Article

Stereotype knowledge and prejudice in children

December 2010

December 2010
19(1):143 - 156

Authors:

University of Adelaide

The present research applies Devine's (1989) distinction between stereotype knowledge and personal beliefs to the early development of racial bias in young children. The responses of 110 South Australian children (66 girls and 44 boys) toward white and black stimuli were examined across the 5–6 and 8–9 age groups. Analyses revealed that both age groups were knowledgeable about the cultural stereotypes associated with black and white skin colour. Negative adjectives were more strongly endorsed for black stimuli than were positive adjectives (the reverse was true for white stimuli). For 5- to 6-year-olds, knowledge of stereotypes and personal beliefs for black stimuli were highly congruent. In contrast, children aged 8–9 years were significantly more likely to report personal beliefs which diverged from their knowledge of pervasive cultural stereotypes, i.e. to endorse negative adjectives as stereotype knowledge rather than personal beliefs. It is tentatively concluded that the concordance of personal beliefs and stereotype knowledge found among very young children is not prejudice as typically conceived, but rather a function of their inability to make personal judgments that diverge from dominant stereotypes. In contrast, older children have an increasing ability to base evaluations on personal beliefs that may be inconsistent with collective societal representations of social groups. Various explanations accounting for the differentiation between personal beliefs and stereotype knowledge in older children are discussed.

The cost of social influence: Own-gender and gender-stereotype social learning biases in adolescents and adults

Preprint

Mar 2023

Pervasive gender gaps in academic subject and career choices are likely to be underpinned by social influences, including gender stereotypes of competence in academic and career domains (e.g., men excel at engineering, women excel at care), and model-based social learning biases (i.e., selective copying of particular individuals). Here, we explore the influence of gender stereotypes on social learning decisions in adolescent and adult males and females. Participants (Exp 1: N=69 adolescents; Exp 2: N=266 adults) were presented with 16 difficult multiple-choice questions from stereotypically feminine (e.g., care) and masculine (e.g., engineering) domains. The answer choices included the correct response and three incorrect responses paired with a male model, a female model, or no model. Participants’ gender stereotype knowledge and endorsement were measured, and adolescents (Exp. 1) listed their academic subject choices. As predicted, there was a bias towards copying answers paired with a model (Exp.1: 74%, Exp. 2: 65% ps <.001). This resulted in less success than would be expected by chance (Exp. 1: 12%, Exp. 2: 16% ps <.001), demonstrating a negative consequence of social information. Adults (Exp 2) showed gender stereotyped social learning biases; they were more likely to copy a male model in masculine questions and a female model in feminine questions (p = .014). However, adolescents (Exp 1) showed no evidence of this stereotype bias; rather, there was a tendency for male adolescents to copy male models regardless of domain (p = .004). This own-gender bias was not apparent in female adolescents. In Exp 1, endorsement of masculine stereotypes was positively associated with selecting more own-gender typical academic subjects at school and copying significantly more male models in the male questions. The current study provides evidence for the first time that decision-making in both adolescence and adulthood is impacted by gender biases.

Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict

Book

Full-text available

Apr 2022

Representations of Arabs in Israeli Jewish society.

Gender stereotypes in UK children and adolescents: Changing patterns of knowledge and endorsement

Article

Dec 2021

Across two studies, we investigated gender stereotype knowledge and endorsement in UK schoolchildren, and their impact on academic subject choice. In Study 1, children aged 9-11 (N = 68) and 13-15 (N = 61) completed a newly developed Gender Attribute scale assessing their knowledge and endorsement of gender stereotypes relating to academic subjects and occupations. Participants demonstrated gender stereotype knowledge and endorsement, although significantly higher knowledge than endorsement scores indicated a level of stereotype rejection. Stereotype knowledge was greater in the older age group, and older girls showed significantly higher levels of stereotype rejection than all other groups. In Study 2, children aged 13-15 (N = 165) completed the Gender Attribute scale and provided information on their school subject choices. Patterns of stereotype knowledge and endorsement followed those of Study 1. Subject choice information showed that boys selected significantly more masculine than feminine subjects, while girls chose a similar proportion of each. Further, boys' level of gender stereotype endorsement predicted their subject choices, while girls' did not. We suggest that in contemporary UK some progress is being made in relation to girls challenging stereotypes that work against them but that more work is needed to encourage boys into female-dominated disciplines.

Understanding Intergroup Relations in Childhood and Adolescence

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Maykel Verkuyten

There are various theoretical approaches for understanding intergroup biases among children and adolescents. This article focuses on the social identity approach and argues that existing research will benefit by more fully considering the implications of this approach for examining intergroup relations among youngsters. These implications include (a) the importance of self-categorization, (b) the role of self-stereotyping and group identification, (c) the relevance of shared understandings and developing ingroup consensus, and (d) the importance of coordinated action for positive and negative intergroup relations. These implications of the social identity approach suggest several avenues for investigating children’s and adolescents’ intergroup relations that have not been fully appreciated in the existing literature. However, there are also limitations to the social identity approach for the developmental understanding and some of these are discussed.

The Formation of In-Group Favoritism and Out-Group Prejudice in Young Children: Are They Distinct Attitudes?

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2003

Frances E. Aboud

Although standardized measures of prejudice reveal high levels of ethnocentric bias in the preschool years, it may reflect in-group favoritism or out-group prejudice. A measure that partially decouples the two attitudes was given to White children between 4 and 7 years of age to examine the reciprocal relation between and the acquisition and correlates of in-group and out-group attitudes. The two attitudes were reciprocally correlated in 1 sample from a racially homogeneous school but not in a 2nd sample from a mixed-race school. In-group favoritism did not appear until 5 years of age but then reached significant levels; it was strongly related to developing social cognitions. Out-group prejudice was weaker, but its targets suffer from comparison with the high favoritism accorded in-group members.

Gendered Racial Stereotype Endorsement:: A Theoretical Review and Implications for Black Girls’ STEM Identity

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023

Recent indicators continue to highlight the underrepresentation of Black girls and women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), from advanced course enrollment and degree attainment to employment. In this paper, we consider the role of stereotypes as an underlying motivational mechanism that shapes Black girls’ STEM identity and persistence. This theoretical review seeks to provide a conceptual foundation for research on gendered racial stereotype endorsement among Black girls and the differential ways girls may incorporate this knowledge as they navigate STEM learning environments. We define gendered racial stereotypes as widely held beliefs and depictions of Black girls (as a collective group) and their lived experience as perceived by broader society. Despite their awareness of stereotypes, Black girls frequently develop strategies to aid in their persistence. Although they may occasionally endorse these stereotypes, Black girls also use their understanding of stereotypes as a motivator to actively resist and disrupt deficit narratives. By utilizing process-oriented and culturally-informed approaches, we extend the current understanding of Black girls’ stereotype development. Additionally, we provide practical recommendations for research, policy, and educational praxis to aid in the continued positive development of Black girls’ identity in STEM learning environments.

Implicit Ethnic–Racial Self-Stereotyping’s Relation to Children’s Body Mass Index and Diet: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

Childhood obesity in the United States has disproportionately affected Latinx and Black children. The authors examine this issue by drawing upon implicit social cognition theory and social–psychological models of health and stress to propose and test a relation between negative implicit self-stereotyping and body mass index (BMI) and diet. Furthermore, it was predicted that self-esteem would buffer this relation because it is a psychological resource that functions to protect against stressors like the psychological experience of stigma. The authors recruited a community sample of 9–12-year-old Latinx and Black children and measured individual differences in implicit and explicit associations between the self and group stereotypes, self-esteem, objective BMI, and diet. Consistent with the main hypotheses, strong negative implicit (but not explicit) self-stereotyping was associated with higher levels of body mass indices in the obesity range and less healthy diet, but only among children with low self-esteem. Among children with high self-esteem, these relations were absent. These results held even after controlling for the contribution of parents’ BMI, diet, education, and household income. These data are the first to theoretically and empirically link implicit self-stereotyping and self-esteem with physiological risk factors for chronic health conditions. Thus, this research contributes to understanding disparities among stigmatized ethnic–racial children in the United States and beyond.

When Multiracial Individuals Are the Numerical Majority: Children’s Racial Attitudes in the Dominican Republic

Article

Full-text available

May 2021

The Dominican Republic is a uniquely valuable context in which to study children's racial stereotyping and prejudice, in part because multiracial individuals comprise the majority of the population and race is viewed largely as a continuous rather than dichotomous construct. In two studies, we use developmental and social theories to ground an exploration of Dominican children's racial biases. In studies 1 (n = 54; ages 6-11) and 2 (n = 122; ages 6-11), children were given measures of racial identity, preference, stereotyping, and/or status. As expected, children identified their own race in a manner consistent with others (e.g., their teachers). Across a variety of tasks, children failed to consistently favor members of a specific racial group-as indicated by differing levels of racial stereotyping and associations of social status with different races. They did, however, sometimes systematically express greater liking of individuals of mixed racial heritage, a finding that was contingent on the modality of assessment (i.e., whether race was framed as a continuous vs. dichotomous category, and measured via nonforced vs. forced-choice methods). Implications for current theories of racial attitude development are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial Stereotype Application in 4- to 8-Year-Old White American Children: Emergence and Specificity

Preprint

Feb 2021

Young children’s racial stereotyping is poorly understood even though stereotyping can influence individuals’ attitudes and behavior toward others. Here we present two preregistered studies (Total N = 257) examining White American children’s (4–8 years) application of six stereotypes (about being American, smart, wealthy, athletic, trustworthy, and nice) when considering Asian, Black, and White children. We observed clear and consistent evidence for only one cultural stereotype across the two studies: participants indicated that Asian and Black children were less American than White children. In a measure of racial attitudes, participants also preferred White children over Black and Asian children. Taken together, this research suggests that, in contrast to findings from previous work, only stereotypes about being American emerge in early childhood. Moreover, this research indicates that children’s cultural stereotypes diverge from children’s attitudes early in development. These studies raise new questions about the emergence of racial stereotype application early in childhood.

Intergroup attitudes and group evaluations: The role of competition in British classroom settings. Child Development Research, ID8649132, 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/8649132

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2016

Children’s intergroup bias is one of the consequences of their readiness to categorise people into ingroups and outgroups, even when groups are assigned arbitrarily. The present study examined the influence of intergroup competition on children’s ingroup and outgroup attitudes developed within the minimal-group setting in British classrooms. One hundred and twelve children in two age groups (6-7- and 9-10-year-olds) were assessed on classification skills and self-esteem before being allocated to one of two colour “teams.” In the experimental condition, children were told that the teams would have a competition after two weeks and teachers made regular use of these teams to organise activities. In the control condition, where no competition ensued, teachers did not refer to “teams.” Then children completed trait attributions to their own-team (ingroup) and other-team (outgroup) members and group evaluations. It was found that children developed positive ingroup bias across conditions, but outgroup negative bias was shown only by 6-7-year-olds in the experimental condition, particularly if they lost the competition, where they evaluated their team more critically. Better classification skills were associated with less negativity towards the outgroup in the experimental condition. Findings are discussed in relation to relevant theoretical premises and particulars of the intergroup context.

Racial Categorization Predicts Implicit Racial Bias in Preschool Children

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2017
CHILD DEV

This research investigated the relation between racial categorization and implicit racial bias in majority and minority children. Chinese and Indian 3- to 7-year-olds from Singapore (N = 158) categorized Chinese and Indian faces by race and had their implicit and explicit racial biases measured. Majority Chinese children, but not minority Indian children, showed implicit bias favoring own race. Regardless of ethnicity, children's racial categorization performance correlated positively with implicit racial bias. Also, Chinese children, but not Indian children, displayed explicit bias favoring own race. Furthermore, children's explicit bias was unrelated to racial categorization performance and implicit bias. The findings support a perceptual-social linkage in the emergence of implicit racial bias and have implications for designing programs to promote interracial harmony.

Mental health awareness intervention in schools

Article

Jan 2012

The lack of information and stigma associated with mental disorders are major obstacles to the promotion of mental health. The "UPA Makes the Difference: Mental health awareness intervention in schools" project aims to contribute to increase young people knowledge regarding mental health issues. This project is part of the "United to Help Movement", focusing on the combat of mental illness stigma and discrimination. OBJECTIVES: to describe the psychometric characteristics of the questionnaire UH (United to Help) and to verify the adequacy of action to promote mental health. METHODS: this study was conducted with 26 students (15-17 year-olds). The mental health intervention is composed by 2 sessions. The questionnaire was administered at the beginning of the 1st session and in the end of the 2nd session. RESULTS: cronbach'salpha regarding 2 sections of the "Questionnaire UPA" stated poor and acceptable levels of internal consistency (stigmatizing perceptions and perceptions of knowledge, respectively). The post intervention assessment showed a significant increase in the total score of the perceptions of knowledge; no significant differences in stigmatizing perceptions; and a significant decrease in help-seeking intentions when facing a mental health problem, although most participants have come to consider different types of help. CONCLUSION: the results suggest the need to review the structure of the "stigmatizing perceptions" section of the questionnaire, as well as to conduct new analyses with a larger sample. Furthermore, results show the adequacy of the methodology used in the intervention, particularly in the capacity showed to promote the increase of knowledge regarding mental health issues.

Alfabetizzazione critica e educazione democratica per contrastare la riproduzione del pregiudizio etnico e di genere nella letteratura fantastica per l'infanzia e l'adolescenza. Critical literacy and democratic education to oppose the perpetration of ethnic and gender prejudice in the fantastic literature for children and adolescent

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Natascia Bobbo

Introduzione Da sempre gli esseri umani hanno sentito l'esigenza di comunicare ai propri simili e soprattutto alle nuove generazioni non solo informazioni pratiche, funzionali alla sopravvivenza quotidiana, ma anche conoscenze e chiavi di interpretazione della realtà che sarebbero state utili per affrontare problemi profondi, perché appartenenti al senso della vita e alle scelte esistenziali. ABSTRACT ITALIANO Dall'inizio dei tempi fino ad oggi le storie narrate, scritte o rappresentate dagli adulti per i p i ù g i o v a n i h a n n o p o t u t o c o m u n i c a re i n f o r m a z i o n i p r a t i c h e f u n z i o n a l i a l l a sopravvivenza e chiavi di interpretazione della realtà, ma hanno anche spesso rappresentato mondi, contesti e realtà sociali non sempre inclusivi di tutte le diversità umane. Il genere fantastico, nella forma di fiabe e fantasy, in grado più di altri per la sua apertura immaginifica di rappresentare un mondo inclusivo, sembra non farlo, contribuendo anche oggi a riprodurre pregiudizi di genere ed etnici nei giovani lettori e spettatori. Il contributo intende esplorare tali aspetti per sottolineare la necessità di una intenzionalità educativa capace di contrastare questa tendenza e sostenere lo sviluppo di identità personali libere e rispettose delle diversità e di comunità sociali più inclusive, attraverso specifici percorsi di alfabetizzazione critica.

Racial Stereotype Application in 4-to-8-Year-Old White American Children: Emergence and Specificity

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2022

Young children’s racial stereotyping is poorly understood even though stereotyping can influence individuals’ attitudes and behavior toward others. Here we present two preregistered studies (Total N = 257) examining White American children’s (4–8 years) application of six stereotypes (about being American, smart, wealthy, sporty, honest, and nice) when considering Asian, Black, and White children. We observed clear and consistent evidence for one cultural stereotype across the two studies: participants indicated that Asian and Black children were less American than White children. In a measure of racial attitudes, participants also preferred White children over Black and Asian children. Taken together, this research suggests that, in contrast to findings from previous work, White American children only consistently applied stereotypes about being American. Moreover, this research suggests that children’s cultural stereotypes might diverge from children’s attitudes early in development. These studies raise new questions about the emergence of racial stereotype application early in childhood – including how best to study it.

An Integrative Model for the Development of Anti-Racist Behavior in White Adolescents

Article

May 2022

We propose an integrative model for the development of anti-racism in white adolescents that unpacks and combines critical consciousness, color consciousness, anti-racism, and Critical Race Theory frameworks. Black and Brown youth in the U.S. face increasing rates of peer-directed racism, which contribute to long-term negative physical, psychological, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Despite increased focus on how critical consciousness and anti-racism develop uniquely in adolescence, there are no existing theories that provide an integrated, comprehensive model of anti-racist development in white adolescents. Our model unpacks and reorganizes the core features of four prominent theories into cognitive, psychological, and behavioral components of anti-racism development in white adolescents based on existing research to support a next-generation of hypotheses for future research. In doing so, we aim to provide a contemporary theoretical foundation for research that will elucidate anti-racism development among white youth, and help to dismantle structural racism against Black and Brown people in the U.S.

Developmental Considerations for Understanding Perceptions and Impacts of Identity-Related Differences: Focusing on Adolescence

Article

May 2022

Biological psychiatry, like many other scientific fields, is grappling with the challenge of revising its practices with an eye towards promoting diversity, equity, and inclusivity (DEI). One arena in which much of this work will have significant impact is in developmental science generally, and the study of adolescence specifically. Adolescence is a critical period during human development during which important social, neural, and cognitive maturation processes take place. It is also a time marked by risky behaviors and the onset of a range of mental disorders. Social and developmental research has provided insight into the cognitive and neural processes by which perceptions of identity-related differences emerge. Clinical research aimed at understanding how individuals from diverse backgrounds navigate the transition period of adolescence is critical for identifying the unique factors underlying risk and resilience in minoritized populations. Taking a developmental perspective, we review processes by which the brain understands group differences and how the developmental timing of this can influence antecedents of psychological distress. We close with a call to action, pointing to important understudied areas within the field of biological psychiatry that are critical for supporting mental health among diverse adolescent populations.

Racial Stereotype Endorsement, Academic Engagement, Mindset, and Performance among Black and White American Adolescents

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2022
J YOUTH ADOLESCENCE

The role of racial stereotypes in youth’s academic achievement becomes salient during adolescence. Yet, very few studies have investigated whether associations between Black and White American adolescents’ stereotype endorsement and their cognitive engagement, mindset beliefs, and performance in math differed by stereotype valence (i.e., positive versus negative) and youth gender. To address these gaps, this 3-year longitudinal study (n = 2546; age range = 11–16; 50% males, 60% White, 40% Black; 57% qualified for free lunch) investigated (a) whether Black and White American adolescents’ endorsement of positive and negative racial stereotypes differentially related to their cognitive engagement, ability mindset, and math performance and (b) whether gender moderated these relations. The results revealed that endorsing either negative or positive racial stereotypes (as opposed to those with unbiased beliefs) was linked to lower cognitive engagement and stronger fixed mindsets in math 1 year after, while endorsing negative racial stereotypes was linked to lower math scores. In addition, the intersection of adolescents’ race and gender moderated some of the observed effects. The inverse link between negative stereotype endorsement and math cognitive engagement was significant for Black girls but not for Black boys. The positive link between negative stereotype endorsement and fixed math ability mindset was stronger for Black girls than Black boys, whereas the link was stronger for White boys than White girls. These findings shed light on the direction and strength of the links between racial stereotype valence and math outcomes among Black and White youth.

Positive Youth Development in Contexts

Book

Full-text available

Jan 2022

This monograph offers a starting point for Positive Youth Development research in Slovenia with clear links to the research in international settings. An overview is also provided of the complexities of the various contexts of Europe and Slovenia able to influence positive youth development. Thus, while the research reported in the monograph focuses on the Slovenian context, it is ambitious enough to also reach beyond the country’s borders to include the international research community. In addition to novelty and innovation in a scientific context, the presented research is socially relevant, especially for its inclusion of immigrants and other young people at risk in the school and wider social contexts.

Contact-based interventions to reduce ethnic prejudice against migrants and ethnic minorities in the school context: A systematic literature review

Chapter

Full-text available

Dec 2021

Ana Lampret

Positive intergroup contact with peers at school is a crucial factor in the successful integration of migrant and ethnic minority children and ado-lescents into the local community. Yet, in most cases it is seldom achieva-ble due to prejudice expressed towards ethnic outgroups, which constitutes an important risk factor for social isolation, academic failure, emotional distress, and behavioural problems of children with a migrant or refugee background. Interventions involving intergroup contact have been prov-en to be the most effective among prejudice-reducing interventions. This article provides a review of the literature on contact-based interventions aimed at reducing ethnic prejudice against migrants, refugees and ethnic minorities in primary and secondary schools. It describes different types of intergroup contact-based interventions – direct, extended, vicarious and imagined – and provides the newest findings on their efficacy. Results are provided for the general factors that influence the effectiveness of interven-tions for reducing ethnic prejudice in the school context: the age of partic-ipants, their ethnic status, the administrator of interventions, the length of interventions, the number of interventions and type of outcome (affective, cognitive, behavioural). At the end, practical implications for performing a successful intervention to lower ethnic prejudice using direct or indirect contact in primary and secondary schools are provided.

Ethno‐political socialization of young children in societies involved in intractable conflict: The case of Israel

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2021

This paper presents an analysis of the ethno‐political socialization of young children in the context of intractable conflict, drawing on the case of Israeli society. The analysis is based on the integrative developmental‐contextual theory (IDCT), which proposes that in the context of intractable conflict, from a very early age onward, in‐group members acquire a socio‐psychological repertoire that consists of narratives, beliefs, attitudes, and emotions related to the conflict and to the rival group. IDCT highlights three central components that dictate the nature of this socio‐psychological repertoire: children's normative developmental trajectory, the context in which the development takes place, and the ethno‐political socialization that is performed by societal agents. We discuss the interaction between these components in socializing children's socio‐psychological repertoire, and ways to change the course of socialization in the context of intractable conflict towards peace‐oriented socialization.

‫الج‬ ‫الن‬ ‫ذور‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ئمة‬ ‫لتطر‬ ‫في‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ا‬ ‫لطفو‬ ‫لة:‬ ‫مت‬ ‫ى‬ ‫التدخ‬ ‫يجب‬ ‫ل؟‬ ‫ِج‬ ‫ره‬ ‫مِ‬ ‫ريتا‬ The Latent Roots of Extremism in Childhood: When to interfere?

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

Rita Merhej

In light of the prevalence of intolerance and extremism in our world today, this research argues that extremism is found in every human being, regardless of circumstantial factors, as the extremist mindset arises during the construction of the self-image and the perception of the other in early childhood. The research presents a systematic review of studies on prejudice between 1990 and 2019 in children between 2 and 10 years of age from different countries, and uses the cognitive-development theory and the theory of social identity to frame the developmental path of extremism. Results highlighted the extent to which the two theories agree on the importance of in-group favoritism in enhancing the child's and the group's self-esteem; they differ however in their interpretation of the naturally-occurring social comparison process, as the child's egocentric thinking does not necessarily include hatred towards the "other". The passage from in-group favoritism toward out-group prejudice requires several conditions, among which the implicit presence of prejudice in the affiliation group. Recommendations to ward off extremist thinking in early childhood include ensuring opportunities for contact between different groups and incorporating concepts such as tolerance and acceptance of human diversity in the educational curricula for this age period.

Catégorisation sociale des bénéficiaires de la CMU par les masseurs-kinésithérapeutes

Article

Feb 2020

Sebastien Herry

Résumé Ce travail a pour objet l’étude des stéréotypes et des discriminations dans le domaine de la santé, et plus précisément parmi les masseurs-kinésithérapeutes libéraux. Une littérature anglo-saxonne abondante révèle des pratiques discriminatoires de la part des professionnels de santé envers les patients noirs, hispaniques, pauvres et/ou de sexe féminin. Nous avons choisi d’étudier la population des patients bénéficiant de la Couverture Mutuelle Universelle (CMU) afin de représenter une population de patients de niveau socioéconomique peu élevé. Nous avons établi, grâce à un questionnaire rempli par des masseurs-kinésithérapeutes, que ces patients étaient bien l’objet d’un stéréotype assez péjoratif, teinté d’inutilité sociale. Ces résultats confortent une étude précédente menée auprès de médecins et de dentistes libéraux en France. Niveau de preuve 5.

Schools as Change Agents in Reducing Bias and Discrimination: Shaping Behaviors and Attitudes

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2019
J Child Fam Stud

Objective To describe the issues associated with heightened levels of discriminatory behaviors and their effects on children and youth. We then describe efforts to ameliorate discriminatory behaviors at the school level, placing emphasis on practices that can be implemented within current school initiatives. Method We employed a thematic review approach to examine the effects of discriminatory behaviors on children and youth, as well as on school-based practices employed to redress such behaviors. Results Schools can act as change agents to curb the negative experiences youth have with discrimination, hateful speech and actions, and harassment. Many schools are successfully addressing these issues through their use of positive behavioral interventions and supports, social and emotional learning programs, bullying prevention programs, and interventions, which are designed to positively influence discriminatory behaviors and biased attitudes. Conclusion Schools should address issues like harassment, bullying, racism, and discrimination through the use of programs or interventions designed to reduce them, in order to provide more equitable schooling experiences and more equitable educational outcomes for all.

Conceptualizing Adolescent Mental Illness Stigma: Youth Stigma Development and Stigma Reduction Programs

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2020

Joseph S. DeLuca

The majority of mental illnesses develop during the teenage years, and such mental health conditions can significantly derail psychosocial development. However, many adolescents are reluctant to pursue mental health services or do not know how to help their peers who may be struggling. Stigma and low mental health knowledge have been identified as leading barriers to such mental health help-seeking. In response, there has been increasing interest in understanding the development of stigma among youth and evidence-base interventions to reduce stigma. The focus of this narrative review was to summarize findings from the adolescent mental illness stigma literature and to link findings to a multidimensional and theoretical model of stigma and adolescent development, with the goals of informing future research and evidence-based stigma reduction practices. Existing evidence suggests that stigma is well-documented among adolescents, but that little consensus exists regarding how to implement successful adolescent-focused mental illness stigma reduction programs. Suggestions for improvement include evaluating the multiple dimensions of mental illness stigma when conducting research, considering the impact of adolescent development on program development and evaluation, using reliable and valid outcome measures, and employing strong research designs (e.g., randomized trials with fidelity checks and long-term follow-ups) to evaluate standardized programs.

Effective vocabulary instruction for Spanish-speaking students

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2014

Is there peace within Islamic fundamentalists? When Islamic fundamentalism moderates the effect of meta-belief of friendship on positive perceptions and trust toward outgroup

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2018

On the basis that religious fundamentalists have a strong bond to their religion, we hypothesized that Islamic fundamentalism would moderate the effect of ingroup meta-belief of friendship on positive perceptions and trust on Christians. The results of the research involving 147 Muslim participants showed that the effect of ingroup meta-belief of friendship on positive perception and trust was significant among participants with high Islamic fundamentalism. It indicates that Islamic fundamentalists may become the ones who stand at the forefront to build a good relationship with other religions when they think their religion sees a particular outgroup as friendly.

Unerwünschte Nebenwirkungen in der Kinder- und Jugendlichenpsychotherapie – Eine Einführung und Empfehlungen

Article

May 2018

Zusammenfassung Psychotherapie bei Kinder- und Jugendlichen wirkt, jedoch können auch unerwünschte Effekte auftreten. Im Kinder- und Jugendbereich ist dieses wichtige Thema bisher vernachlässigt worden, obwohl gerade Kinder und Jugendliche eines besonderen Schutzes bedürfen. Durch Therapie verursachte unerwünschte Effekte der Psychotherapie sind im Kinder- und Jugendbereich bisher nicht systematisch untersucht worden und eine entsprechende Konzeptualisierung fehlt. Ziel des vorliegenden Artikels ist es, aktuelle Klassifikationen zu unerwünschten Effekten von Psychotherapie bei Erwachsenen hinsichtlich der Übertragbarkeit auf das Kindes- und Jugendalter zu prüfen und die Besonderheiten in diesem Bereich herauszuarbeiten. Des Weiteren wird die Adaptation des Inventars zur Erfassung negativer Effekte für das Kindes- und Jugendalter vorgestellt (Kinder-INEP) [1]. Abschließend werden Maßnahmen zur Aufklärung und Vermeidung von unerwünschten, negativen Effekten in der Kinder- und Jugendlichenpsychotherapie aufgezeigt.

A Chip Off the Old Block: Parents’ Subtle Ethnic Prejudice Predicts Children’s Implicit Prejudice

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2018

The increasing flow of immigrants in many European countries and the growing presence of children from immigrant families in schools makes it relevant to study the development of prejudice in children. Parents play an important role in shaping children’s values and their attitudes toward members of other ethnic groups; an intergenerational transmission of prejudice has been found in a number of studies targeting adolescents. The present study aims to investigate the intergenerational transmission of ethnic prejudice in 3- to 9- year-old children and its relations to parenting styles. Parents’ blatant and subtle ethnic prejudice and parenting style are measured together with children’s explicit and implicit ethnic prejudice in pupils and parents of preschool and primary schools in the region of Rome, Italy (N = 318). Results show that parents’ subtle prejudice predicts children’s implicit prejudice regardless of the parenting style. Findings indicate that children might acquire prejudice by means of the parents’ implicit cognition and automatic behavior and educational actions. Implications for future studies and insights for possible applied interventions are discussed.

Impact of Contact With Grandparents on Children's and Adolescents’ Views on the Elderly

Article

Dec 2017
CHILD DEV

Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination against the elderly (ageism) may manifest themselves in children at an early age. However, the factors influencing this phenomenon are not well known. Using both explicit and open-ended questions, this study analyzed the influence of personal and familial parameters on the views of 1,151 seven- to sixteen-year-old Belgian children and adolescents on the elderly. Four factors were found to affect these views: gender (girls had slightly more positive views than boys), age (ageism was lowest in 10- to 12-year-old, reminiscent of other forms of stereotypes and cognitive developmental theories), grandparents’ health, and most importantly, quality of contact with grandparents (very good and good contacts correlated with more favorable feelings toward the elderly, especially in children with frequent contacts).

חִברות פוליטי של ילדים צעירים בסכסוכים בלתי נשלטים: המקרה הישראלי

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2017

מאמר זה בוחן את החִברות הפוליטי של ילדים ישראלים־יהודים צעירים החיים בצל הסכסוך הישראלי־פלסטיני הבלתי נשלט. המאמר טוען כי הדרך שבה החִברות הפוליטי של ילדים צעירים מתרחש, בהקשר של סכסוך מעין זה, מקדמת בקרבם רכישה של רפרטואר חברתי־פסיכולוגי הכולל ידע, עולם מושגים, תפיסות, רגשות ונרטיבים קולקטיביים המתקשרים לסכסוך. הרפרטואר החברתי־פסיכולוגי שהילדים רוכשים בגיל צעיר נטמע בהם ומחזק את דבקותם ברפרטואר הסכסוך בבגרותם, ודבקוּת זו יוצרת חסם מרכזי בפני תהליכים של פיוס ושלום. על מנת להדגים כיצד החִברות הפוליטי מתרחש בישראל, המאמר סוקר סדרה של מחקרים שנערכו בגני ילדים ובבתי ספר יסודיים. מחקרים אלו מציגים הן תכנים שילדים צעירים רוכשים והן תכנים שגננות ומורות מקנות להם, המתקשרים כולם לסכסוך הישראלי־פלסטיני. המאמר מצביע על ההשלכות מרחיקות הלכת שיש לרכישת תמות הקשורות לסכסוך, ובכללן אתוס של סכסוך וזיכרון קולקטיבי של סכסוך, בגיל כה צעיר בחבָרות המעורבות בסכסוך בלתי נשלט.

Concepciones infantiles sobre la exclusión étnica en inmigrantes latinoamericanos que residen en Estados Unidos

Thesis

Full-text available

Feb 2016

La tesis que se presenta tiene como objetivo develar las percepciones sobre la exclusión que los niños emigrantes a los Estados Unidos residentes en la frontera (Austin, Texas). https://repositorio.uam.es/handle/10486/672398

The Development of Math–Race Stereotypes: “They Say Chinese People Are the Best at Math”

Article

Jun 2014
J RES ADOLESCENCE

Sixty elementary-school children (9–10 years old) and 82 adolescents (12–13 years old) completed explicit and implicit measures of racial stereotypes about math. 60 Asian, 42 Latino, 21 White, 15 Black, and four multiracial students participated (42% boys). On the explicit measure, children as early as fifth grade reported being aware of the stereotype that Asians = math, but only adolescents personally endorsed this stereotype. On the implicit measure, there was significant evidence for racial stereotypes about math among adolescents. Across both ages, individual students’ explicit awareness of the stereotype was significantly correlated with their implicit stereotypes. Early adolescence is a key developmental window for discussing stereotypes before they become endorsed as personal beliefs.

When the Majority Becomes the Minority: A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Immersive Experience With Racial Out-Group Members on Implicit and Explicit Racial Biases

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2017

The present study investigated the effects of immersive exposure to other-race individuals on racial bias. In Study 1, we tracked African students (N = 85) who went to study at a Chinese university and thus experienced daily contact with Chinese individuals en masse for the first time. Using a cohort-sequential longitudinal design, we found that an implicit pro-Chinese racial bias emerged within 3 months after these students arrived in China, and that this bias remained stable for at least a year. In contrast, their explicit racial bias did not change. In Study 2, we assessed another group of African students (N = 47) at 1 month and at 3 months after their arrival in China, looking at not only their implicit and explicit racial bias, but also their intergroup contact quantity, intergroup contact quality, and intergroup friendship. We found that intergroup contact quantity and intergroup friendship predicted implicit but not explicit racial bias 2 months later. The findings suggest that immersive experiences with racial out-groups can have early and lasting effects on implicit racial bias.

Psi Chi Journal Editorial Transition

Article

Jan 2016

Examining the Reliability and Convergent Validity of IPARTheory Measures

Article

Jan 2016

İlkokul Öğrencilerinin Kalıp Yargı ve Ön Yargılarının Yaş ve Cinsiyet Açısından İncelenmesi Investigation of Stereotypes and Prejudices of Primary School Students in Terms of Age and Gender

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2024

Bu araştırmada, ilkokul 4.sınıf öğrencilerinin kalıp yargı ve ön yargılarını yaş ve cinsiyet açısından incelemek amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma, nicel araştırma yöntemlerinden tarama modeliyle gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu amaç doğrultusunda araştırmacılar tarafından Çocuklar için Kalıp Yargı Ölçeği ve Çocuklar için Ön Yargı Ölçeği geliştirilmiştir. Ölçeklerin geçerliliğini sağlamak için Açımlayıcı Faktör ve Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizi yapılmıştır. Geçerliliği ve güvenirliği sağlanan ölçekler, 2021-2022 eğitim-öğretim yılında Mardin ili Kızıltepe ilçesi merkez ilkokullarının 4. sınıfında öğrenim gören 448 öğrenciye uygulanmıştır. Elde edilen veriler, Tek Yönlü Varyans Analizi ve İlişkisiz Örneklemler t-Testi ile analiz edilmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda ilkokul öğrencilerindeki kalıp yargı ve ön yargı düzeylerinde cinsiyete göre anlamlı bir fark belirlenmemiştir. Yaş değişkeni açısından ise çocukların ön yargıları ve kalıp yargılarının anlamlı farklılık gösterdiği anlaşılmıştır. Buna göre daha üst yaş grubunun alt yaş gruplarına göre kalıp yargılarının, daha alt yaş gruplarının ise üst yaş gruplarına göre ön yargılarının daha fazla olduğu görülmüştür. Kalıp yargı ve ön yargı düzeylerine bakımından, öğrencilerin ortalama kalıp yargılarının düşük, ön yargılarının ise yüksek olduğu görülmüştür. Araştırma sonuçları doğrultusunda, Sosyal Bilgiler Dersi Öğretim Programında yer alan ve 7. sınıfta kazandırılması hedeflenen kalıp yargı ve ön yargıyı fark etme becerisine 4. sınıftan itibaren yer verilmesi önerilmiştir.

Demigods and Gender Roles: Non-Heteronormative Gender Expressions and the Works of Rick Riordan

Article

Nov 2021

Lee Witkowski

Gender serves as a powerful ideology to systematically oppress minorities, such as women and people within the LGBTQ+ community. This ideology is learned at a young age through media such as fantasy literature. By analyzing several fantasy texts through a lens of gender politics, I track the history of gender in the fantasy genre and posit that inclusive works such as those of Rick Riordan influence children and adolescents to become more accepting of sexual and gender minorities.

Prejudice in Children and Extremism in Adults: Intriguing Mindset Convergences

Article

Feb 2024
SOC SCI INFORM

Rita Merhej

In the literature on children’s interpersonal and intergroup relations, it is inappropriate to say a child is ‘racist’ even in the evidence of the White child refusing to sit near a Black peer in class, or vice versa, or allying with friends to bully that same peer at school. In such cases, this child’s behavior has been referred to as out-group prejudice. Racial prejudice is bound to develop into any of the multiple types of extremism. This paper explores the similarities between the adult extremist mindset and children’s prejudice. We present the conceptual constituents of both the extremist mindset and prejudice, then discuss the convergences between the two; we later present the convergences in the determinants of both extremism and prejudice. The exploration of such convergences allows us to posit that prejudice in childhood may be a marker for extremism in adulthood. The recommendation is therefore to incite researchers to look more into the prejudiced mindset in childhood as a potential marker of the adult extremist mindset, and intervention policy makers to look into factors that buffer the further development of children’s prejudiced mindset into extremist polarized views about the world. Keywords: children’s prejudice; extremist mindset; racism; ethnocentrism; social identity theory; in-group favoritism; out-group bias.

Why Human Prejudice is so Persistent: A Predictive Coding Analysis

Article

Aug 2023

Tzu-Wei Hung

Select Bibliography

Article

Jan 2022

Silvana Patriarca

Focusing on the experiences and representations of the 'brown babies' born at the end of World War Two from the encounters between Black Allied soldiers and Italian women, this book explores the persistence of racial thinking and racism in post-fascist and postcolonial Italy. Through the use of a large variety of historical sources, including personal testimonies and the cinema, Silvana Patriarca illustrates Italian – and also American – responses to what many considered a 'problem'. She sensitively analyses the perceptions of race/color among different actors, such as state and local authorities, Catholic clerics, filmmakers, geneticists, psychologists, and ordinary people, and her book is rich in detail about their impact on the lives of the children. Uncovering the pervasiveness of anti-Black prejudice in the early democratic republic, as well as the presence and limitations of anti-racist sensibilities, Race in Post-Fascist Italy allows us to better understand Italy's conflicted reaction to its growing diversity.

L’expérience scolaire des descendants d’immigrés Nord-Africains : Une entrée par l’étude des processus de décrochage scolaire, d’ethno-racisation et de discrimination raciale au cycle 3

Thesis

Mar 2021

Iman Ben Lakhdhar

Les études sur les enfants d’immigrés d’Afrique du Nord révèlent que leur expérience scolaire est souvent marquée par de l’échec, de l’ethno-racisation et de la discrimination ethno-raciale. En dépit de la présence de facteurs de risque dans leur contexte de vie, certains descendants d’immigrés maghrébins connaissent des trajectoires scolaires ordinaires voire meilleures que celles des élèves sans ascendance migratoire directe. Nous avons donc fait le choix d’une approche écosystémique pour tenter de comprendre cette diversité d’expériences qu’ils vivent à l’école. Nous nous sommes appuyées sur une démarche compréhensive de type qualitative pour conduire notre recherche auprès de quatorze collégiens descendants d’immigrés nord-africains en phase exploratoire, vingt-sept écoliers de cycle 3 ayant au moins l’un des deux parents nés en Afrique du Nord et vingt-sept écoliers de cycle 3 sans ascendance migratoire directe en phase confirmatoire. Grâce à l’analyse des témoignages recueillis, nous avons pu mettre en évidence les facteurs concourants à la construction d’une expérience scolaire positive dont les effets protecteurs contre un décrochage scolaire ultérieur sont pour certains déjà visibles.

Another step to school inclusion: Development and Validation of the Children‘s Attitudes Towards Autism Questionnaire (CATAQ)

Article

Mar 2021

Research has shown that negative attitudes toward a different child can appear very early in development. Unfortunately, these negative attitudes are one of the most important barriers to the school inclusion of children with autism. Despite the increasing amount of research, no tool reliably measures these attitudes among young students. The objective of this study was to develop and validate a questionnaire (Children’s Attitudes Towards Autism Questionnaire, CATAQ) to evaluate attitudes of students in elementary school towards their peers with autism. Elementary school students (N= 204) completed the CATAQ and two other scales assessing behavioral intentions towards peers with a mental disability (SAQ-B) and familiarity with disability and autism. Results first showed that the CATAQ reliably measured the concept of attitude through three sub-dimensions (namely the cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions). Second, analyses confirmed that the CATAQ corresponds with previous knowledge on this topic, namely that attitudes were more positive in girls, older children, and children familiar with disability. In conclusion, the CATAQ is the first scale (1) to assess all the dimensions of attitudes towards autism among elementary school children (from the age of 6 years old) (2) to show theoretical and statistical relevance. From now on, the CATAQ could be used to assess attitudes of young children towards their peers with autism. This is an important step forward, in particular for evaluating the effects of anti-stigma programs that are increasingly implemented in schools.

Judging books by covers: Exploring antiblackness and Asian and Hispanic children preferences

Article

Jan 2021

Children’s books support children’s development, but many factors influence interest in engaging with books, including book physical features. Additionally, the lack of diverse children’s books makes it difficult to determine whether racial characters influence children's book preferences. This study utilized a forced-choice selection task to investigate book preference of 56 five-, six-, and seven-year-old Hispanic/Latino (n = 23) and Asian (n = 33) children. The children were shown identical book covers with either an object or a Black or White character. Participant preferences and rationales were collected and analyzed. While the ANOVA showed no significant differences, a Chi-square test did reveal significance in preference differences, and five qualitative preference rationale categories emerged, including a race-related rationale. Study implications provide evidence for the necessity of publishing more diverse books and including them as required materials within curriculum.

Minimal but Not Meaningless: Seemingly Arbitrary Category Labels Can Imply More Than Group Membership

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2020

Minimal group paradigms tend to involve contrived group distinctions, such as dot estimation tendencies and aesthetic preferences. Researchers assume that these novel category distinctions lack informational value. Our research tests this notion. Specifically, we used the classic overestimator versus underestimator and Klee versus Kandinsky minimal group paradigms to assess how category labels influence minimal group responses. In Study 1, we show that participants represented ingroup faces more favorably than outgroup faces, but also represented overestimator and underestimator category labels differently. In fact, the category label effect was larger than the intergroup effect, even though participants were told that estimation tendencies were unrelated to other cognitive tendencies or personality traits. In Study 2, we demonstrate that Klee and Kandinsky were also represented differently, but in this case, the intergroup effect was stronger than the category label effect. In Studies 3 and 4, we examined effects of category labels on how participants allocate resources to, evaluate, and ascribe traits to ingroup and outgroup members. We found both category label and intergroup effects when participants were assigned to overestimator and underestimator groups. However, we found only the intergroup effect when participants were assigned to Klee and Kandinsky groups. Together, this work advances but does not upend understanding of minimal group effects. We robustly replicate minimal intergroup bias in mental representations of faces, evaluations, trait inferences, and resource allocations. At the same time, we show that seemingly arbitrary category labels can imply characteristics about groups that may influence responses in intergroup contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Previous Research About Tolerance

Chapter

Apr 2019

Rivka T Witenberg

This chapter summaries some of the literature about alternative studies which have explored aspects of tolerance not as a function of absence of prejudice. Psychological research about tolerance has focused on political and belief discrepancy tolerance rather than tolerance more generally. The reviewed studies are examples of a larger body of literature which endorses the idea that political and belief-discrepancy tolerance is not a global construct and that whom we are asked to tolerate, what we are asked to tolerate and under what circumstances we are willing to tolerate others influence how tolerant we are. Age and gender related differences were also evident with younger children inadequate in their abilities to deal with difference and diversity because of their cognitive limitations and insufficient knowledge base rather than pure prejudice.

Racial/Ethnic Discrimination and Well-Being During Adolescence: A Meta-Analytic Review

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2018

This meta-analytic study systematically investigates the relations between perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and socioemotional distress, academics, and risky health behaviors during adolescence, and potential variation in these relations. The study included 214 peer-reviewed articles, theses, and dissertations, with 489 unique effect sizes on 91,338 unique adolescents. Random-effects meta-analyses across 11 separate indicators of well-being identified significant detrimental effects. Greater perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination were linked to more depressive and internalizing symptoms; greater psychological distress; poorer self-esteem; lower academic achievement and engagement; less academic motivation; greater engagement in externalizing behaviors, risky sexual behaviors, and substance use; and more associations with deviant peers. Metaregression and subgroup analyses indicated differences by race/ethnicity, Gender × Race/Ethnicity interactions, developmental stage, timing of retrospective measurement of discrimination, and country. Overall, this study highlights the pernicious effects of racial/ethnic discrimination for adolescents across developmental domains and suggests who is potentially at greater risk.

(Self) stereotypical constructions of Greekness in the period of crisis: a discourse analytic approach

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2018

This paper discusses the discursive construction of Greekness in the period of crisis in focus group discussions with Greek citizens. It particularly explores how Greekness is constructed by the use of self-stereotypes, but also by stereotypical representations attributed to others (non Greeks) by the participants. For the purposes of the study five focus groups-consisting of five people each-were implemented. Discussions were analysed by the tools and concepts of content based discourse analysis. Analysis indicated that crisis is linked by the participants to changes in Greek national identity which are determined both as a departure from the ideological and philosophical foundations of the ancient Greek civilization and/or as" contamination" by western individualism and consumerism. The other Europeans are divided into friendly and hostile towards Greece and the Greek people on …

Evaluation of an intervention using cross-race friend storybooks to reduce prejudice among majority race young children

Article

Sep 2017
EARLY CHILD RES Q

We tested a cross-race friendship picture book intervention under two conditions that aimed to facilitate the reduction of racial prejudice that children of two age groups ascribe to adults reading the book (communicators) and their own prejudice. White majority children, 113 kindergarteners (M = 5.97 years) and 103 second graders (M = 7.93 years) were randomly assigned to an ingroup (White) or outgroup (Black) communicator and skill training. They were pretested on racial attitudes they ascribed to their photographed communicator and then trained in reconciliation or classification. They heard four cross-race friend stories; then were retested on communicator attitudes, own attitudes and cognitive elaboration. Results indicated only second graders, and those able to reconcile differences in perspectives, predicted on the basis of their photo alone that outgroup communicators would hold positive attitudes toward Blacks. After communicators read the stories and explicitly stated their antibias attitude, reports changed among second graders who now rated both communicators as holding more positive Black attitudes. Second graders also held more positive Black attitudes themselves. Kindergarteners consistently assumed both ingroup and outgroup communicators were pro-White. Children elaborated more about the Black story characters when read to by an outgroup (Black) communicator. In conclusion, cross-race friend storybooks are a promising way to expose children to other racial groups and to antibias attitudes, under certain conditions.

Theoretical Perspectives on the Development of Implicit and Explicit Prejudice

Chapter

Mar 2017

This chapter defines prejudice and notes some of the many theories that have shaped the study of prejudice development. It summarizes the current empirical findings from research examining racial preferences and prejudice in early and late childhood, and attempts to explain these findings. Two theoretical mechanisms that are helpful for understanding the early high levels of explicit prejudice and implicit intergroup biases include brain maturation and experience with in-group and out-group faces. One interesting way to merge what people know of maturation, whether phrased as brain maturation or cognitive maturation, with social influences such as out-group contact, is to suggest that there are optimal windows of social influence. The concept of an optimal window has been used to explain language acquisition and preference. Exposure to one's mother tongue deletes synapses for foreign languages starting in infancy, so this perceptual narrowing for language may lead to stronger language preferences and prejudices as seen in some research.

Stereotypes and Prejudice in Conflict: A Developmental Perspective

Chapter

Jan 2016

Yona Teichman

Recent years have seen an increase in theoretical and empirical interest in the acquisition and development of stereotypes and prejudice in children. Results of studies performed in different countries indicate that developmental trajectories of stereotypes and prejudice are context related, influenced by affect, cognitive and personality development.Developmental trajectories vary depending on the social context: minority/majority status, social status, or national conflict. The present chapter focusses on the context of conflict in which it was found that preschoolers as young as 2–5 hold and express stereotypes and prejudice. Additionally, 7–9 year olds manifest a reduction of stereotypes and prejudice and renew it again at preadolescence, 10–12 year olds.The chapter reviews results of studies showing developmental trajectories of stereotypes and prejudice for Israeli children and adolescents with a focus on the structure rather than on the content. In all studies participants were asked to draw images of “a Jew” and “an Arab” who as is well known are adversaries in a conflict. The images were systematically scored for complexity. The drawings were followed by questions regarding names, and attributed professions, that as well were defined operationally and scored quantitatively.Assuming that early interventions or preferably prevention regarding stereotyping, prejudice, or racism are desirable, findings indicate that a developmental perspective such as introducing more complexity to social representations in young age or addressing identity issues with older children may facilitate these processes.

The Acquisition of Racial Attitudes in Children

Chapter

Full-text available

Dec 1976

Phyllis Katz

Universe Awareness for Young Children

Article

Full-text available

Universe Awareness (UNA) is an international programme that will expose economically-disadvantaged young children, between ages 4 and 10 years, in developed and developing countries to the inspirational aspects of modern astronomy.

Preschool Racial Attitude Measure II

Article

Full-text available

Apr 1975
EDUC PSYCHOL MEAS

The earlier version of the Preschool Racial Attitude Measure (PRAM I) has been found to be a useful measure in attitude development and modification studies of young children. This paper describes the lengthened and otherwise revised version of this procedure—PRAM II. Standardization data are reported for 252 Caucasian and 140 Negro children, ranging in age from 37 to 85 months (mean = 64 months), who were tested by Caucasian and Negro examiners. Analyses of the racial attitude scores revealed that the measure had good internal consistency (r = .80), and satisfactory test-retest reliability (r = .55, over a one-year interval). It was demonstrated that the test may be divided into two equivalent short-forms, for test-retest purposes. Other findings were that the racial attitude scores were found to vary systematically with race of subject, but not with sex of subject, IQ, or age. Evidence regarding race of examiner effects was inconclusive. It was concluded that PRAM II provides a reliable index of racial attitudes, and that the same rationale could be employed in the assessment of other attitudes at the preschool level. Theories of racial attitude development are discussed.

A Longitudinal Study of White Children's Racial Prejudice as a Social-Cognitive Development

Article

Full-text available

Apr 1995

Examined longitudinal changes between ages 6 and 9 yrs in White children's prejudice toward Blacks and Native Indians. The Preschool Racial Attitude Measure II (PRAM II) and a multiple-response racial attitude measure (MRA) assessed 56 Ss in kindergarten and 40 Ss in 3rd grade. 47 of the kindergarten Ss were retested in the 3rd grade. In both samples, older Ss were less prejudiced on the PRAM II than younger Ss, most of whom were prejudiced. On the MRA, favorable-White and unfavorable-Black evaluations did not decline with age, but unfavorable-White and favorable-Black evaluations increased. These decreases in prejudice were associated developmentally with the perception that different races are more similar, that people of the same race are more different, and that racially different perspectives are both acceptable. Perception of within-race similarity was associated positively with individual differences in prejudice at each age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

The role of cognitive development in children's explanations for skin color

Article

Full-text available

Jul 1980

One Black and 1 White female examiner assessed 72 White 2.5–10.5 yr old children to investigate children's understanding of the origins of race and explore the developmental concomitants of skin color preferences. Ss' understanding of the origins of race followed a developmental hierarchy and correlated significantly with performance on previously researched measures of physical conservation, physical causality, and social identity. Both physical conservation and physical causality appeared to be developmental prerequisites to understanding the origins of race. Significant Race × Cognitive Developmental Level interactions indicated that pro-White bias was significantly lower for higher levels of cognitive development when the examiner was Black. The possibility that skin color preference is influenced by social desirability is discussed. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Perceptual concomitant of racial attitudes in urban grade-school children

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1975

Investigated children's racial attitudes and their concomitant perceptual responses in a 2-part study. In Phase 1, a total of 400 2nd, 4th and 6th graders at 2 racially integrated urban elementary schools were given a battery of 4 attitude tests (e.g., the Projective Prejudice Test). In Phase 2, a subsample of 96 Ss were classified into high- and low-prejudice groups on the basis of attitude scores and judged the similarity of pictures of facial pairs. Stimuli varied as to color, shade, expression, and hair type. A 4-way factorial design was employed (Grade * Prejudice Level * Race of Subject * Race of Examiner). Findings indicate that the various ways of assessing Ss' racial attitudes were not equivalent. Some instruments were strongly affected by developmental and racial factors, whereas others were not. Correlations between indices were low. Findings in Phase 2 indicated that racial attitudes do have perceptual correlates, particularly for white children. Race-related cues were accentuated by high-prejudice children, whereas non-race-related ones were less salient. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled Components

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1989
J PERS SOC PSYCHOL

Patricia G. Devine

Three studies tested basic assumptions derived from a theoretical model based on the dissociation of automatic and controlled processes involved in prejudice. Study 1 supported the model's assumption that high- and low-prejudice persons are equally knowledgeable of the cultural stereotype. The model suggests that the stereotype is automatically activated in the presence of a member (or some symbolic equivalent) of the stereotype group and that low-prejudice responses require controlled inhibition of the automatically activated stereotype. Study 2, which examined the efforts of automatic stereotype activation on the evaluation of ambiguous stereotype-relevant behaviors performed by a race-unspecified person, suggested that when subjects' ability to consciously monitor stereotype activation is precluded, both high- and low-prejudice subjects produce stereotype-congruent evaluations of ambiguous behaviors. Study 3 examined high- and low-prejudice subjects' responses in a consciously directed thought-listing task. Consistent with the model, only low-prejudice subjects inhibited the automatically activated stereotype-congruent thoughts and replaced them with thoughts reflecting equality and negations of the stereotype. The relation between stereotypes and prejudice and implications for prejudice reduction are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Conceptions of Sex Role: Some Cross-Cultural and Longitudinal Perspectives

Article

Full-text available

Jun 1973

Jeanne H. Block

Discusses the effects of socialization (i.e., the internalization of values) on sexual identity, and presents a framework for studying this identity concept in which changes in sex-role definitions are integrated with ego and cognitive developmental tasks. Cross-cultural and longitudinal experiments by the author and other researchers are described. Results indicate that the culturally determined socialization process broadens the sex-role definitions and behavioral options of males while limiting those of females.

Reported magnitude of self-misidentification among Negro children: Artifact?

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1968

METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PREVIOUS RACIAL DOLL STUDIES PROMPTED A REPLICATION WITH CERTAIN CHANGES: WHITE AS WELL AS NEGRO CHILDREN WERE GIVEN A CHOICE OF 3, RATHER THAN 2, DIFFERENT SKIN COLORS WITH WHICH TO IDENTIFY. THE INCLUSION OF AN INTERMEDIATE (MULATTO) ALTERNATIVE REDUCED NEGRO CHILDREN'S MISIDENTIFICATIONS SIGNIFICANTLY. FURTHERMORE, THERE DID NOT APPEAR TO BE ANY SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WHITE AND NEGRO CHILDREN'S MISIDENTIFICATIONS. THE USE OF A WHITE COMPARISON GROUP AND A WIDER RANGE OF RESPONSE ALTERNATIVES SUGGESTS THAT THERE IS NOTHING UNUSUAL ABOUT NEGRO CHILDREN'S MISIDENTIFICATIONS. SS WERE 39 NEGRO AND 36 WHITE NURSERY SCHOOL CHILDREN.

A comparison of race awareness in Northern and Southern children

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1966

J. Kenneth Morland

A comparison of northern and southern Negro and white preschool children on race awareness showed racial and regional variations. In both regions Negro subjects preferred and identified with the other race, white subjects with their own race. Such preference and identification were accentuated in southern subjects. These results indicate adjustment problems as racial integration proceeds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)

The development of children's knowledge about the mind: From cognitive connections to mental representations

Article

Jan 1988

J.H. Flavell

The development in children of the idea of the homeland and of relations to other countries

Article

Jan 1951

Race, Color and the Young Child.

Article

Jun 1977

Emotional Factors in Racial Identification and Preference in Negro Children

Article

Jun 1950

It has been shown (25, 27, 28, 29, 82) that at each age level from three years through seven years, Negro children have a well developed knowledge of the concept of racial difference between “white” and “colored” as this is indicated by the characteristic of skin color-and that this knowledge develops more definitely from year to year to the point of absolute stability at the age of seven. It was further shown that the dynamics of self-identification in medium and dark-skinned children is somewhat different and more stable than in light-skinned children. There were no significant differences between Northern and Southern children in the awareness of racial differences.

Developmental Patterns in the Flexibility of Children's Ethnic Attitudes

Article

Mar 1988

Developmental patterns in ethnic attitudes were assessed in 232 children aged 5 to 12 years in relation to cognitive development and social desirability responding. English-speaking children assigned 10 positive attributes, 10 negative attributes, and 4 neutral attributes to either an English-speaking child, a French-speaking child, or both an English- and a French-speaking child, depicted by line drawings. Positive attributions to their own ethnic group and negative attributions to the other ethnic group were less frequent in older children. Flexibility of ethnic attitudes, that is, attributions to both groups, increased with age and were inversely related to positive own-group attributions and negative other-group attributions. High flexibility followed the attainment of concrete operational thinking, as measured by conservation but not by ethnic constancy. Flexibility was inversely related to Crandall social desirability responding and unrelated to children's conformity to the experimenter's attitude. These results indicate the importance of cognitive rather than social desirability factors in the development of children's ethnic attitudes.

The Development of Ethnic AttitudesA Critical Review

Article

Mar 1984

Empirical research reported in the literature over the past 18 years was integrated and critically evaluated to determine the age at which ethnic attitudes are formed, their course of development after this age of onset, and psychological factors influencing attitude development. Conclusions were drawn about the effects of age and ethnic status that differed in certain respects from those made a decade ago. The development of ethnic attitudes was found to parallel certain developments in affective, perceptual, and cognitive processes, such as the differentiation between groups and between individuals. Within this framework, differences between majority and minority children were discussed in terms of the effects of social factors on affect, perception, and cognition.

Evaluative Responses of Preschool Children to the Colors White and Black

Article

Jun 1975

The earlier version of the Color Meaning Test (CMT I) had been found to be useful as a means of assessing the evaluative responses of preliterate children to the colors white and black in studies dealing with the development and modification of color and racial attitudes. In this paper we summarize the findings with CMT I, describe the lengthened and otherwise revised CMT II, and discuss theories of the development of color and race bias in young children. CMT II data are reported for 160 Euro-American and 160 Afro-American children, ranging in age from 40 to 91 months (mean = 61 months), who were tested by Euro- and Afro-American examiners. Analyses of the white-black color meaning scores indicated satisfactory internal consistency (r = .63). A tendency to evaluate the color white more positively than the color black was found among both Euro- and Afro-American subjects. The scores were found to vary systematically with race of subject, but not with sex of subject or race of examiner. It is concluded that CMT II provides a reliable index of white-black color bias and that it and its companion procedure, the Preschool Racial Attitude Measure II, provide useful techniques for the study of color and race bias in preliterate children. Theoretically, it is proposed that pro-white/anti-black color bias may be related to the child's status as a diurnal animal and, hence, to his experiences with the light of day and dark of night.

The Measurement of Children's Racial Attitudes in the Early School Years

Article

Jun 1975

The Preschool Racial Attitude Measure II (PRAM II) is a procedure for assessing the attitudes of preliterate children toward light-skinned (Euro-American) and dark-skinned (Afro-American) human figures. Although designed for research with preschool children, it is also appropriate to the test-taking ability of children in the early school grades. In the main, developmental, study 483 children in the first 4 grades of a single, integrated, public school were administered PRAM II by Euro- and Afro-American examiners. Among Euro-American children, it was found that pro-Euro/anti-Afro (E + / A -) bias reached a peak at the second-grade level and subsequently declined. Afro-American children also were found to display evidence of E + / A - bias, but to a lesser degree, and with no appreciable age trends being observed. Evidence regarding race-of-examiner effects was inconclusive. A second study established the representative nature of the data in the developmental study by a comparison of the PRAM II scores of the second-grade children in the developmental study with the mean scores of other groups of second graders (N = 255) in other geographical locations.

Ethnic Role Taking: The Effects of Preference and Self-Identification

Article

Feb 1977
INT J PSYCHOL

Children aged 6 to 9 years were asked to take the role of people from different ethnic groups. The y were to do this by attributing kinship preferences to persons from their own ethnic group, from their most liked ethnic group and from their most disliked ethnic group. The first experiment conducted with White Americans demonstrated that they were able to attribute similar-ethnicity preferences to people from their own and from their liked ethnic group, but not to people from a disliked group. Two sorts of errors were made: those resulting from egocentrism and those resulting from undifferentiated perception. A second experiment was conducted with Canadian Indian children in which more extensive attitude and perception measures were taken. Multiple regression analyses suggested that kinship attribution was based more on similarity between role person and kin than it was on the chil's own egocentric preferences. The Indian children also made fewer errors on the disliked role. This was discussed in terms of conflicts about group identity and preferences.

Racial Identification, Preference, and Self-Concept

Article

Mar 1979

A two-phase study was undertaken to test white and Canadian Indian school-children for racial identification and self-concept. The objective was to establish attitudinal patterns and correlations using children in grades two, four and six at two schools (one integrated and one not). The first phase, using a picture test to measure preference, rejection, and identification found significant age, race, school, and sex differences in both preference and rejection. The second phase, using a short measure of self-concept, found sex, age, and school differences. Significant correlations between the two measures were found at the young age levels. Overall, with a few exceptions, the significant age, sex, race, and school differences were consistent with the conclusions drawn from previous research.

Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach

Article

Jan 1976

Lawrence Kohlberg

Development of attitude toward Negroes

Article

Jan 1936

E. L. Horowitz

Three tests were developed and administered to boys from kindergarten through the eighth grade in various types of communities, a retest after six months being conducted in some samples in New York City. The southern groups tested showed no more prejudice than did the children in New York City. A small group of Communist children tested in New York City showed no apparent prejudice against the negro. The expressed attitude seems independent of the mere degree of blackness of negro faces. A small group of white boys in a mixed school showed as much prejudice as did the boys in the all-white schools. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

The Developmental Psychology of Racial Prejudice

Article

Sep 1993

Francis E. Aboud

Discusses a cognitive developmental framework to explain racial prejudice among White Children. Recent research findings show that prejudice is present in children as young as 5 yrs but that it declines as a function of social-cognitive development by 8 or 9 yrs of age. The development of role taking skills and perceptual differentiation seems related to the decline in prejudice. Although the prejudices of children under 12 yrs do not seem to be similar to those of their parents or friends, these people may be best able to facilitate a reduction in prejudice through open discussion. Tolerance may also be promoted through school curricula that strengthens role taking and differentiation skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

The Attribution of Behavioural Connotations to Shaded and White Figures by Caucasian Children

Article

Dec 1971
Br J Soc Clin Psychol

Asked 259 3-11 yr. old children to ascribe positive and negative behavioral characteristics to pictures of white and shaded figures. While the 3-4 yr. old Ss tended to do this in a random fashion, 5-8 yr. old Ss showed a marked increase in the attribution of negative statements to shaded figures and positive statements to white figures. From the age of 9 yr. there was a diminution in this behavior. Exposure to black immigrant children in the school and play-group situations was associated with a decrease in this prejudicial behavior. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Stereotypes and prejudice: The Australian experience

Article

Jun 2011
BRIT J SOC PSYCHOL

Recently, Devine has argued against the inevitability of prejudice perspective, proposing that stereotypes and personal beliefs should be conceptualized as separate cognitive components. The present paper reports on two studies which explore this issue in relation to stereotypes of and prejudice towards Australian Aborigines. In the first study, respondents (N = 165) were asked to give open-ended responses regarding the cultural stereotype of Australian Aborigines. These responses were then compared to the respondents' level of prejudice towards this social group. Consistent with Devine's predictions, few significant differences emerged between low-and high-prejudiced subjects and category descriptions of the stereotype. The second study investigated the extent to which, and the speed with which, high-and low-prejudice people endorsed and rejected various components of the stereotype. A response time study in which subjects responded to a list of negative, positive and situational descriptions of the Aborigine stereotype found that subjects high in prejudice were more likely to endorse the negative components, and subjects low in prejudice were more likely to endorse the positive and sociological components of the Aborigine stereotype. This effect also generalized to positive and negative descriptions of Aborigines which were not stereotype-linked. Response time patterns indicated that high-prejudice subjects endorsed the negative descriptions significantly faster than low-prejudice subjects, and low-prejudice subjects endorsed the positive descriptions significantly faster than the high-prejudice group. In comparison to high-prejudice subjects, low-prejudice subjects took significantly longer to reject positive descriptions than negative descriptions of Aborigines. These findings suggest that cognitive models of stereotype activation are alone insufficient for understanding the conscious processing of stereotype-linked information more specifically, and in understanding prejudice more generally. Beliefs and the evaluation and affect associated with these beliefs are equally important.

Racial Preference and Social Comparison Processes

Article

Apr 2010
J SOC ISSUES

An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict

Chapter

Jan 1979

Racial preferences and identifications of white elementary schoolchildren

Article

Jul 1980

Philip Friedman

The racial preferences and identifications of white children in both a white monoracial and a multiracial setting were examined. A doll selection procedure originally described by Clark and Clark (1939; 1947) to study racial awareness and preferences in black children was employed with 120 kindergarten, first, and third grade children. A majority of the children showed a marked preference for white over comparable black dolls. However, more black doll selections were made in multiracial than in monoracial schools, particularly among male subjects. White doll color preference also significantly decreased at the third grade level. This finding was consistently observed in response to each racial preference question. Neither race of the interviewer nor sex of the child had a significant effect upon doll color preferences. Few errors were made in response to a series of five racial identification questions.

Self-Evaluations and Intergroup Attitudes in Children Aged Three to Nine

Article

Jul 1992

The effects of individual and group performance on children's evaluations of themselves and in- and out-group were examined. 128 girls and boys aged 3, 5, 7, and 9 years were randomly assigned to alleged "fast" or "slow" teams and asked to make various self, interpersonal, and intergroup evaluations. These showed strong developmental changes. Intergroup comparisons were made as early as 3 years, and this age group was sensitive to the relative standing of their team. However, the 5-year-old children showed markedly high self-evaluations, very strong in group bias in their evaluations of the 2 teams, and a high level of group cohesion irrespective of their own team's alleged performance. Gender differences were observed in self-evaluations after team assignment (boys responding more than girls to their team's alleged performance). The implications of these findings for recent work based on cognitive-developmental and social identity theories are discussed.

Black-while colorconnotations and race awareness in pro-school children

Article

Jul 1966

Racial groups are often designated by color names, with Negroes called “black” and Caucasians “white.” Previous research with adults had shown that the color name black has a negative (“bad”) evaluative connotation and white a positive (“good”) connotation. The present study, designed to measure the degree of awareness of black-white evaluative connotation in Caucasian children, demonstrated that the black-white color-meaning concept is developing during the preschool years—the period during which racial awareness was also shown to be developing. Possible origins of the black-white evaluative concept in young children were discussed, as was the possible role of the concept in the formation of racial attitudes of Caucasian children toward Negroes.

A developmental study of race awareness in young children

Article

Oct 1958

The development of ethnic attitudes in New Zealand school children

Article

Sep 1964
Genet Psychol Monogr

G M VAUGHAN

Children'S Perceptions of the Social Roles of Negroes and Whites

Article

Feb 1950

Development of prejudice in children Understanding prejudice, racism and social conflict

D Nesdale

Nesdale, D. (in press). Development of prejudice in children. In M. Augoustinos & K. Reynolds (Eds.), Understanding prejudice, racism and social conflict. London: Sage.

Ethnic and multicultural attitudes among children in a Canadian city

Jan 1979
69-81

R Kalin

Kalin, R. (1979). Ethnic and multicultural attitudes among children in a Canadian city. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 11, 69–81.

Children and prejudice

Jan 1988

F E Aboud

Aboud, F. E. (1988). Children and prejudice. New York: Blackwell.

The social psychology of intergroup relations

33-48

Worchel

Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–48). Monterey: Brooks/Cole.

Social cognition: An integrated introduction The relationship between racial attitudes and social cognitive development in children: An Australian study

Jan 1995
448-456

M Augoustinos
I Walker

Augoustinos, M., & Walker, I. (1995). Social cognition: An integrated introduction. London: Sage. Black-Gutman, D., & Hickson, F. (1996). The relationship between racial attitudes and social cognitive development in children: An Australian study. Developmental Psychology, 32, 448–456.

Stereotype knowledge and prejudice in children

Abstract

No full-text available

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