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Validity of ‘‘generalized’’ equations for body composition in male athletes
Abstract
Equations by Durnin and Womersley [(D-W), Br. J. Nutr. 32:77, 1974], Jackson and Pollock [(J-P), Br. J. Nutr. 40:497, 1978], and Lohman [(L), Human Biol., 53:181, 1981] for estimating body density (BD) purportedly overcome the problem of specificity by accounting for age and/or the curvilinear relationship between skinfolds (SF) and BD. Their equations were validated on 265 male athletes against percent fat measured by underwater weighing [(UWW); mean +/- SD = 9.2 +/- 4.4%]. Equations by Sloan [(S), J. Appl. Physiol. 23:311, 1967], Katch and McArdle [(K-M), Human. Biol. 45:445, 1973], and Forsyth and Sinning [(F-S), Med. Sci. Sports 5:174, 1973] were included as "linear regression models" to compare to the curvilinear models of J-P, D-W, and L. Differences between UWW and estimated mean values ranged from -1.1 to +5.9%; correlations ranged from 0.58 to 0.85; SEE ranged from +/- 2.41 to +/- 3.61% and total error (E) ranged from 2.38 to 6.97%. The seven D-W equations overestimated mean percent fat by from 3.9 to 5.9%. The K-M, S, and L equations overestimated by 1.3, 0.5, and 1.7%, respectively. The F-S equations overestimated by 2.4 to 3.8%. Of the 21 equations evaluated, only 3 by J-P gave estimates not significantly different from UWW percent fat. Regression analyses of the relationship between UWW (y) and estimated (x) percent fat values from those equations were: y = 1.037x - 0.08 +/- 2.38, E = 2.38, r = 0.84; 0.869x + 1.36 +/- 2.45, E = 2.51, r = 0.83; 1.107x - 1.14 +/- 2.51, E = 2.53, r = 0.82.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
... These equations have been developed in athletic and nonathletic populations and they have a too wide variability of estimation when applied to the same subject/population. Similarly, several studies have investigated the accuracy of these equations in estimating 2 Journal of Sports Medicine BF% in specific populations [15][16][17][18][19][20][21]. However, little is known about their accuracy when they are applied on professional male soccer players [16,20]. ...
... Other studies have compared anthropometric equations with hydrostatic weighting in different athletic populations [17,18,21]. The study of Sinning et al. [17] reported that Jackson's equation (seven skinfolds) [36] was not different to the reference method and showed a low SEE in collegiate male athletes. ...
... Other studies have compared anthropometric equations with hydrostatic weighting in different athletic populations [17,18,21]. The study of Sinning et al. [17] reported that Jackson's equation (seven skinfolds) [36] was not different to the reference method and showed a low SEE in collegiate male athletes. Civar et al. [18] reported that the Lohman [39] and Durnin and Womersley (Durnin-W) [35] equations did not differ with the reference method, but Durnin-W equation showed a higher correlation and a lower SEE than Lohman's equation in college males that practiced different sports. ...
Background
There are several published anthropometric equations to estimate body fat percentage (BF%), and this may prompt uncertainty about their application.
Purpose
To analyze the accuracy of several anthropometric equations (developed in athletic [AT] and nonathletic [NAT] populations) that estimate BF% comparing them with DXA.
Methods
We evaluated 131 professional male soccer players (body mass: 73.2 ± 8.0 kg; height: 177.5 ± 5.8 cm; DXA BF% [median, 25th–75th percentile]: 14.0, 11.9–16.4%) aged 18 to 37 years. All subjects were evaluated with anthropometric measurements and a whole body DXA scan. BF% was estimated through 14 AT and 17 NAT anthropometric equations and compared with the measured DXA BF%. Mean differences and 95% limits of agreement were calculated for those anthropometric equations without significant differences with DXA.
Results
Five AT and seven NAT anthropometric equations did not differ significantly with DXA. From these, Oliver's and Civar's (AT) and Ball's and Wilmore's (NAT) equations showed the highest agreement with DXA. Their 95% limits of agreement ranged from −3.9 to 2.3%, −4.8 to 1.8%, −3.4 to 3.1%, and −3.9 to 3.0%, respectively.
Conclusion
Oliver's, Ball's, Civar's, and Wilmore's equations were the best to estimate BF% accurately compared with DXA in professional male soccer players.
... These equations have been developed in athletic and nonathletic populations and they have a too wide variability of estimation when applied to the same subject/population. Similarly, several studies have investigated the accuracy of these equations in estimating 2 Journal of Sports Medicine BF% in specific populations [15][16][17][18][19][20][21]. However, little is known about their accuracy when they are applied on professional male soccer players [16,20]. ...
... Other studies have compared anthropometric equations with hydrostatic weighting in different athletic populations [17,18,21]. The study of Sinning et al. [17] reported that Jackson's equation (seven skinfolds) [36] was not different to the reference method and showed a low SEE in collegiate male athletes. ...
... Other studies have compared anthropometric equations with hydrostatic weighting in different athletic populations [17,18,21]. The study of Sinning et al. [17] reported that Jackson's equation (seven skinfolds) [36] was not different to the reference method and showed a low SEE in collegiate male athletes. Civar et al. [18] reported that the Lohman [39] and Durnin and Womersley (Durnin-W) [35] equations did not differ with the reference method, but Durnin-W equation showed a higher correlation and a lower SEE than Lohman's equation in college males that practiced different sports. ...
PURPOSE: To compare different anthropometric equations to predict body fat with DXA as the reference method. METHODS: Anthropometric measurements and whole-body DXA (Hologic QDR) scanning values of 75 professional male soccer players of the University of Guadalajara, 17 to 37 years of age, were used to compare fifteen equations to predict body fat with DXA body fat values. The ANOVA test was used to find differences and Dunnett’s test as post hoc with DXA as the reference method, both with a significance of p <0.05. Those equations without statistical differences were analyzed with Bland-Altman’s plot. RESULTS: The results are shown in table 1; seven equations have statistical differences with DXA. Of the other 8 equations, the one by Oliver and the one by Wilmore had the shorter limits of agreement with DXA (Figure 1). CONCLUSIONS: Despite that Wilmore’s equation was not developed in athletes, in this study the results show one of the best agreements with DXA, but because it only measures two skinfolds we are not sure if it is the most appropriate way to monitor the follow up of soccer players. In our sample, Oliver’s equation was the best to predict the body fat percent. Because this equation was developed in football players where the morphological variety of subjects is wider, probably this equation could provide more reliable results in other sport disciplines. Moreover, Oliver’s equation could be more sensitive to body fat changes because it employs seven skinfolds and monitoring could be more precise. Because of the wide range of results found in this study, there is a need to continue this type of research evaluating different samples of soccer players.
... O mesmo fato repete-se na variável perímetro do antebraço, porém o melhor goleiro ultrapassa somente 55,96% dos demais goleiros. Os valores médios das variáveis que refletem a gordura corporal sugerem, tanto em termos absolutos como em relativos, que os goleiros no Pan-Americano são mais gordos que o melhor goleiro da competição, segundo os escores apresentados na Tabela 2. O valor médio do % de gordura está acima do recomendado para atletas masculinos nos desportos coletivos, pois conforme sugerem Wilmore (1979 e 1983), Sinning et al. (1985, e Glaner (1996) , atletas masculinos de handebol, voleibol , basquetebol e futebol devem possuir uma gordura relativa inferior a 12%, para que tenham um melhor desempenho. Os escores máximos evidenciam a existência de goleiros no limiar da obesidade; e, o escore Z, sugere que o melhor goleiro da competição possui um valor inferior do que 85,77% dos demais goleiros, no somatório das sete dobras cutâneas (S X7) aplicadas na equação de regressão utilizada neste estudo. ...
... O valor do diâmetro rádio-ulnar do melhor pivô é superior ao valor médio dos demais pivôs, bem como do escore máximo, conforme pode-se verificar na Tabela 3. O escore Z sugere que o melhor pivô no Pan-Americano possui um diâmetro rádio-ulnar maior do que 99,73% dos demais pivôs da referida competi- ção. Conforme pode-se observar na Tabela 3, a quantidade de gordura média, expressa pelo S X7, pela gordura relativa, e, pela gordura absoluta , indica que todos os pivôs do estudo, bem como o melhor pivô no Pan-Americano apresentam valores aquém do recomendado (< 12 %G) para atletas dos desportos coletivos (Wilmore, 1979Wilmore, , 1983 Sinning et al., 1985; Glaner, 1996 ). Os valores dos escores Z indicam que o melhor pivô do Pan-Americano possui valores inferiores do que 56,75% e 54,78% dos demais pivôs, nas variáveis morfológicas S X7 e % de gordura, respectivamente; e do que 40,13% na variável massa de gordura. ...
... O escore Z evidencia que os melhores extremas apresentam um valor médio superior que os valores de 75,80% dos demais extremas. Como mostra-se na Tabela 4, os melhores extremas apresentam valores médios e mínimos, no diâmetro rádio-ulnar e perímetro Os valores médios da gordura corporal , expressos pelo S X7, % de gordura e massa de gordura, dos melhores extremas são inferiores aos valores dos demais extremas, conforme pode-se verificar na Tabela 4. O valor médio do % de gordura dos extremas bem como o valor máximo estão aquém do recomendado (< 12 %G) para atletas dos desportos coletivos (Wilmore, 1979Wilmore, e 1983 Sinning et al., 1985; Glaner, 1996 ). O % de gordura do melhor extrema esquerda também está aquém do ideal. ...
The purpose of this study was to characterize the morphological variables, by game position (GP), of male athletes who participated on the X Pan-American Games in Team Handball (XPGTH) and also to analyse the very same variables of the best athletes by in relation to other athletes who played in the same GP. 103 athletes were measured, and the nacional team coaches who participated in the XPGTH selected the best seven players of de Pan-American Games, for each game position. The morphological variables characterized were: body mass; stature (ST); arm span (AS); lower extremity length (LEL); hand and wrist breadth; forearm perimeter and body composition. The obtained results showed that many athletes had morphological characteristics beyond the ideal for such sport. The Z scores indicates that the best athletes from different GP (goalkeeper, backcourt, wings and circle runner) presented large morphological characteristics in relations to the other players' average in the respectives GP. The best goalkeeper and the circle runner were the only ones with higher scores in relation to each GP, respectively, when the entire group of morphological variables were considered alltogether. The variables that evidenced greater morphological development for the best athletes in the 4 GP compared to the other athletes, were: ST, AS, LEL, % fat and lean body mass.
... In soccer, the importance of body composition on performance remains unclear; however, it is a Primary concern in conditioning programs throughout a season at all levels of competition. But body composition measures are widely used to prescribe desirable body weights, to optimize competitive performance, and to assess the effects of training (24). A lower relative body fat is desirable for successful competition in most of ball games. ...
... A lower relative body fat is desirable for successful competition in most of ball games. This is because additional body fat adds to the weight of the body without contributing to its force production or energy producing capabilities, which means a decrease in relative strength (1,24). ...
This study attempts to determine the anthropometric measurement and body composition quality of south west Ethiopian beginner soccer players’ considering playing position. In so doing, three soccer teams were selected by employing a cluster sampling techniques that consisted of a total forty eight players, and those who attended less than seventeen years of age. Depending on their playing position players were classified in to four categories as goalkeeper (GK), defense (DF), midfielder (MF) and striker (SK). To achieve the stated purpose, cross sectional descriptive research design was employed. The international Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) protocol was considered to measure the following anthropometric variables : weight measurements, n_/1; girths, n_/10; lengths, n_/6, skin folds, n_/2;(body fat% and lean mass)and body mass index n-1.The data was analyzed by SPSS version 19, moreover, the level of significance was set at (P < 0.05). The finding of this study depicted that significant difference of anthropometric measurement among players based on their playing position. DF players possess larger lower limp, interior body and upper limp girth. Whereas, SK player exhibited smaller lower limp, interior body and upper limp girth. In lower limp length GK and SK have larger lower limp length but in upper limp GK possess greater. GK (176.6cm) are taller than all other players of team while MF (170cm) is sorter in overall body height. There is no significant difference in BMI(GK 19, DF 20.4, MD 18 and SK 18), lean mass and body fat% But GK(64.2 kg) are heavier while SK (58kg) lighter in their weight. Whereas, DF (60.7 kg) and MF (60 kg) players are average in their weight. It is found that mean anthropometric measurement of south west Ethiopian youth soccer players was slightly lower than that of top world class players of similar age group players. It is also obtained that lack of significant differences among playing positions reflect on BMI, lean mass and body fat% indicate as coaches are not give playing position specific training for players. In this study, within-position variation was quite large in some cases, which could indicate that a team that does not have the opportunity to hand-pick players, based on anthropometric characteristics, may be at a disadvantage therefore the respective soccer coaches, sport science professionals should take into account the principle of morphological optimization in talent detection, identification and selecting soccer players.
... Additionally, the combined method produced an improved scatter plot as well as the highest correlation coefficient among the three methods. Based on the principles of cross-validation analyses [33,34], the SEE and TE values should be calculated because the TE reflects the actual difference between measured and estimated values, whereas the SEE reflects only the variation in regression; similar values between the SEE and TE reflect a close approximation between the regression line and the line of identity. From this viewpoint, we compared the error statistics of the three methods (Table 2). ...
Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) is an important health indicator that is often estimated using a multiple regression model (MRM) or linear extrapolation method (LEM) with the heart rate (HR) during a step test. Nonetheless, both methods have inherent problems. This study investigated a VO2max estimation method that mitigates the weaknesses of these two methods. A total of 128 adults completed anthropometric measurements, a physical activity questionnaire, a step test with HR measurements, and a VO2max treadmill test. The MRM included step-test HR, age, sex, body mass index, and questionnaire scores, whereas the LEM included step-test HR, predetermined constant VO2 values, and age-predicted maximal HR. Systematic differences between estimated and measured VO2max values were detected using Bland–Altman plots. The standard errors of the estimates of the MRM and LEM were 4.15 and 5.08 mL·kg−1·min−1, respectively. The range of 95% limits of agreement for the LEM was wider than that for the MRM. Fixed biases were not significant for both methods, and a significant proportional bias was observed only in the MRM. MRM bias was eliminated using the LEM application when the MRM-estimated VO2max was ≥45 mL·kg−1·min−1. In conclusion, substantial proportional bias in the MRM may be mitigated using the LEM within a limited range.
... Percentage of body fat (BF%) was calculated using the formula of Durnin and Womersley based on four skinfold measurements (biceps, triceps, subscapula, and suprailium) (Durnin and Womersley, 1974;Chambers et al., 2014). For athletes with very low BF% (i.e., males: <12%, females: <15%) the formula of Jackson and Pollock was used based on three skinfold measurements (males: chest, abdomen and thigh, females: triceps, suprailium and thigh) (Jackson and Pollock, 1985;Sinning et al., 1985). Body fat mass (BFM) was calculated as BW × BF%/100 and lean body mass (LBM) as BW -BFM. ...
Aim
We aimed to investigate the main anthropometric, cardiorespiratory and haematological factors that can determine marathon race performance in marathon runners.
Methods
Forty-five marathon runners (36 males, age: 42 ± 10 years) were examined during the training period for a marathon race. Assessment of training characteristics, anthropometric measurements, including height, body weight ( n = 45) and body fat percentage (BF%) ( n = 33), echocardiographic study ( n = 45), cardiopulmonary exercise testing using treadmill ergometer ( n = 33) and blood test ( n = 24) were performed. We evaluated the relationships of these measurements with the personal best marathon race time (MRT) within a time frame of one year before or after the evaluation of each athlete.
Results
The training age regarding long-distance running was 9 ± 7 years. Training volume was 70 (50–175) km/week. MRT was 4:02:53 ± 00:50:20 h. The MRT was positively associated with BF% ( r = 0.587, p = 0.001). Among echocardiographic parameters, MRT correlated negatively with right ventricular end-diastolic area (RVEDA) ( r = −0.716, p < 0.001). RVEDA was the only independent echocardiographic predictor of MRT. With regard to respiratory parameters, MRT correlated negatively with maximum minute ventilation indexed to body surface area (VEmax/BSA) ( r = −0.509, p = 0.003). Among parameters of blood test, MRT correlated negatively with haemoglobin concentration ( r = −0.471, p = 0.027) and estimated haemoglobin mass (Hbmass) ( r = −0.680, p = 0.002). After performing multivariate linear regression analysis with MRT as dependent variable and BF% (standardised β = 0.501, p = 0.021), RVEDA (standardised β = −0.633, p = 0.003), VEmax/BSA (standardised β = 0.266, p = 0.303) and Hbmass (standardised β = −0.308, p = 0.066) as independent variables, only BF% and RVEDA were significant independent predictors of MRT (adjusted R ² = 0.796, p < 0.001 for the model).
Conclusions
The main physiological determinants of better marathon performance appear to be low BF% and RV enlargement. Upregulation of both maximum minute ventilation during exercise and haemoglobin mass may have a weaker effect to enhance marathon performance.
Clinical Trial Registration
www.ClinicalTrials.gov , identifier NCT04738877.
... Furthermore, although hydration may affect skinfold thickness, it does not affect skin compressibility in healthy males at up to 2.11% body weight change [21]. Additionally, the Jackson and Pollock three-site body density equations [22] and the Siri body density to body fat equation [23], were developed specifically for this population and the Jackson-Pollock equation has been validated as giving estimates not significantly different from underwater weighing [24]. 5. ...
... The height was measured by means of stadiometry to the nearest 0.5 cm and a scale (Tanita) was used to measure body mass to the nearest 0.1 kg. The % body fat was estimated by the sum of four skinfold thickness (biceps, triceps, sub-scapular, suprailiac) determined by the formula of Brozek et al [12] based on body density determination by the formulas of Lohman et al [13] and Sinning et al [14] . All skinfold measurements were made in triplicate by the medical center doctor following the Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual [13] . ...
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to describe the body structure and morphological characteristics of Tunisian elite handball players, and to determine the effect of these variables on functional and physical performance levels. Methods: A sample of 42 male handball players (mean age 21.98±3.24 years; training duration 12 years) at international level was submitted to a test battery comprising morphological, physical and physiological assessments. Tests were yo-yo intermittent recovery test, squat jump test, countermovement jump test, vertical-jump test, and Repeated sprint Ability. Measures for assessment of anthropometric characteristics were age, size, weight, body mass index, body fat, fat mass and thin mass. Results: Weight was negatively correlated to the squat jump and the countermovement jump performance. Age, weight, and body composition measures (fat and thin body mass) were additionally negatively related to the maximal oxygen uptake, and to the maximal velocity obtained in the Yo-Yo recovery test. No relationship was found between size, body mass index, body fat and the physical abilities considered. Concerning the effects of physical characteristics on the functional performances, we can note a positive relationship between squat jump, countermovement jump, and the yo-yo recovery test performance. No relationship was found between vertical jump, repeated sprint ability, and the physiological performances. Conclusions: Study results point to the existence of strong correlation between morphological and physical characteristics with functional characteristics. In handball, it is possible to have a reliable estimate of anthropometric measurements, physical and physiological performances.
... and 3.02%-3.37%, respectively, were reported compared to underwater weighing (UWW) (Sinning and Wilson 1984;Sinning et al. 1985). When %BF and FFM changes after strength training were compared to a four-component model, a mean estimation Assessment of Human Body Composition bias of 0.3% and −0.3 kg was reported with LOA of approximately 3.5% and 2.3 kg, respectively (using the four-component model, the established changes for %FM were −1.6% with a range of −5.0% to 1.2% and for FFM +3.7 kg with a range of −0.6% to 7.7 kg) (van Marken Lichtenbelt et al. 2004). ...
... and 3.02%-3.37%, respectively, were reported compared to underwater weighing (UWW) ( Sinning and Wilson 1984;Sinning et al. 1985). When %BF and FFM changes after strength training were compared to a four-component model, a mean estimation Assessment of Human Body Composition bias of 0.3% and −0.3 kg was reported with LOA of approximately 3.5% and 2.3 kg, respectively (using the four-component model, the established changes for %FM were −1.6% with a range of −5.0% to 1.2% and for FFM +3.7 kg with a range of −0.6% to 7.7 kg) (van Marken Lichtenbelt et al. 2004). ...
... The use of SKF to evaluate body composition is accepted as valid for athletes [43,44]. It is possible to compare the values we found in U19 athletes with what would be expected in football players [1]. ...
Accurate assessment of body composition is an important issue among athletes. Different methodologies generate controversial results, leading to a deep uncertainty on individual exercise prescriptions. Thus, this study aims to identify the differences between field methods, such as bioelectrical impedance (BIA) and skinfold assessment, with a clinical method, highly accurate, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), among elite young football players. Thirty-eight male football players with a mean (sd) age of 16.7 (0.87) years, involved in the Portuguese national competition of U16 (n = 13) and U19 (n = 25), were evaluated and objective measures of body composition, muscle strength and football skills were collected by trained specialists. Body composition was assessed using BIA (Tanita BC-418, Tanita Corp., Tokyo, Japan), in agreement with all the evaluation premises. Additionally, all athletes were evaluated using the clinical method DXA (Hologic Inc., Waltham, MA, USA). Among the U19 athletes, three skinfold sites (SKF) were assessed: chest, abdomin and thigh. The Spearman correlation coefficients and the mean difference between methods were calculated. The agreement between both methods was analyzed using Bland-Altman plots. Among the evaluated athletes, lower mean values of body fat % were found using BIA as a method of body composition assessment compared with DXA (12.05 vs. 15.58 for U16; 11.97 vs. 14.16 for U19). Despite the moderate correlation between methods (r = 0.33) to estimate the percentage of total fat, the median of the difference (DXA vs. BIA) was relevant in clinical terms, with 2.90% and 1.47% for U16 and U19 athletes, respectively. Stronger correlations were found between the sum of the SKF and DXA fat estimation (r = 0.68). The Bland-Altman plots showed a clear underestimation in the evaluations using the BIA, namely among athletes with better body composition profiles (8%–12% of fat). Using BIA, an underestimation of body fat assessment was observed among 94.5% of the athletes with less than 12% body fat mass. Among the evaluated athletes, fat mass was underestimated at a median value of 2.21% using BIA in comparison with DXA. The sum of the SKF showed a stronger correlation with the reference method (DXA) (r = 0.68) than BIA.
... This equation can be used in Indian population without any further change as suggested by Bhatt et al (2005). Furthermore, this equation is also appeared to be satisfactory when cross-validated on male athletes as reported by Sinning et al (1985). ...
Background: Skinfold (SKF) and Bio-electrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) are the most
common field based methods for estimating body composition in athletes. BIA has recently
attracted a lot of attention due to minimal requirement of training experience and less time
consumption in operation. Objectives: The present study was aimed to evaluate the fat mass by
using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) of Single frequency (SF) & Multi frequency (MF)
and anthropometric methods in order to investigate whether the use of BIA or anthropometry
would be useful under field conditions.
Method: Three hundred and forty nine (349) young male athletes of mean age 16.9 ± 2.82 years
and having at least 3-5 years of formal sports training were participated in the present study from
four different sports disciplines, viz., soccer, hockey, table tennis & badminton. BF% was
measured by a single- frequency bio-impedance analyzer (TANITA Corporation BF-350, Tokyo
Japan), multi-frequency analyzer (Maltron Bioscan 920- 2, Rayleigh, UK) and skin fold calliper
(Skyndex Electronic Body Fat calculator System, Caldwell, Justiss & Co. Inc, USA). Skin fold
thicknesses were measured from four different sites of the body i.e., biceps, triceps, subscapular
& suprailliac and the estimation of Body Composition & BF% was calculated by using the
equations of Durnin and Womersley and Brozek et. al., respectively.
Results: Analysis of variance showed the significant differences (p<0.05) in body composition
parameters (Fat %) when compared among three different methods. On the other hand, Scheffe‟s
post-hoc test clearly revealed the existing difference (p<0.05) between two different bioimpedance
techniques i.e between MF-BIA & SF-BIA. A significant (p<0.01) Intra Class
Coefficient (ICC) was also observed when compared among different methods. The similar
observation was also made by applying partial correlation while adjusting the age and height for
the prediction of BF% from different methods. Bland-Altman plot reveals that the smallest bias
of MF-BIA & SKF (0.19, ± 4.73) with a moderate level of LoA (Limits of Agreement) as
compare to the other methods. So the SKF had the highest level of agreement as compared to SFBIA
while MF-BIA serving as a reference standard.
Conclusion: Both MF-BIA & SKF can be interchangeably used in athletes. In the absence of
well-trained personnel in anthropometric measurements, the MF-BIA could be useful in
assessing body composition in these athletes, ensuring that measurements are taken in the same
physiological state and day time conditions, such as in a fasted state in the early morning.
However, in respect to simplicity, speed to operate & cost effectiveness, SKF would be an ideal
tool to estimate BF% in field condition.
... This equation can be used in Indian population without any further change as suggested by Bhatt et al (2005). Furthermore, this equation is also appeared to be satisfactory when cross-validated on male athletes as reported by Sinning et al (1985). ...
Background: Skinfold (SKF) and Bio-electrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) are the most common field based methods for estimating body composition in athletes. BIA has recently attracted a lot of attention due to minimal requirement of training experience and less time consumption in operation.
Objectives: The present study was aimed to evaluate the fat mass by using bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) of Single frequency (SF) & Multi frequency (MF) and anthropometric methods in order to investigate whether the use of BIA or anthropometry would be useful under field conditions.
Method: Three hundred and forty nine (349) young male athletes of mean age 16.9 ± 2.82 years and having at least 3-5 years of formal sports training were participated in the present study from four different sports disciplines, viz., soccer, hockey, table tennis & badminton. BF% was measured by a single- frequency bio-impedance analyzer (TANITA Corporation BF-350, Tokyo Japan), multi-frequency analyzer (Maltron Bioscan 920- 2, Rayleigh, UK) and skin fold calliper (Skyndex Electronic Body Fat calculator System, Caldwell, Justiss & Co. Inc, USA). Skin fold thicknesses were measured from four different sites of the body i.e., biceps, triceps, subscapular & suprailliac and the estimation of Body Composition & BF% was calculated by using the equations of Durnin and Womersley and Brozek et. al., respectively.
Results: Analysis of variance showed the significant differences (p<0.05) in body composition parameters (Fat %) when compared among three different methods. On the other hand, Scheffe’s post-hoc test clearly revealed the existing difference (p<0.05) between two different bio-impedance techniques i.e between MF-BIA & SF-BIA. A significant (p<0.01) Intra Class Coefficient (ICC) was also observed when compared among different methods. The similar observation was also made by applying partial correlation while adjusting the age and height for the prediction of BF% from different methods. Bland-Altman plot reveals that the smallest bias of MF-BIA & SKF (0.19, ± 4.73) with a moderate level of LoA (Limits of Agreement) as compare to the other methods. So the SKF had the highest level of agreement as compared to SF-BIA while MF-BIA serving as a reference standard.
Conclusion: Both MF-BIA & SKF can be interchangeably used in athletes. In the absence of well-trained personnel in anthropometric measurements, the MF-BIA could be useful in assessing body composition in these athletes, ensuring that measurements are taken in the same physiological state and day time conditions, such as in a fasted state in the early morning. However, in respect to simplicity, speed to operate & cost effectiveness, SKF would be an ideal tool to estimate BF% in field condition.
Keywords: Body Fat percentage (BF %), Skinfold, Bio-electrical Impedance Analysis (BIA), Single- frequency BIA, Multi-frequency BIA, Indian athletes.
... Neste estudo, é evidente que os atletas profissionais tem (em média) menor percentagem de massa gorda que os atletas universitários. No entanto, importa destacar que em ambos os grupos as médias dos resultados estão dentro dos valores recomendados para atletas de andebol do sexo masculino (< 12%, Wilmore, 1979 e 1983; Sinning et al., 1985; Glaner, 1996; > 4%, Heyward & Stolorczyk, 1996). A que se deve a diferença observada entre as duas equipas estudadas? ...
... The percentage of body fat as well as fat-free mass were determined using a caliper (Holtain, Crymych, UK) to measure skinfolds at 3 sites according to the method of Lohman (1981). This method was found to be accurate and suitable for body composition assessment in male athletes (Clark et al., 1993; Sinning et al., 1985; Thorland, Johnson, Tharp, Fagot, & Hammer, 1984) and is used to determine the minimal wrestling weight in US high school and collegiate wrestling (Clark et al., 1993; Utter et al., 2003). Parts of the descriptive anthropometric data were recently published in the context of another part of this study (Reljic, Hässler, Jost, & Friedmann-Bette, 2013). ...
Abstract Dietary intake, vitamin status and oxidative stress were evaluated in 17 elite male boxers. Ten of them frequently reduced body weight rapidly before competitions (Weight Loss Group) and 7 did not practice rapid weight loss (Control Group). Food record checklists, blood samples for determination of vitamin status and plasma glutathione levels were obtained during a week of weight maintenance, a pre-competition week and a post-competition week. The average dietary intakes in both groups were 33 ± 8 kcal·kg(-1), 3.7 ± 1.1 g·kg(-1) carbohydrates, 1.5 ± 0.4 g·kg(-1) protein, 1.2 ± 0.4 g·kg(-1) fat and 2.2 ± 1.0 L water per day (excluding pre-competition week in Weight Loss Group). Energy (18 ± 7 kcal·kg(-1)), carbohydrate (2.2 ± 0.8 g·kg(-1)), protein (0.8 ± 0.4 g·kg(-1)), fat (0.6 ± 0.3 g·kg(-1)) and water (1.6 ± 0.6 L) consumption (P-values <0.001) and intakes of most vitamins (P-values < 0.05) were significantly reduced during the pre-competition week in the Weight Loss Group. In both groups, the intakes of vitamins A, E and folate were below recommended values throughout the three periods; however, blood vitamin and plasma glutathione levels did not change significantly. Our findings indicate a low-caloric and low-carbohydrate diet in elite boxers, regardless of participating in rapid weight loss or not. Apparently, the pre-competitional malnutitrition in the Weight Loss Group did not induce alterations in the vitamin and glutathione status.
... The fat percentage was calculated by means of measurements of skinfold thickness using a Harpenden skinfold calliper (ASSIST Creative Resources Ltd., London, United Kingdom). The 7-site Jackson-Pollock formula (41), validated for use with athletes, was used in this study to estimate body density. Body fat percentage was then calculated using the appropriate formula recommended by American College of Sports Medicine (2), based on age and ethnicity. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a 26-week on-field combined strength and high-intensity training on the physical performance capacity among prepubertal soccer players who were undertaking a competitive phase of training. Twenty-four prepubertal soccer players between the age of 8 and 9 years were randomly assigned to 2 groups: a control (C; n = 13) and an experimental group (S; n = 11). Both groups performed an identical soccer-training program, whereas the S group also performed combined strength and high-intensity training before the soccer-specific training. The 15-m sprint time (seconds), countermovement jump (CMJ) displacement, Yo-Yo intermittent endurance test (Yo-Yo IE), and Sit and Reach flexibility were each measured before (baseline) and after 9 (T2), 18 (T3), and 26 weeks (posttest) of training. There were no significant differences between the groups in any of the variables tested at baseline. After 26 weeks, significant improvements were found in the CMJ (6.72%; effect size [ES] = 0.37), Yo-Yo IE (49.57%, ES = 1.39), and Flexibility (7.26%; ES = 0.37) variables for the S group. Conversely, significant decreases were noted for the CMJ (-10.82%; ES = 0.61) and flexibility (-13.09%; ES = 0.94) variables in the C group. A significant negative correlation was found between 15-m sprint time and CMJ (r = -0.77) and Yo-Yo IE (r = -0.77) in the S group. Specific combined strength and high-intensity training in prepubertal soccer players for 26 weeks produced a positive effect on performance qualities highly specific to soccer. Therefore, we propose modifications to current training methodology for prepubertal soccer players to include strength and high-intensity training for athlete preparation in this sport.
... In the present study, the eight ISAK SF sites [45][46][47] were used for two reasons: first, these sites are well known to many people as an international standard, and second, because comprehensive SF data of athletes already exist and US measurements allow the correlation between SF and uncompressed SAT to be assessed: this may improve the value of SFs that are used as predictors of total body fat. [52][53][54][55][56][57][58] However, the predictive value is limited because of heterogeneity in SF compression at various sites and among individuals, and also because skin thickness varies between sites. 40 59 Figure 4A shows SF values compared to US measurements of SAT at the ISAK sites. ...
Extremely low weight and rapid changes in weight and body composition have become major concerns in many sports, but sufficiently accurate field methods for body composition assessment in athletes are missing. This study aimed to explore the use of ultrasound methods for assessment of body fat content in athletes.
19 female athletes (stature: 1.67(±0.06) m, weight: 59.6(±7.6) kg; age: 19.5(±3.3) years) were investigated by three observers using a novel ultrasound method for thickness measurement of uncompressed subcutaneous adipose tissue and of embedded structures. Two observers also measured skinfold thickness at eight International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthrometry (ISAK) sites; mean skinfold values were compared to mean subcutaneous adipose tissue thicknesses measured by ultrasound. Interobserver reliability of imaging and evaluation obtained by this ultrasound technique: intraclass correlation coefficient ICC=0.968 (95% CI 0.957 to 0.977); evaluation of given images: ICC=0.997 (0.993 to 0.999).
Skinfold compared to ultrasound thickness showed that compressibility of subcutaneous adipose tissue depends largely on the site and the person: regression slopes ranged from 0.61 (biceps) to 1.59 (thigh) and CIs were large. Limits of agreement ranged from 2.6 to 8.6 mm. Regression lines did not intercept the skinfold axis at zero because of the skin thickness being included in the skinfold. The four ISAK trunk sites caused ultrasound imaging problems in 13 of 152 sites (8 ISAK sites, 19 athletes).
The ultrasound method allows measurement of uncompressed subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness with an accuracy of 0.1-0.5 mm, depending on the probe frequency. Compressibility of the skinfold depends on the anatomical site, and skin thickness varies by a factor of two. This inevitably limits the skinfold methods for body fat estimation. Ultrasound accuracy for subcutaneous adipose tissue measurement is limited by the plasticity of fat and furrowed tissue borders. Comparative US measurements show that skinfold measurements do not allow accurate assessment of subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness.
... Estudos mostram que a equação de Durnin & Wormersley 7 tende a superestimar o percentual de gordura corporal e que a equação de Jackson & Pollock 8 , que utiliza a soma de três dobras cutâneas, seria a mais adequada para a avaliação de atletas 25 . ...
O excesso de gordura corporal está, freqüentemente, associado a alterações metabólicas importantes e às doenças crônicas, como diabetes, hipertensão arterial e dislipidemias. A disponibilidade de métodos que permitam estimar a composição corporal é fundamental para avaliação de atletas e do estado de saúde de indivíduos. Entre os métodos existentes, as medidas de dobras cutâneas são habitualmente utilizadas na população brasileira, devido à sua facilidade e relativa precisão em estimar a gordura corporal. Entretanto, existem limitações quanto à utilização desse método, que podem implicar em erros de estimativas da gordura corporal importantes. A proposta deste trabalho é descrever os estudos que validaram essas equações e os principais fatores que influenciam a acurácia das mesmas na população em geral. Também são discutidos aspectos quanto à aplicabilidade dessas equações na população brasileira.An excess of body fat is frequently associated with important metabolic alterations and chronic diseases, such as diabetes, hypertension and dyslipidemia. The availability of methods to assess body composition is essential to evaluate athletes and the health status of individuals. Among the existent methods, the skinfold measurement is broadly used among the Brazilian population, due to its ease-of-use and relative precision to estimate body fat. However, there are some limitations related to the use of this method as it may result is gross mistakes when estimating body fat. The aim of this review is to describe the studies that validated those equations and the main factors that have influenced their accuracy in the general population. Some aspects related to the application of those equations in the Brazilian population are also discussed.
... The following criteria were used in the present study to evaluate the results of the cross-validation analyses (22,23): a) the mean values for actual and predicted V O 2max should be comparable; b) the TE should be calculated because it reflects the true difference between the actual and predicted V O 2max , whereas the SEE reflects only the error associated with the regression between the variables; c) there should be close similarity between TE and SEE because it reflects the relationship between the regression line for actual versus the predicted V O 2max and the line of identity; d) a low SEE is desirable and is preferred over correlation coefficients because it is not sensitive to differences in means and they are affected by differences between samples in the variability of V O 2max values; and e) there should be no relationship between the CE and actual V O 2max . ...
Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to cross-validate existing VO2max prediction equations on samples of aerobically trained males and females. Methods: A total of 142 aerobically trained males (mean +/- SD; 39.0 +/- 11.1 yr, N = 93) and females (39.7 +/- 10.1 yr, N = 49) performed a maximal incremental test to determine actual VO2max on a cycle ergometer. The predicted VO2max values from 18 equations (nine for each gender) were compared with actual VO2max by examining the constant error (CE), standard error of estimate (SEE), correlation coefficient (r), and total error (TE). Results: The results of this investigation indicated that all of the equations resulted in significant (P < 0.006) CE values ranging from -216 to 1415 mL.min(-1) for the males and 132 to 1037 mL.min(-1) for the females. In addition the SEE, r, and TE values ranged from 266 to 609 mL.min(-1), 0.36 to 0.88, and 317 to 1535 mL.min(-1), respectively. Furthermore, the lowest TE values for the males and females represented 10% and 12% of the mean actual VO2max values, respectively. Conclusions: The results of the analysis indicated that the two equations using age, body weight, and the power output achieved at VO2 as predictor variables had the lowest SEE (7.7-9.8% of actual VO2max) and TE (10-12% of actual VO2max) values and are recommended for estimating VO2max in aerobically trained males and females. The magnitude of the TE values (greater than or equal to20% of actual VO2max) associated with the remaining 16 equations, however, were too large to be of practical value for estimating VO2max.
... The present study was designed to investigate the ability of the BOD POD ADP to accurately assess %fat in young adolescents, compared to a DXA criterion measure. As expected, all ADP %fat estimates were significantly correlated Lohman (1981) be utilised to validate new methods of body composition analysis (Sinning et al, 1985; Clark et al, 1993). Lohman (1981) suggested analysis should include evaluation of mean7s.d., mean difference (MD), s.e.e. and TE. ...
To evaluate the accuracy of percentage body fat (%fat) estimates from air displacement plethysmography (ADP) against an increasingly recognised criterion method, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), in young adolescents.
Cross-sectional evaluation.
Leeds General Infirmary, Centre for Bone and Body Composition Research, Leeds, UK.
In all, 28 adolescents (12 males and 16 females), age (mean+/-s.d.) 14.9+/-0.5 y, body mass index 21.2+/-2.9 kg/m(2) and body fat (DXA) 24.2+/-10.2% were assessed.
ADP estimates of %fat were highly correlated with those of DXA in both male and female subjects (r=0.84-0.95, all P<0.001; s.e.e.=3.42-3.89%). Mean %fat estimated by ADP using the Siri (1961) equation (ADP(Siri)) produced a nonsignificant overestimation in males (0.67%), and a nonsignificant underestimation in females (1.26%). Mean %fat estimated by ADP using the Lohman (1986) equations (ADP(Loh)) produced a nonsignificant underestimation in males (0.90%) and a significant underestimation in females (3.29%; P<0.01). Agreement between ADP and DXA methods was examined using the total error (TE) and methods of Bland and Altman (1986). Males produced a smaller TE (ADP(Siri) 3.28%; ADP(Loh) 3.49%) than females (ADP(Siri) 3.81%; ADP(Loh) 4.98%). The 95% limits of agreement were relatively similar for all %fat estimates, ranging from +/-6.57 to +/-7.58%. Residual plot analyses, of the individual differences between ADP and DXA, revealed a significant bias associated with increased %fat (DXA), only in girls (P<0.01).
We conclude that ADP, at present, has unacceptably high limits of agreement compared to a criterion DXA measure. The ease of use, suitability for various populations and cost of ADP warrant further investigation of this method to establish biological variables that may influence the validity of body fat estimates.
... The height was measured by means of stadiometry to the nearest 0.5 cm and a scale (Tanita) was used to measure body mass to the nearest 0.1 kg. The % body fat was estimated by the sum of four skinfold thickness (biceps, triceps, sub-scapular, suprailiac) determined by the formula of Brozek et al[12]based on body density determination by the formulas of Lohman et al[13]and Sinning et al[14]. All skinfold measurements were made in triplicate by the medical center doctor following the Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual[13]. ...
The purpose of this study was to describe the body structure and morphological characteristics of Tunisian elite handball players, and to determine the effect of these variables on functional and physical performance levels.
A sample of 42 male handball players (mean age 21.98±3.24 years; training duration 12 years) at international level was submitted to a test battery comprising morphological, physical and physiological assessments. Tests were yo-yo intermittent recovery test, squat jump test, countermovement jump test, vertical-jump test, and Repeated sprint Ability. Measures for assessment of anthropometric characteristics were age, size, weight, body mass index, body fat, fat mass and thin mass.
Weight was negatively correlated to the squat jump and the countermovement jump performance. Age, weight, and body composition measures (fat and thin body mass) were additionally negatively related to the maximal oxygen uptake, and to the maximal velocity obtained in the Yo-Yo recovery test. No relationship was found between size, body mass index, body fat and the physical abilities considered. Concerning the effects of physical characteristics on the functional performances, we can note a positive relationship between squat jump, countermovement jump, and the yo-yo recovery test performance. No relationship was found between vertical jump, repeated sprint ability, and the physiological performances.
Study results point to the existence of strong correlation between morphological and physical characteristics with functional characteristics. In handball, it is possible to have a reliable estimate of anthropometric measurements, physical and physiological performances.
... Several equations have been validated for use in male athletes, but they might not be equally effective at predicting body composition in all male athlete subsamples, particularly football and basketball players. 17 Only 2 anthropometric equations have been developed using American football players as the population sample. However, these equations have not predicted body composition in a second university football population. ...
The recent increase in athlete size, particularly in football athletes of all levels, coupled with the increased health risk associated with obesity warrants continued monitoring of body composition from a health perspective in this population. Equations developed to predict percentage of body fat (%Fat) have been shown to be population specific and might not be accurate for football athletes.
To develop multiple regression equations using standard anthropometric measurements to estimate dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry %Fat (DEXA%Fat) in collegiate football players.
Controlled laboratory study. Patients and Other Participants: One hundred fifty-seven National Collegiate Athletic Association Division IA football athletes (age = 20 ± 1 years, height = 185.6 ± 6.5 cm, mass = 103.1 ± 20.4 kg, DEXA%Fat = 19.5 ± 9.1%) participated. Main Outcome Measure(s): Participants had the following measures: (1) body composition testing with dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry; (2) skinfold measurements in millimeters, including chest, triceps, subscapular, midaxillary, suprailiac, abdominal (SFAB), and thigh; and (3) standard circumference measurements in centimeters, including ankle, calf, thigh, hip (AHIP), waist, umbilical (AUMB), chest, wrist, forearm, arm, and neck. Regression analysis and fit statistics were used to determine the relationship between DEXA%Fat and each skinfold thickness, sum of all skinfold measures (SFSUM), and individual circumference measures.
Statistical analysis resulted in the development of 3 equations to predict DEXA%Fat: model 1, (0.178 · AHIP) + (0.097 · AUMB) + (0.089 · SFSUM) - 19.641; model 2, (0.193 · AHIP) + (0.133 · AUMB) + (0.371 · SFAB) - 23.0523; and model 3, (0.132 · SFSUM) + 3.530. The R(2) values were 0.94 for model 1, 0.93 for model 2, and 0.91 for model 3 (for all, P < .001).
The equations developed provide an accurate way to assess DEXA%Fat in collegiate football players using standard anthropometric measures so athletic trainers and coaches can monitor these athletes at increased health risk due to increased size.
... Out of 18 such equations, only three were found to be reliable for use in athletes. [63] A cross-validated skinfold equation for US high-school wrestlers was produced in order to standardize the approach to establishing minimum weight. Produced on 860 wrestlers across five universities, the study tested the validity of 16 equations, the best of which estimated the densitometry-derived minimum weight with an SEE of 2.4 kg based on the sum of three skinfolds. ...
Quantifying human body composition has played an important role in monitoring all athlete performance and training regimens, but especially so in gravitational, weight class and aesthetic sports wherein the tissue composition of the body profoundly affects performance or adjudication. Over the past century, a myriad of techniques and equations have been proposed, but all have some inherent problems, whether in measurement methodology or in the assumptions they make. To date, there is no universally applicable criterion or 'gold standard' methodology for body composition assessment. Having considered issues of accuracy, repeatability and utility, the multi-component model might be employed as a performance or selection criterion, provided the selected model accounts for variability in the density of fat-free mass in its computation. However, when profiling change in interventions, single methods whose raw data are surrogates for body composition (with the notable exception of the body mass index) remain useful.
The purpose of the study is to examine the effect of exercise-induced dehydration on body composition using three indirect methods: bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), skinfold thickness (SF), and underwater weighing (UWW).Method: Thirty healthy, physically active subjects with normal weight (22 males) participated as study subjects. After baseline body composition measurements using the above three methods were obtained, the subjects began to dehydrate by exercise until an average of 1.5% body weight loss was accomplished. Within 10 minutes post-exercise, the subjects’ body composition measurements using the same measurement methods were repeated. Results: There was a significant (p<0.05) difference between the three methods for determining fat free mass (FFM), fat mass (FM), and percent body fat (%BF). The %BF and FM measurements using the BIA method were significantly (p<0.05) affected by exercise-induced dehydration, but not the UWW or the SF method. Compared to the UWW method before dehydration, the SF method significantly (p<0.05) under-estimated FM, %BF, and over-estimated FFM, whereas the BIA method significantly (p<0.05) over-estimated FM and % BF, and under-estimated FFM. These observations also occur after exercise-induced dehydration. Comparing genders, the BIA method produced higher %BF and FM values in the female subjects than in the male subjects both before and after dehydration. Conclusion: We concluded that exercise-induced dehydration of 1.5% weight loss significantly (p<0.05) limits the usefulness of the BIA method for determining human body composition in physically active and normal weight adults, whereas dehydration induced an insignificant effect on the SF or UWW method.
PurposeStep test protocols are typically based on the heart rate (HR) measured either during exercise or during recovery. This study developed a new step test protocol to estimate maximal oxygen consumption (\(\dot{\text{{V}}}{{\text{O}}}_{\text{2max}}\)) based on HRs measured during and after exercise, assessed the criterion validity of the model, and evaluated the protocol’s test–retest reliability.Methods
The protocol estimates \(\dot{\text{{V}}}{{\text{O}}}_{\text{2max}}\) from HR measurements made once a minute during 3 min of step exercise and 2 min of recovery. The model was derived using a group of 118 working adults and cross-validated using a second group of 74 working adults. Furthermore, \(\dot{\text{{V}}}{{\text{O}}}_{\text{2max}}\) was measured using a conventional treadmill test. While multiple regression analyses were used to develop prediction equations for \(\dot{\text{{V}}}{{\text{O}}}_{\text{2max}}\), intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were used to examine test–retest reliability.ResultsHRs during and after exercise significantly correlated with the measured \(\dot{\text{{V}}}{{\text{O}}}_{\text{2max}}\). The highest correlation (r = − 0.61) was for an HR index that combined values of HRs during and after exercise. A model including age, sex, body mass index, and the HR index accounted for 60% of the variance in measured \(\dot{\text{{V}}}{{\text{O}}}_{\text{2max}}\) (standard error of the estimate, 4.05 mL kg−1 min−1 or 10.5%). Cross-validation analyses demonstrated good stability of the \(\dot{\text{{V}}}{{\text{O}}}_{\text{2max}}\) prediction models. The ICC for the HR index was 0.65 (0.53–0.74), indicating fair to good reliability.Conclusion
The HR index, based on a combination of HR measurements during and after stepping exercise, offers a validated \(\dot{\text{{V}}}{{\text{O}}}_{\text{2max}}\) estimation procedure suitable for use in the workplace.
The aim of the study is to establish a simple and low-cost method that, associated with Body Mass Index (BMI), differentiates overweight conditions due to a prevalence of lean mass compared to an excess of fat mass during the evaluation of young athletes. 1046 young athletes (620 male, 426 female) aged between eight and 18 were enrolled. Body composition assessments were performed with anthropometry, circumferences, skinfold, and bioimpedance. Overweight was established with BMI, while overfat was established with the percentage of fat mass: 3.5% were underweight, 72.8% were normal weight, 20.1% were overweight, and 3.5% were obese according to BMI; according to the fat mass, 9.5% were under fat, 63.6% were normal fat, 16.2% were overfat, and 10.8% were obese. Differences in overfat prediction were found using BMI alone or with the addition of the triceps fold (area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC) for BMI = 0.867 vs. AUC for BMI + TRICEPS = 0.955, p < 0.001). These results allowed the creation of a model factoring in age, sex, BMI, and triceps fold that could provide the probability that a young overweight athlete is also in an overfat condition. The calculated probability could reduce the risk of error in establishing the correct weight status of young athletes.
As curvas de lactato sangüíneo, durante o exercício, têm sido amplamente utilizadas na prescrição do estímulo de treinamento para corredores de longa distância. Uma vez que a transferência dos resultados do laboratório para a situação de campo tem demonstrado ser inadequada, o objetivo deste estudo foi propor um protocolo de campo para predição do desempenho na corrida de 5.000 m. Vinte e oito corredores de média e longa distância (idade = 28±6 anos; peso = 61,5±6,1 kg) foram submetidos ao: a) ESTEI - teste na esteira ergométrica sem inclinação, consistindo de quatro velocidades, com cada estágio de cinco minutos separados por um minuto de repouso (15, 17, 18 e 19 km.h'1 ou 17, 19, 20 e 21 km.li'1), com as velocidades escolhidas para os sujeitos baseando-se no tempo mais recente na maratona (abaixo ou acima de duas horas e 30 minutos); b) CAMPO - quatro repetições de 1.600 metros com velocidades progressivas (3,5% abaixo da velocidade na esteira), separados por um minuto de repouso, como o empregado em a); e c) CORR - teste de corrida de 5.000 m. Amostras de sangue arterializado do lóbulo da orelha foram coletadas durante os primeiros 30 segundos dos períodos de recuperação nas condições ESTEI e CAMPO, com a concentração de lactato sendo analisada pelo método eletro enzimático (YSI 1500 Sport; Yellovv Springs Inc., Ohio). As velocidades e freqüências cardíacas nas duas situações de testes foram comparadas nas concentrações fixas de lactato de 2, 4 e 8 mmol.l'1 (ESTEIR: V2niM = 17,1±1,2, V4mM = 19,1±1,4, V8mM = 20,9±1,8 km.h'1 e FC2mM = 164±7, FC4mM = 178±6. FC8mM = 193±8 bpm; CAMPO: V2mM = 16,6±1,0, V4mM = 18,1±1,0, V8mM = 19,5+1,2 km.h*1 e FC2mM = 165±6, FC4mM = 178±8, FC8111M = 190±9 bpm). Correlações significativas foram observadas entre as condições ESTEI e o CAMPO nas três concentrações fixas de lactato (p< 0,05). Sendo que não foi observada correlação significativa para a freqüência cardíaca a 8 mmol.l' Os coeficientes de correlação para teste/reteste na condição CAMPO, foram na faixa de 0,72 a 0,96 (todos sig. p< 0,05) para as FC e para as V, nas três concentrações fixas. O melhor preditor da velocidade de corrida nos 5.000 m foi a velocidade nos 4 m m ol.r1 na condição CAMPO (r= 0,90, p< 0,001; Y (m .m in1) = 13,4196 + 0,9997X, SEE = 9,62 m.min*1). Baseado nos presentes resultados foi concluído que referências originadas no protocolo de campo são mais relacionadas ao desempenho na corrida de 5.000 m, do que as originadas no laboratório
Introduction:
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the validity of the maximal distance (Dmax)-EMG method for estimating physical working capacity at fatigue threshold (PWCFT ).
Methods:
Twenty-one men and women (age: 22.9 ± 3.0 yrs) volunteered to perform 12 sessions of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) over 4 weeks. Pre- and post- HIIT training, a graded exercise test (GXT) was used to estimate PWCFT using Dmax and Original (ORG) methods.
Results:
There was a significant increase in PWCFT for ORG (+10.6%) and Dmax (+12.1%) methods but no significant difference in the change values between methods. Further, Bland-Altman analyses resulted in non-significant biases (ORG - Dmax) between methods at Pre- (-6.4±32.5 W; P>0.05) and Post- (-4.2±33.1 W; P>0.05) HIIT.
Discussion:
In conclusion, the Dmax method is sensitive to training and is a valid method for estimating PWCFT in young men and women. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Obesity has reached epidemic proportions with serious health consequences. Techniques used to measure body fat (BF) yield variable BF estimates, and this variability may lead to underestimation or overestimation of BF and subsequent treatment options. The measurements that are most accurate (Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA) and Air Displacement Plethysmography (ADP)) are expensive and often unavailable. The purpose of this study is to find the commonly available BF measurement that is the most accurate and practical for individual body types in the general population and compare these measurements to ADP (BOD POD(®)) as the standard. Field measurements include skinfolds (SKF), upper, lower, and whole body bioelectrical impedance (BI), waist and hip circumference ratios, body mass index calculations (BMI), and ADP. Our data indicate that BI is the least accurate measurement of body fat in males and females (paired t-tests of % body fat: BI vs. ADP, p0.05). However, preliminary data suggest female- specific SKF equations more accurately predict body fat in obese males than male-specific SKF equations. Given the current obesity trends, it is imperative to update these formulae to accurately reflect the current population.
Methods:
Twenty-three elite-level male rowers (mean± SD; age 24.6 ± 2.2 years; stature: 191.4 ± 7.2 cm; mass: 87.2 ± 11.2 kg) participated in this investigation. All body composition assessments were performed on the same day in random order, except for hydrostatic weighing (HW), which was measured last. FFM was evaluated using a 4C model, which included total body water from bioimpedance spectroscopy, body volume from HW, and total body bone mineral via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The major findings of the study were that the 2C models evaluated overestimated FFM and should be considered with caution for the assessment of FFM in elite male rowers. Future studies should use multiple-compartment models, with measurement of TBW and bone mineral content, for the estimation of FFM.
Concordancia del porcentaje graso a través de métodos
antropométricos en futbolistas profesionales
BACKGROUND: Yet there are no anthropometric equations specific for the Cannary Islands adult population. The purpose of this study was to develop an anthropometric equation specific for the Canary Islands adult male population, using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) as the reference method. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: One hundred and sixty-nine males, twenty-two with a sedentary lifestyle and the rest participating in different kinds of sports, were recruited from students at the Physical Education Faculty at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and from people living in Gran Canaria. About 70% of subjects were born in the Canary Islands, while the rest mostly originated from other regions of Spain. In each subject, anthropometric measurements were taken and %BF assessed by DEXA (QDR-1500, Hologic). The one hundred forty-seven active subjects were usded to develop the equation, while the twenty-two sedentary subjects were used to cross-validate the equation. Active subjects age, weight, height and percent body fat (%BF) were 23.6 ± 3.3 years (18.2-36.2), 73.5 ± 9.5 kg (49.4-103.3), 177.3 ± 7.7 cm (155.1-206.0) and 12.1 ± 4.5% (1.8-30.1), respectively. RESULTS: A stepwise multiple regression was used to develop the following equation: %BF = 23.59943 × [log 10 Σ (triceps, abdominal, iliac crest, front thigh and calf skinfolds in mm)] + [15.99428 × (abdominal girth/thoracic girth)] + [0.19299 × age in years] - 45.88485 (R = 0.92, EES = 1.8% GC, P < 0.001). Cross-validation showed that the aforementioned equation predicted %BF (17.8 × 5.3%) slightly lower than that obtanined with DEXA (19.6 ± 7.8%, P < 0.05). The intraclass correlation coefficient between both procedures was R = 0.92. In addition, in our sedentary subjects, this equation was more precise than the Dumin and Womersley, Yuhasz, Sloan, and Hatch and McArdle equations. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows the validity of our equation to estimate the percentage of body fat in Canary Islands adult males, independent of the level of physical activity.
To determine the influence of a short-term combined plyometric and sprint training (9-weeks) within regular soccer practice on explosive and technical actions of pubertal soccer players during the in-season.
Twenty-six players were randomly assigned to 2 groups; control group (CG) (soccer training only), and combined group (CombG) (plyometric+acceleration+dribbling+shooting). All players trained soccer four times per week and the experimental groups supplemented the soccer training with a proposed plyometric-sprint training program for 40 minutes (two days per weeks).
10-m sprint, 10-m agility with and without ball, CMJ and Abalakov vertical jump, ball-shooting speed and Yo-Yo IE test were measured before and after training. The experimental group followed a 9-week plyometric and sprint program (i.e., jumping, hurdling, bouncing, skipping, and footwork) implemented before the soccer training.
Baseline-training results showed no significant differences between the groups in any of the variables tested. No improvement was found in the control group, however, meaningful improvement was found in all variables in the experimental group: CMJ (ES=0.9), Abalakov vertical jump (ES=1.3), 10-m sprint (ES=0.7-0.9), 10-m agility (ES=0.8-1.2) and ball-shooting speed (ES=0.7-0.8).
A specific combined plyometric and sprint training within regular soccer practice improved explosive actions compared to conventional soccer training only. Therefore, the short-term combined program had a beneficial impact on explosive actions, such as sprinting, change of direction, jumping and ball-shooting speed which are important determinants of match-winning actions in soccer performance. Therefore, we propose modifications to current training methodology for pubertal soccer players to include combined plyometric and speed training for athlete preparation in this sport.
The study aimed to compare thermal sensation in response to a fixed warm stimulus across 31 body locations in resting and active males and females.
Twelve males (20.6 ± 1.0 years, 78.1 ± 15.6 kg, 180 ± 8.9 cm, 34.4 ± 5.2 ml kg(-1) min(-1)) and 12 females (20.6 ± 1.4 years, 62.9 ± 5.5 kg, 167 ± 5.7 cm, 36.5 ± 6.6 ml kg(-1) min(-1)) rested in a thermoneutral (22.2 ± 2.2 °C, 35.1 ± 5.8 % RH) room whilst a thermal probe (25 cm(2)), set at 40 °C was applied in a balanced order to 31 locations across the body. Participants reported their thermal sensation 10 s after initial application. Following this, participants began cycling at 50 % [Formula: see text] for 20 min, which was then lowered to 30 % [Formula: see text] and the sensitivity test repeated.
Females had significantly warmer magnitude sensations than males at all locations (4.7 ± 1.8 vs 3.6 ± 2.2, p < 0.05, respectively). Regional differences in thermal sensation were evident but were more prominent for females. Thermal sensation was greatest at the head then the torso and declined towards the extremities. In comparison to rest, exercise caused a significant reduction in thermal sensation for males (∆thermal sensation; 0.86 ± 0.3, p < 0.05), but only at select locations in females (0.31 ± 0.56, p > 0.05).
The data provide evidence that the thermal sensation response to warmth varies between genders and between body regions and reduces during exercise. These findings have important implications for clothing design and thermophysiological modelling.
A avaliação da composição corporal é de extrema importância para o diagnóstico do estado nutricional individual e populacional e para o estabelecimento de condutas clíniconutricionais adequadas. O excesso de gordura corporal está, freqüentemente, associado a alterações metabólicas importantes e às doenças crônicas, como diabetes, hipertensão arterial e dislipidemias. A disponibilidade de métodos que permitam estimar a composição corporal é fundamental para avaliação de atletas e do estado de saúde de indivíduos. Há diversos métodos para análise da composição corporal, e é importante conhecer a limitação de cada um e a sua validade para que as estimativas obtidas sejam confiáveis e interpretadas corretamente. Este estudo tem como objetivo revisar a aplicabilidade de alguns indicadores do estado nutricional e de métodos de avaliação da composição corporal, tais como índice de massa corporal, circunferência da cintura e relação cintura-quadril, medidas de dobras cutâneas, bioimpedância elétrica e interactância de infravermelho próximo.
PREDICTION OF PERFORMANCE IN THE 5 000 m RUN BY MEANS OF LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS IN MALE DISTANCE RUNNERS
Bood lactate curves during exercise have been widely used in the prescription of training stimulus for long distance runners. Since transferring laboratory results to field situations has been shown to be inadequate, the purpose of the present study was to propose a field protocol to predict performance in a 5 000 m run. Twenty-eight middle and long distance runners (age 28±6 years; weight = 61.5±6.1 kg) were submitted to: a) TREAD - a treadmill test with no inclination, consisting of four velocities, with each stage lasting five minutes separated by one minute rest (15, 17, 18 and 19 k.h-1 or 17, 19, 20 and 21 k.h-1), with the velocities being assigned to subjects based on their most recent marathon times (below or above two hours and 30 minutes); b) TRACK - four 1 600 meters runs at increasing velocities (3.5% below treadmill velocities), separated by one minute rests, chosen as in a); and c) RUN - a 5 000 m run test. Arterialized ear lobe blood samples were collected during the first 30 seconds of the recovering periods in the TRACK and TREAD conditions and analyzed for lactate concentrations by electroenzymatic method (YSI 1500 Sport;
Yellow Springs Inc.; Ohio). Velocities and heart rates for the two testing situations were compared at the fixed lactate concentrations of 2, 4 and 8 mmol.l-1 (TREADMILL: V2mM = 17.1±1.2, V4mM = 19.1±1.4, V8mM = 20.9±1.8 km.h-1 and HR2mM = 164±7, HR4mM = 178±6, HR8mM = 193±8 bpm; TRACK: V2mM = 16.6±1.0, V4mM = 18.1±1.0, V8mM = 19.5±1.2 km.h-1 and HR2mM = 165±6, HR4mM = 178±8, HR8mM = 190±9 bpm). Significant correlations between velocities on the TREAD and TRACK conditions were observed at the three fixed lactate concentrations (p < 0.05). The same was observed for the heart rates (exception for the 8 mmol.l-1). Test/retest correlation coefficients for the TRACK condition ranged from 0.72 to 0.96 (all sig. p < 0.05) for HR and VEL at the three fixed lactate concentrations. The best 5 000 run time predictor was the velocity at 4 mmol.l-1 in the TRACK condition (r= 0.90, p < 0.001; Y (m.min-1) = 13.4196 + 0.9997 X; SEE = 9.62 m.min-1). Based on the present results it was concluded that the running velocity at the 4 mmol.l-1 fixed lactate concentration on TRACK is the best predictor of perfomance in the 5 000 m run.
UNITERMS: OBLA; Anaerobic threshold; Field test; Endurance.
The aim of this work is to present a bibliographic review, based on the specialized literature, of the kineantropometric characteristics of swimmers and their importance for swimming performance. The main conclusions were: (i) swimmers are taller and heavier than the general population; (ii) swimmers present an high index of arm span/height (explained by a large biacromial diameter and long the upper arm); (iii) high values for the biacromial/bicristal diameter ratio were found, offering a lower drag coeffi cient; (iv) high length and surface area arm and leg values were observed (which positively infl uence their propulsion capacity); (v) elite male swimmers presents a ectomorph-endomorph somatotype and elite female swimmers are central or balanced mesomorphs (vi) swimmers exhibit a higher percentage of body mass than other athletes, which may benefi t positively their fl oatation.
The A/P22P-9(V) Chemical, Biological, Radiological (CBR) Protective Assembly for helicopter aircrews has been evaluated for the additional thermal stress it imparts to users in a hot environment. The standard aircrew life support system for helicopters, based on the CWU-27/P flight coverall, was employed as the experimental control. Two environmental conditions were studied: 1) a simulated hot aircraft interior (hot), with chamber temperatures maintained at dry bulb temperatures = 32.8C and a wet bulb temperature = 25.0C; and 2) a control environment (cool), with chamber temperatures maintained at 20.9C. Three males, aged 24-35 years, were exposed twice to each garment/environment condition combination, for a total of eight exposures each, except for one subject who was studied in cool conditions only once in each of the configurations, for a total of six runs. Heat durations were designed for 480 minutes. Comparison by ensemble show significant differences observed for exposure durations, while rectal temperatures were significantly different (p<0. 05) between ensembles only in hot conditions. Ambient conditions significantly impacted on nearly all measured parameters. The results indicate that the CBR ensemble represents a limiting factor in performance in a hot environment. Hyperthermia; Chemical warfare; Heat tolerance; Physiology; Heat stress.
This paper traces the evolution fitness testing from an athletic emphasis to one with a public health focus and examines the forces that brought about the change in an environment that was not totally receptive. An atmosphere for change was created during this era with the development of exercise physiology, exercise epidemiology, and measurement. The publication of a position paper of physical fitness by exercise scientists and the publication of state health-related fitness tests in the 1970s increased the pressure for change. Contemporary public health research clearly documents the positive role of physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and body composition on health outcomes. During this era, exercise scientists developed valid laboratory and field tests of cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition that have become the standards of practice. Public health researchers have been able to provide valid fitness standards for health promotion. These validate the health-related approach.
Although generalized equations to predict body composition exist, the validity of these equations when applied to a homogeneous group of athletic women is uncertain. Sixty-five women runners (age = 28.3 ± 6.4 yrs; ht = 166.8 ± 6.2 cm; wt = 58.9 ± 6.6 kg; body density (Db) = 1.047 ± 0.009 g · cc−1; percentage body fat (%BF) = 22.1 ± 3.7%; V̇O2max = 56.0 ± 5.3 ml/kg · min−1; training volume = 45.8 ± 16.0 km · wk−1) were used to cross-validate the Jackson, Pollock, and Ward (1980) generalized quadratic skinfold equations (JPW) and the Tran and Weltman (1989) generalized girth equation (TW). Additionally, the average of TW and the JPW quadratic skinfold equations were calculated and compared to hydrostatic weighing (HW). None of the JPW equations nor the TW equation accurately predicted Db (P <0.05). All JPW equations underpredicted %BF with values ranging from 16.3–19.7%. Correlations ranged from r = 0.73 to r = 0.79. Standard errors (SE = [∑(Y − Y′)2/N]1/2) for predicting %BF ranged from 6.6% to 3.9%. The TW equation underestimated body density (1.041 ± 0.008) with a correlation of r = 0.54 and a SE of 4.2%. When the results of the JPW sum of 4 skinfolds (or the sum of 7 skinfolds) was averaged with TW, no significant mean differences in Db or %BF were observed and the standard errors were 2.7%. Additionally, a population specific equation was derived using skinfolds and girths (n = 40) and was shown to accurately predict body density in a cross-validation sample of women runners (n = 25). This equation yielded a correlation of r = 0.72 and a SE = 2.7%. It was concluded that the combination of skinfold and girth techniques is superior to either method alone when predicting body composition in women runners. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The validity of selected generalized (n = 7) and obese population-specific (n = 2) skinfold and girth based anthropometric equations (using hydrostatic weighing as the criterion measure) was evaluated in 19 obese women before and after a mean body weight loss of 19.4 kg (percent body fat was reduced from 45.3% to 35.4%). For the present study, evaluation criteria of mean differences in percent body fat (%BF) of < 3%, r values > 0.70, and total error (T.E.) values of < 5% were selected. Only the equations that utilized girths as part of the prediction technique (Barrows and Snook, 1987; Jackson et al., 1980; Tran and Weltman, 1989; Weltman et al., 1988) resulted in mean differences in %BF of less than 3%, r values of > 0.70 and T.E. values of less than 5% in obese women before weight loss. After 19.4 kg of weight loss, all but three of the equations resulted in mean differences in %BF of less than 3%, r values of > 0.70 and T.E. values of less than 5%. The obese population-specific equations of Barrows and Snook (1987) and Weltman et al. (1988) were not accurate predictors of body composition after weight loss as they resulted in mean differences of 4.5–7.0 %BF. Although some of the equations examined were valid predictors of %BF either before or after weight loss, only the Jackson et al. (1980) equations which utilized both skinfolds and hip girth, and the Tran and Weltman (1988) equation which utilized trunk girths, resulted in mean differences of < 3 %BF, r values > r = 0.70, and T.E. scores of < ± 5 %BF both before and after weight loss. It was concluded that the prediction techniques of Jackson et al. (1980) and Tran and Weltman (1989), which utilize girth measures as part of the prediction technique, may have clinical utility for estimating changes in %BF in obese females before and after sizable weight loss. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
This study characterizes the basal body composition status of mountain climbers and examines changes in composition during a climbing expedition to high altitude. Subjects had selected physical and anthropometric (circumferences, skinfolds) measures taken immediately before (n=93) and after (n=29) an expedition to climb Mt McKinley, Denali National Park, Alaska. The anthropometric results were used to calculate the estimated percent body fat, lean body weight, and fat weight of the subjects. Climbing was attempted in elevation segments of 300 m per day to the summit (6193 m), and the length of the expeditions was 24.2 ± 0.8 days (mean ± se). All before- and after-expedition measures were statistically analyzed with a two-tailed t-test for dependent samples. The basal status results showed the climbers to be better than average in compositional status for their age group. Statistical analysis of the before- and after-expedition measures indicated that there were significant reductions in all of the anthropometric measures. Additionally, body weight (74.5 ± 1.7 kg vs 71.6 ± 1.5 kg), percent fat (15.6 ± 0.7% vs 13.8 ± 0.7%), lean body weight (62.8 ± 1.3 kg vs 61.7 ± 1.2 kg), and fat weight (11.7 ± 0.7 kg vs 10.0 ± 0.6 kg) were all significantly (p < 0.01) reduced following the expedition. These data indicate mountain climbing to high altitudes significantly impacts overall body composition, reducing both fat and lean mass. However, these reductions appear more so in the adipose reserves than in the lean tissues of the body.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a 120 km desert running race (5 stages over 4 days) on the main physiologic parameters related to the individual aerobic work capacity. Incremental treadmill tests were carried out on 7 recreational long-distance runners (age: 50.4±11.8 years; body mass: 76.0±8.5 kg; mean±SD) before and 3–5 days after the competition. Maximal oxygen consumption (\(
\dot VO_{2max}
\)), ventilatory threshold and heart rate were obtained by standard methods; the mean energy cost of running (Cr) above resting was calculated during the same protocol from the slope of the oxygen consumption versus running speed. After the race, the subjects exhibited significant (p<0.05) reductions only in \(
\dot VO_{2max}
\) (averaging 7%; from 46.7±5.1 to 43.2±4.4 ml · kg−1 · mm−1) and in maximal heart rate (averaging 3%; from 172.4±14.1 to 166.7±14.5 beats · min−1). Knowledge of Cr (3.78±0.31 J · kg−1 · m−1 and 3.74±0.48 J · kg−1 · m−1, before and after the race respectively) allowed us to estimate the overall daily energy requirement, about 20 850 kJ. \(
\dot VO_{2max}
\) and the maximal heart rate seem to be the main variables affected by prolonged strenuous runs followed by insufficient rest periods.
Body density and other anthropometric data were obtained on 101 Indian soldiers who were continously staying at high altitude (3920 m) for more than 10 months. Use was made of a human body volumeter, and body density was calculated from observed body weight and volume. Measurements were taken on the body using standard techniques. A stepwise linear regression analysis was performed to establish possible relationships of 36 body measurements with density and lean body weight. Thigh anterior, juxta-nipple skin folds and forearm and ankle circumference were selected in the regression equation predicting body density. Multiple correlation coefficient (R) equal to 0.765 was obtained for this equation. For the predicted lean body weight, R equalled 0.930. The regression equations included body weight, thigh, anterior and juxta-nipple skin fold thicknesses, and forearm circumference. Contribution of other body measurements in the regression of these parameters was not significant. The analysis also revealed that a new set of coefficients is required for the measurements included in the published regression equations.
Male athletes (n=129) were measured for body composition using 26 anthropometric dimensions and hydrostatic weighing. Multiple regression analysis was used to select prediction equations to estimate body density, fat weight and lean body mass from anthropometric variables. Multiple correlation coefficients ranged from .80 to .98. Validity coefficients for these equations exceeded .95. Using lean 'minor-sports' athletes (n=71), prediction equations were generated with multiple correlations ranging from .70 to .96. Validity coefficients for these equations exceeded .93. Selected equations from the literature were generally inadequate for estimating body density in male athletes. Care should be taken to use an appropriate prediction equation when advising athletes concerning the achievement of optimal playing weight. Failure to do so may result in serious errors in dietary and/or exercise prescription for weight control.
The purpose of this study was to develop anthropometric and skinfold prediction equations to estimate body density and lean body mass in college football players. Eight skinfolds, 9 muscle circumferences, and 7 skeletal diameters were assessed on 58 college football players during the competitive season. Body density was measured by the underwater weighing technique. Prediction equations were developed for backs, linemen, and the composite group. Multiple R's to predict body density ranged from .81 in backs to .94 in linemen. None of the Multiple R's to predict lean body mass was below .89. Use of anthropometric variables provides a better method for determining a competitor's ideal body weight than gross body weight alone. A cross-validation of 9 widely used body composition prediction equations was also performed. Three equations derived on nonathletic populations were considered acceptable for estimation of body density in college football players.