The aim of this research is to visualize those countries that would have the greatest impact in terms of sensitivity and vulnerability due to the drop in travels, as a product of the pandemic, with special emphasis on South America. For this, the participation of tourism in the economy of certain countries prior to the coronavirus crisis was measured by analysing three groups of countries: the ten most tourist countries in the world according to their receipts; countries whose economies are most dependent on tourism; and the twelve South American countries, contextualized through the other two groups. Thus, multiple combinations of high, low and medium sensitivity and vulnerability were identified for South American and for the countries with the highest absolute receipts from tourism, but an alarming scenario for the most dependent countries on international tourism, many of them small island countries in development (SIDS). Additionally, the ideas of low apparent sensitivity and that of low sensitivity due to role inversion offer new ways to interpret a low sensitivity. Likewise, and with respect to vulnerability, three possible stages of recovery of international tourism activity were noted.
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 and attempts to limit its spread have resulted in a contraction of the global economy. Here we document the socioeconomic impacts of the pandemic among households, adults and children in low-income countries. To do so, we rely on longitudinal household survey data from Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria and Uganda, originating from pre-COVID-19 face-to-face household surveys plus phone surveys implemented during the pandemic. We estimate that 256 million individuals—77% of the population—live in households that have lost income during the pandemic. Attempts to cope with this loss are exacerbated by food insecurity and an inability to access medicine and staple foods. Finally, we find that student–teacher contact has dropped from a pre-COVID-19 rate of 96% to just 17% among households with school-aged children. These findings can inform decisions by governments and international organizations on measures to mitigate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Recent phone survey data from Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria and Uganda reveals the breadth of the socioeconomic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on individuals and households.
COVID-19 has prompted unprecedented government action around the world. We introduce the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker (OxCGRT), a dataset that addresses the need for continuously updated, readily usable and comparable information on policy measures. From 1 January 2020, the data capture government policies related to closure and containment, health and economic policy for more than 180 countries, plus several countries’ subnational jurisdictions. Policy responses are recorded on ordinal or continuous scales for 19 policy areas, capturing variation in degree of response. We present two motivating applications of the data, highlighting patterns in the timing of policy adoption and subsequent policy easing and reimposition, and illustrating how the data can be combined with behavioural and epidemiological indicators. This database enables researchers and policymakers to explore the empirical effects of policy responses on the spread of COVID-19 cases and deaths, as well as on economic and social welfare. The Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker (OxCGRT) records data on 19 different government COVID-19 policy indicators for over 190 countries. Covering closure and containment, health and economics measures, it creates an evidence base for effective responses.
According to the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) annual Emissions Gap Report 2019, further reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are needed to reduce climate change impacts. In Japan, the 2030 Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) target is an emissions reduction of 26% compared to 2013. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared that the coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak has led to 43,341,451 confirmed cases and 1,157,509 confirmed deaths globally and affected 218 countries (as of 27 October 2020). In Japan, as of the same date, 96,948 infectious cases and 1724 deaths related to the new coronavirus had been recorded. These numbers continue to increase. In Japan, in March 2020, the number of international tourist arrivals decreased by about 93% compared to last year at the same period. The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) reported several significant scenarios for the tourism industry. COVID-19 is the greatest shock to international tourism since 1950 and represents an abrupt end to the 10-year period of sustained growth that followed the 2009 financial crisis. It was thought that it would be possible to analyze the economic, environmental, and social impacts of rapid social changes. Thus, this study estimates changes in Japan’s tourist consumption, the carbon footprint (CFP), and employment due to the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic. The calculations in this study adopt a lifecycle approach using input–output tables. Based on these observations, this study uses four scenarios (SR 1, no recovery until December; SR 2, recovery from October; SR 3, recovery from July or September; and SR 0, same growth rate as 2018–2019) for Japan to calculate the CFP and employment change using input–output table analysis based on tourist consumption, which is a tourism metric. According to our results (2019 vs. SR 1 and 3), the consumption loss is between 20,540 billion yen (−65.1%) and 12,704 billion yen (−39.1%), the CFP reduction is between 89,488 Mt-CO2eq (−64.2%) and 54,030 Mt-CO2eq (−37.5%), and the employment loss is between 2,677,000 people (−64.2%) and 1,678,000 people (−37.5%). As of November 2020, the tourism industry continues to be affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. In the post-COVID-19 society, it will be necessary to maintain the GHG emissions reductions achieved in this short period and realize economic recovery. This recovery must also be sustainable for tourism stakeholders and society.
The COVID-19 pandemic risks exacerbating inequality in Asia. High frequency labor surveys show that the pandemic is having particularly adverse effects on younger workers, women and people that are more vulnerable. Pandemics have been shown to increase inequalities. As a result, income inequality, which was already high and rising in Asia before the pandemic, is likely to rise further over the medium term, unless policies succeed in breaking this historical pattern. Many Asian governments have implemented significant fiscal policy measures to mitigate the pandemic’s effect on the most vulnerable, with the impact depending on the initial coverage of safety nets, fiscal space, and degree of informality and digitalization. The paper includes model-based analysis which shows that policies targeted to where needs are greatest are effective in mitigating adverse distributional consequences and underpinning overall economic activity and virus containment.
Given Nepal's location and geographical situation, the country has unique comparative advantages in the tourism sector. The Nepalese tourism sector largely remains labour-intensive due to insufficient investment in quality infrastructure and technology. Even in this background, the tourism sector contributes a significant share of GDP and employment in Nepal. Knowing the employment elasticities to various tourism indicators helps to understand the tourism sector and make sound policy inferences. For this purpose, the paper combines the annual data from the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) on direct and indirect contribution to employment and GDP with the total tourist arrival and the average length of stay data from Nepal Tourism Statistics to estimate a simple double log-linear equation-based individual elasticity coefficients. The findings of this paper suggest that besides government personal travel and tourism spending, other all elasticities are positive. Among them, the average length of stay has the most significant and positive employment elasticity coefficient, which is relatively higher than the total number of arrival elasticity too. Thus, it is better to target to extend the length of stay than the arrival of tourist, other things remaining the same.
Journal of Population Economics. First Online October 2020.
In the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic, working from home (WFH) became of great importance for a large share of employees since it represents the only option to both continue working and minimize the risk of virus exposure. Uncertainty about the duration of the pandemic and future contagion waves even led companies to view WFH as a "new normal" way of working. Based on influence function regression methods, this paper explores the potential consequences in the labour income distribution related to a long-lasting increase in WFH feasibility among Italian employees. Results show that a positive shift in WFH feasibility would be associated with an increase in average labour income, but this potential benefit would be not equally distributed among employees. Specifically, an increase in the opportunity to WFH would favor male, older, high-educated, and high-paid employees. However, this "forced innovation" would benefit more employees living in provinces have been more affected by the novel coronavirus. WFH thus risks exacerbating pre-existing inequalities in the labour market, especially if it will not be adequately regulated. As a consequence, this study suggests that policies aimed at alleviating inequality, like income support measures (in the short run) and human capital interventions (in the long run), should play a more important compensating role in the future.
On 3 April 2020, the Director-General of the WHO stated: “[COVID-19] is much more than a health crisis. We are all aware of the profound social and economic consequences of the pandemic (WHO, 2020)”. Such consequences are the result of counter-measures such as lockdowns, and world-wide reductions in production and consumption, amplified by cascading impacts through international supply chains. Using a global multi-regional macro-economic model, we capture direct and indirect spill-over effects in terms of social and economic losses, as well as environmental effects of the pandemic. Based on information as of May 2020, we show that global consumption losses amount to 3.8$tr, triggering significant job (147 million full-time equivalent) and income (2.1$tr) losses. Global atmospheric emissions are reduced by 2.5Gt of greenhouse gases, 0.6Mt of PM2.5, and 5.1Mt of SO2 and NOx. While Asia, Europe and the USA have been the most directly impacted regions, and transport and tourism the immediately hit sectors, the indirect effects transmitted along international supply chains are being felt across the entire world economy. These ripple effects highlight the intrinsic link between socio-economic and environmental dimensions, and emphasise the challenge of addressing unsustainable global patterns. How humanity reacts to this crisis will define the post-pandemic world.
This paper brings together evidence from various data sources and the most recent studies to describe what we know so far about the impacts of the crisis on inequalities across several key domains of life, including employment and ability to earn, family life and health. We show how these new fissures interact with existing inequalities along various key dimensions, including socio‐economic status, education, age, gender, ethnicity and geography. We find that the deep underlying inequalities and policy challenges that we already had are crucial in understanding the complex impacts of the pandemic itself and our response to it, and that the crisis does in itself have the potential to exacerbate some of these pre‐existing inequalities fairly directly. Moreover, it seems likely that the current crisis will leave legacies that will impact inequalities in the long‐term. These possibilities are not all disequalising, but many are.
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This article aims to analyze the implementation of teleworking as a security practice to face the crisis resulting from the Covid-19 disease. The present paper provides both theoretical and practical results. From a theoretical standpoint, the Baruch and Nicholson approach is extended with environmental, safety, and legal factors that explain telework. From a practical perspective, a database of companies that have introduced telework as a measure to face coronavirus in a crisis context has been obtained. In short, the Covid-19 crisis demonstrates how teleworking has been used by companies to ensure their employees' safety and to provide continuity to economic activity. Consequently, safety factors are relevant in the study of teleworking and should be considered in further research.
The paper estimates the scale of the possible impact of the coronavirus epidemic on the Russian labor market and household incomes. We consider vulnerable employment, which includes workers with increased risks of job loss, wage cuts and other negative events that reduce labor incomes.
The analysis shows that every second Russian worker can be classified as vulnerable employee. The highest risks for reducing labor incomes as a result of the epidemic are faced by young people, workers with a low level of education, as well as residents of regional centers. About a third of vulnerable employees experience complex vulnerability, i.e. meet several criteria of vulnerability.
A decrease in labor incomes could also affect the wealth of about 40% of Russian households. The worst situation is for younger families, whose incomes are much more dependent on the labor market. Most of the households in which vulnerable workers live do not receive social benefits, and therefore it would be rather difficult for them to count on prompt assistance from the social protection system.
Currently Russia is actively developing a set of measures to support employment. In particular, government decided to provide support for the most affected by COVID sectors, the size of unemployment benefits has been increased for citizens who have lost their jobs due to the epidemic. However, it is obvious that this list should be extended and account for various forms of deterioration of employment.
This article provides new evidence on the stability of the long-run income elasticity of tourism and travel demand by use of the recently developed smooth time-varying cointegration regression model. The estimations control for relative purchasing power parity of the source country and make use of a specific country dataset where domestic and foreign overnight stays are available over a longer period of time (Switzerland, 1934–2015). Results show that the income elasticity of foreign overnight stays peaks at approximately two in the early 1960s, drops to around one in the early 1980s and from then on remains stable until the end of the sample. Domestic income elasticity reaches its highest levels in the 1930s, then steadily falls towards one in the mid-1960s, and therefrom remains stable until 2015. Different phases in the tourism area life cycle might be a major explanatory factor for variation in income elasticities over time.
Tourism contributes significantly to global gross domestic product, and is forecast to grow at an annual 4%, thus outpacing many other economic sectors. However, global carbon emissions related to tourism are currently not well quantified. Here, we quantify tourism-related global carbon flows between 160 countries, and their carbon footprints under origin and destination accounting perspectives. We find that, between 2009 and 2013, tourism’s global carbon footprint has increased from 3.9 to 4.5 GtCO2e, four times more than previously estimated, accounting for about 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Transport, shopping and food are significant contributors. The majority of this footprint is exerted by and in high-income countries. The rapid increase in tourism demand is effectively outstripping the decarbonization of tourism-related technology. We project that, due to its high carbon intensity and continuing growth, tourism will constitute a growing part of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions.
This study examines the role of tourism development in reducing regional income inequality in China. First, the theoretical foundation for how tourism affects regional income inequality is discussed. Second, based on the conditional convergence framework, this study proposes a spatiotemporal autoregressive model to capture spatial and temporal dependence as well as spatial heterogeneity. Tourism development is introduced as a conditional convergence factor in an attempt to examine whether the convergence speed is accelerated by regional tourism development. Third, the effects of international and domestic tourism in narrowing regional inequality are compared both globally and locally. The empirical results indicate that tourism development contributes significantly to the reduction of regional inequality, with domestic tourism making a greater contribution than international tourism.
This paper aims to contribute to the academic research on tourism and poverty alleviation, by providing an integrated research framework on the impacts of tourism on poverty. First, a conceptual discussion is presented in order to understand the potential of tourism to reduce poverty, as well as different approaches to promoting a direct link between tourism and poverty alleviation. Second, empirical studies published between 1999 and July 2014 were critically analysed in order to generate an empirical research framework that embraces the following issues: geographical scope, level of analysis, tourism context, study methods and poverty measure. Moreover, an integrative discussion of the empirical evidence regarding the contribution of tourism to poverty reduction is included. The proposed framework, which is intended to be useful for guiding future empirical research in this field, suggests associations between tourism initiatives, the poverty rate and the economic, socio-cultural and environmental conditions of the poor.
There is evidence of a negative cross-country correlation between gender wage and employment gaps. We arguethat non-random selection of women into work explains an important part of such correlation and thus of theobserved variation in wage gaps. The idea is that, if women who are employed tend to have relatively high-wagecharacteristics, low female employment rates may become consistent with low gender wage gaps simplybecause low-wage women would not feature in the observed wage distribution. We explore this idea across theUS and EU countries estimating gender gaps in potential wages. We recover information on wages for those notin work in a given year using alternative imputation techniques. Imputation is based on (i) wage observationsfrom nearest available waves in the sample, (ii) observable characteristics of the nonemployed and (iii) astatistical repeated-sampling model. We then estimate median wage gaps on the resulting imputed wagedistributions, thus simply requiring assumptions on the position of the imputed wage observations with respectto the median, but not on their level. We obtain higher median wage gaps on imputed rather than actual wagedistributions for most countries in the sample. However, this difference is small in the US, the UK and mostcentral and northern EU countries, and becomes sizeable in Ireland, France and southern EU, all countries inwhich gender employment gaps are high. In particular, correction for employment selection explains more thana half of the observed correlation between wage and employment gaps.
OPEN ACCESS ARTICLE: The worldwide COVID-19 pandemic has affected the tourism sector by closing borders, reducing both the transportation of tourists and tourist demand. Developing countries, such as Tanzania, where the tourism sector contributes a high share to gross domestic product, are facing considerable economic consequences. Tourism interlinks domestic sectors such as transport, accommodation, beverages and food, and retail trade and thus plays an important role in household income. Our study assesses the macroeconomic impacts of COVID-19 on the tourism sector and the Tanzanian economy as a case study of an impacted developing economy. We use a computable general equilibrium model framework to simulate the economic impacts resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic and quantitatively analysed the economic impacts.
Providing targeted support to people who are mostly impacted financially is critical in managing the socio-economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic; however, governments face the challenge of pinpointing vulnerable workers. Building upon the multi-regional input-output model and a high-resolution employment profile, this research develops a new analytical model to recognize the vulnerable population in a crisis by identifying who they are, where they work and what sector they work for. The model was applied to Indonesia to assess tourism losses and found four regional hotspots where the employment vulnerability of women, youth and low-education workers was more than five times higher than the national average. Findings demonstrated that this model could assist with rapid and efficient targeted support for crisis management in the short term and continued investment for an equitable disaster recovery in the future.
This paper examines how past pandemics impacted income inequality measured through the Gini measure of inequality net of taxes. It explores how five major pandemics, namely, SARS in 2003, H1N1 in 2009, MERS in 2012, Ebola in 2014, and Zika in 2016 impacted the distribution of income across high income, upper-middle-income and lower-middle-income countries. How the inequality across quintiles share in income is impacted was explored. We used comprehensive panel data sets covering annual observations from 1995 to 2017 for 70 countries. The generalized least square estimation shows that the pandemics have a statistically significant positive impact upon income inequality particularly for the high-income group and also for the entire set of 70 countries. However, the impact of the pandemics is negative upon the upper-middle-income group of countries. The estimation is robust controlling for additional macroeconomic variables. The study demonstrates that past pandemics may generate a policy response that impacts the distribution of income. A weakened role of the state has been responsible for worsening inequality.
Recent studies have linked COVID-19 induced restrictions to an increase in wildlife crime, with severe yet unknown implications for severely threatened taxa like pangolins. We analyze publicly available online seizure reports involving pangolins across India before (2018–2019) and during the pandemic (March–August 2020), using a longitudinal study design to estimate how lockdowns have impacted pangolin trade. Our analysis indicates a significant increase in seizures reported during the lockdown months of March to August 2020, in comparison to the same period in 2018 and 2019. We discuss the drivers behind this spike in pangolin trade and offer potential conservation measures.
The pandemic COVID-19 has severely impacted upon the world economy, devastating the tourism industry globally. This paper estimates the short-run economic impacts of the inbound tourism industry on the Australian economy during the pandemic. The analysis covers effects both at the macroeconomic as well as at the industry and occupation level, from direct contribution (using tourism satellite accounts) to economy-wide effects (using the computable general equilibrium modelling technique). Findings show that the pandemic affects a range of industries and occupations that are beyond the tourism sector. The paper calls for strong support from the government on tourism as the recovery of tourism can deliver spillover benefits for other sectors and across the whole spectrum of occupations in the labour market.
Tourism was of critical economic importance in Pacific SIDS until COVID-19 border closures cut off international ties. The virus did not reach Vanuatu and Samoa, and few cases occurred in Fiji. The collapse of tourism, on land and from cruise ships, resulted in increased unemployment and the closure of hotels and tourism-oriented businesses with multiplier effects throughout the island economies. Many people returned to home islands, putting pressure on local land resources. Diverse local markets, exchange and bartering increased. Women were most affected in terms of lost jobs, more domestic burdens and a rise in domestic violence. This article argues that tourism is unlikely to restart in the immediate future, but may be initiated through small elite ventures. In response, regional metropolitan states – Australia and New Zealand – have increased aid to what is increasingly a strategically important region.
This study examines the influence of domestic tourism on economic vulnerability index (EVI). Domestic tourism spending has a significant effect in reducing EVI. These results are consistent with two sub-indices of EVI (shock index and exposure index). Interestingly, it is found that: (i) this impact is consistent in low- and lower-middle-income countries, while domestic tourism has a non-significantly effect in upper-middle and high-income countries of increasing EVI; (ii) these results are consistent in the long-run; and (iii) the impact of domestic tourism is consistent in both the 2002–2007 and 2008–2012 periods, but is statistically non-significant in the 2013–2017 period. Notably, we find that domestic tourism spending has a U-shape effect on EVI; while international tourism has an increasing effect.
Purpose
This short communication aims to explore and synthesize the main effects of COVID-19 on the labor market in Portugal regarding the dimensions related to job security and unemployment.
Design/methodology/approach
Field research is used to identify and understand the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic to the labor market in Portugal. Data from the National Institute of Statistics of Portugal are analyzed and compared with artifacts published in the field, which allow us to explore the impact of this phenomenon from multiple perspectives.
Findings
The findings indicate that the impact on the labor market is very asymmetric regarding geographical regions, sectors of activity, age groups and the nature of labor ties. The most touristic regions and those with a strong dependence on the exterior are the most affected. Young people and women with unstable employment relationships and in temporary work situations are also particularly vulnerable.
Originality/value
This study focuses on an emerging area with a strong impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the labor market. This study seeks both to identify challenges in the Portuguese labor market and to discuss measures that should be taken to mitigate their effects, such as reforming the social security model, the role of teleworking or the more balanced development of the territory
This article examines the influence of tourism on income inequality on a global sample. Our analysis uses various econometric techniques for panel data including 97 countries over the period 2002–2014 categorized into three subsamples: 30 low- and lower-middle-income economies (LMEs), 25 upper-middle-income economies (UMEs), and 42 high-income economies (HIEs). Our empirical findings are interesting. First, both domestic and international tourism reduce income inequality whereas a better institutional quality increases the income inequality. Our findings also clearly indicate that international tourism contributes to the reduction of income inequalities while the national tourism requires an institutional adjustment in the LMEs and the UMEs to do so. This observation highlights the important roles of tax and transfer policies in fighting against income inequality.
Using a multisectoral model and data from the Supply and Use Tables, this article estimates the COVID-19 multiplier effects of tourism on gross domestic product (GDP), total employment, and trade balance of the Greek economy. The results indicate that a—not-unexpected—decrease of international travel receipts in the range of 3.5 to 10.5 billion euros would lead to a decrease in GDP of about 2.0% to 6.0%, a decrease in the levels of employment of about 2.1% to 6.4% and an increase in the trade balance deficit of about 2.4 to 7.1 billion euros, respectively.
The objective of this paper is to explore the effectiveness of domestic and inbound tourism in the alleviation of absolute poverty. We apply a system generalized method of moments estimation to an unbalanced panel data set covering 60 countries for the period 1995–2014. We consider different measures of poverty at two international absolute poverty lines of the World Bank and linearity and nonlinearity effects. The Tourism Statistics Database of the World Tourism Organization and the World Development Indicators Database of the World Bank are the main sources of our data. According to our results, both domestic and inbound tourism reduce absolute poverty, even extreme poverty. Nevertheless, domestic tourism shows more intensively pro-poor backward economic linkages than the inbound one. In addition, the Kuznets curve hypothesis is confirmed for inbound tourism and poverty. Therefore, policy-makers should pay special attention to the development of domestic tourism by looking for synergies that might be helpful in attracting higher spending inbound tourism too and in reducing the leakages it involves. This could improve the impact of the international income redistribution entailed by inbound tourism on the poor.
Over 10 years have passed since the first paper on the tourism-led growth hypothesis (TLGH) was published in 2002. Since then, a wave of studies has appeared trying to understand the temporal relationship between tourism and economic growth. Hence, it is possible to provide an assessment in terms of econometric methods used and main empirical findings achieved so far. This paper presents an exhaustive review of approximately 100 peer-reviewed published papers on the TLGH. An overview on the economic theoretical framework behind the TLGH is also provided. Notably, the results present an increasing diversification in the econometric modelling used. With a few exceptions, the empirical findings suggest that overall international tourism drives economic growth.
Two of the most notable trends in labour markets in Europe are the rise in the number of atypical job contracts (e.g. fixed-term contracts and temporary work) and the increase in job turnover. The concept of “employment vulnerability” can be used to describe these trends, which weaken the employer–employee relationship. In this article, the authors measure this employment vulnerability, for individual European countries, by creating two indices – an “employer-related vulnerability index” and a “job-related vulnerability index” – which are then aggregated to form an overall employment vulnerability index. Copyright © The authors 2016 Journal compilation
In the face of the world recession, this article concentrates on analyzing and forecasting demand for outbound traveling in Australia, Canada, United States, Japan, and the EU-15 countries in terms of tourism imports at constant prices and exchange rates. Drawing on an analysis of the macroeconomic effects of the global recession and its impact on tourism demand for outbound traveling, the article develops forecasts for the period from 2009 to 2010. For 2010, two scenarios are created to project demand for foreign travel. The study is rounded off by a discussion of forecast uncertainties and open questions.
This article examines contrasting claims made by scholars of oil and politics that oil wealth either tends (1) to undermine regime durability or (2) to enhance it. Using cross-sectional time-series data from 107 developing states between 1960 and 1999, I test the effects of oil wealth on regime failure, political protests, and civil war. I find that oil wealth is robustly associated with increased regime durability, even when controlling for repression, and with lower likelihoods of civil war and antistate protest. I also find that neither the boom nor bust periods exerted any significant effect on regime durability in the states most dependent on exports, even while those states saw more protests during the bust. In short, oil wealth has generally increased the durability of regimes, and repression does not account for this effect. Future research focused on the origins of robust coalitions in oil-rich states is most likely to provide fruitful explanations to this puzzle.
Many tools for economic impact evaluation, such as input-output models and computable general equilibrium models, rely on the jobs-to-sales ratio (JSR) to convert direct, indirect and induced effects of sales into employment. For service sectors, this ratio is strongly influenced by capacity utilization and exhibits a non-linear pattern, especially for short-term tourism applications that involve dramatic demand fluctuations as a consequence of mega events, natural disasters or societal instability. The purpose of this study is to decompose the relationship between capacity utilization and the JSR so that the underlying factors that cause the instability of JSR can be identified. Time-series data from the Taiwanese tourist hotels and aviation sectors are adopted to discuss the strength of the relations between price per unit and capacity utilization, total employee numbers and utilization, service capacity and utilization, and labor efficiency and utilization, respectively. The results indicate that the adjustment of labor efficiency is the prominent factor in determining the stability of the jobs-to-sales ratio, while price, to employee number and service capacity are relatively stable in response to demand, leading to changing JSRs.
Summary This article develops indicators of vulnerability in employment in seven economic capitals of West Africa and studies their links with individual incomes. Quantitative, distributional and qualitative analyses show that vulnerability compensating mechanism is mainly seen in the informal sector, in the upper tail of the earnings distribution and particularly in the circumstance of visible underemployment. Employment vulnerability is not compensated for the poorest workers in the private sector. Long "job queues" and weak institutional protection of workers may have reduced bargaining power in the formal sector.