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Internet gaming disorder and problematic internet use: The links between cyberbullying, aggression, loneliness and psychiatric comorbidities
Abstract
Aims:
To compare adolescents clinically diagnosed with Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) and problematic internet use (PIU) in terms of cyberbullying, aggression, and loneliness.
Methods:
Male adolescent patients (N=124, 14.3±1.7 years) with Internet Addiction Scale (IAS) scores ≥50 were clinically interviewed for IGD in utilizing DSM-5 criteria. Patients without full IGD criteria were included as PIU comparisons. Clinical variables were assessed using the second version of the Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory, short-form of the UCLA Loneliness Scale, Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire, Child Depression Inventory, and Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders.
Results:
Compared to individuals with PIU, those with IGD were significantly more likely to have attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, higher social phobia scores, higher cyberbullying scores, higher loneliness scores, been a cyberbully, and been a cyberbully victim.
Conclusion:
Male adolescents with IGD have higher rates of psychiatric comorbidity, perceived loneliness, cyberbullying, and being a victim of cyberbullying than those with PIU. Future studies could evaluate these predictors of transition from PIU to IGD in large cohort samples.
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Developmental theories posit that immature cognitive control and excessive reward‐seeking capacities may be a risk factor for addictive behaviors during adolescence, but the control and reward capacities have rarely been assessed experimentally in adolescents with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) simultaneously. This electrophysiological study examined inhibitory control and reward processing in adolescents with IGD during a go/no‐go task and a gambling task. Behaviorally, the adolescents with IGD exhibited lower inhibitory control, as measured by the accuracy of no‐go trials, and more risk seeking, as measured by the proportion of risky choices, than did the controls. Compared with the controls, the adolescents with IGD exhibited decreased no‐go P3 and blunted feedback‐related negativity (FRN) amplitudes following gains (gain FRN) but not losses. Thus, IGD in adolescents is potentially driven by dysfunction of the control system and the approach system rather than the avoidance system, supporting the neurobiological model of adolescent development. The neurobiological model of adolescent development posits that immature cognitive control and excessive reward‐seeking capacities may be risk factors for addictive behaviors during adolescence. Critically, to resolve this issue regarding the theory, the current ERP study used the go/no‐go and gambling paradigms to simultaneously assess the control and reward capacities of adolescents with Internet gaming disorder (IGD). The findings are of great importance, as the theory suggests that the adolescents with IGD exhibit lower inhibition control and a greater pattern of risk seeking.
Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) was recently included as a condition for further study in the fifth and latest version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The present study investigated whether the IGD criteria comprise a unidimensional construct. Data stemmed from a sample of Norwegians aged 17.5 years in 2012 and 19.5 years in 2014 (N = 1258). The study used the Mokken scale analysis to investigate whether the score of the different items on the IGD scale measured a single latent variable and if the scale functions differently for males and females. Correlation analysis was conducted between the scores on the IGD scale (count) and the Gaming Addiction Scale for Adolescents (GASA, categorical), both assessed in 2014. Negative binomial regression analyses were applied in order to investigate how different predictors of mental health assessed in 2012 were associated with IGD assessed in 2014. The Mokken scale analysis showed that all item-coefficients of homogeneity exceeded 0.3 when the whole sample completed the scale and when females completed the scale, indicating that the items reflect a single latent variable. In both cases moderate (H > 0.40) unidimensionality was shown. The item measuring “tolerance” did not exceed 0.3 in the scale when completed by males, indicating that only eight out of nine items reflect a single latent variable when applied to males only. The eight-item scale containing males showed weak (H > 0.30) unidimensionality. The correlation analysis showed a positive correlation between the scores on the IGD scale and the GASA (r = 0.71, p < 0.01) when assessed simultaneously and a positive but lower correlation (r = 0.48, p < 0.01) when assessed longitudinally. Results from the negative binomial regression analysis showed that previous video-game addiction, being male, depression, aggression and loneliness were significant predictors of IGD. The associations were small for all independent variables except previous video game addiction and gender where the associations were large. Although the results from the correlation analysis and regression analysis showed predictive validity of the scale, the results from the Mokken analysis suggest that the IGD scale may not be applied as a unidimensional scale when the tolerance item is included.
Objectives: Video game addiction has been associated with an array of mental health variables. There is a paucity of longitudinal studies investigating such associations, and studies differentiating addicted gaming from problem and engaged (i.e., frequent but non-problem) gaming. The current explorative study investigate the natural course of gaming behavior in three sub-studies. The aim of study 1 was to investigate antecedents and consequences of video game addiction measured as a unidimensional construct (pathological gaming). Aim of study 2 was to investigate the same associations in terms of typologies of gamers (“engaged,” “problem,” “addicted”). Furthermore, study 3 aimed to investigate the estimated stability and transitions occurring between the aforementioned typologies, and a non-pathological gaming group.
Methods: A nationally representative sample of 3,000 adolescents aged 17.5 years was drawn from the population registry of Norway in 2012 and invited to participate in annual surveys spanning 3 years (NT1 = 2,059, NT2 = 1,334, NT3 = 1,277). The respondents completed measures of video game addiction, depression, anxiety, loneliness, aggression, and alcohol use disorder. Statistical analysis comprised cross-lagged path modeling, Satorra-Bentler chi square test (study 1), regression analyses (study 2), hidden Markov model of transition probabilities (study 3).
Results: Findings in study 1 showed that depression and loneliness were reciprocally associated with pathological gaming. Physical aggression was identified as an antecedent, and anxiety was a consequence of pathological gaming. Investigation of the three typologies of gamers (study 2) identified loneliness and physical aggression as antecedents, and depression as a consequence of all typologies. Depression was found to be an antecedent of problem and engaged gamers. Loneliness was found as a consequence of problem gamers, and anxiety was a consequence of addicted gamers. High alcohol consumption was found antecedent to addicted gamers, and low alcohol consumption was found antecedent to problem gamers. The estimated stability of video game addiction was 35%.
Conclusion: A reciprocal relationship between pathological gaming and measures of mental health problems seems to exist. The stability of video game addiction indicates a condition that for a substantial number of people does not resolve spontaneously over the course of 2 years.
Background: We aimed to determine the level of computer game addiction and loneliness among 9-10-yr-old children.
Methods: The study was conducted with 4th-grade students at a primary school, located at the city center, during 2017-2018 academic years. There was no sampling in the research, all 4 th-grade students of the school were reached. “Personal Information Form”, “Computer Game Addiction Scale” and “UCLA Loneliness Scale” were used for collecting data. Mann Whitney U test, Kruskal Wallis test, and Correlation Analysis were used to evaluate the data of the research.
Results: 50.7% (n=104) of the students were female, most frequent number of sister/ brother was one 39.0% (n=80), both their mother 31.7% (n=65) and their father 34.1% (n=69) were mostly high school graduated. The average scores that students got from the scales were; 48.66±.27.02 (min.: 21.00, max.: 105) for “Computer Game Addiction Scale” and 40.55±8.50 (min: 22.00, max.: 64) for “UCLA Loneliness Scale”. A weak, positive
and significant relationship was found between students’ loneliness scale scores and computer game addiction scale scores (r=0.357; P<0.000).
Conclusion: A significant relationship was found between students’ computer game addiction and loneliness. It is suggested to perform children’s loneliness and computer game addiction assessments, evaluate effectiveness and establish a rehabilitating treatment system among school-hospital-family for abnormal cases.
Background and aims
Internet gaming disorder (IGD) has become a topic of increasing research interest since its inclusion in Section 3 of the DSM-5. Given the lack of clinical studies concerning IGD, exploring the characteristics of clinical samples with IGD will help to delineate the gaming disorder construct and inform future treatment studies.
Methods
Data collection consisted of clinical interviews comprising 31 male adolescents diagnosed with IGD. Alongside the clinical interviews, the participants were administered a battery of psychometric tests assessing the following: IGD, personality traits, comorbid symptomatology, emotional intelligence (EI), and family environment characteristics.
Results
The results showed that the adolescents with IGD and their relatives reported a high number of hours per week and high presence of stressful life events in the majority of the sample. High scores on scales assessing depression, anxiety, and somatic disorders were found. However, the findings indicate the presence of several other comorbid disorders meaning that some of the adolescent sample with IGD had different clinical profiles. Several personality traits were found to be highly associated with IGD including introversion, inhibition, submissiveness, self-devaluation, interpersonal sensibility, obsessive–compulsive tendencies, phobic anxiety, and hostility, as well as paranoid and borderline personality traits. Other negative characteristics found in the present sample included a high level of social problems, low EI, and dysfunctional family relationships.
Discussion and conclusions
The findings suggest a more global pattern of key psychological characteristics associated with Internet gaming disorder in adolescence. This may help in understanding the complexity of this proposed disorder and it may also help in designing more specialized interventions for adolescents with IGD. The findings have important implications for clinical practice and interventions.
Background: Understanding the risk factors associated with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) is important to predict and diagnose the condition. The purpose of this study is to identify risk factors that predict IGD based on psychological factors and Internet gaming characteristics; Methods: Online surveys were conducted between 26 November and 26 December 2014. There were 3568 Korean Internet game users among a total of 5003 respondents. We identified 481 IGD gamers and 3087 normal Internet gamers, based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM-5) criteria. Logistic regression analysis was applied to identify significant risk factors for IGD; Results: The following eight risk factors were found to be significantly associated with IGD: functional and dysfunctional impulsivity (odds ratio: 1.138), belief self-control (1.034), anxiety (1.086), pursuit of desired appetitive goals (1.105), money spent on gaming (1.005), weekday game time (1.081), offline community meeting attendance (2.060), and game community membership (1.393; p < 0.05 for all eight risk factors); Conclusions: These risk factors allow for the prediction and diagnosis of IGD. In the future, these risk factors could also be used to inform clinical services for IGD diagnosis and treatment.
This paper validates the DSM-5 criteria of internet gaming disorder, and analyzes its links with five indicators of well being: life satisfaction, loneliness, depression, and academic performance in a French-speaking sample of 693 gamers. Exploratory and confirmatory analyses showed a one-factor structure of Internet gaming disorder criteria. The IGD scale showed satisfactory validity and reliability and was related in a consistent way with well-being measures. The IGD scale appears to be an appropriate measure to assess viode game addiction and will contribute to increase the comparability of international research.
Objective: The purpose of this study is to adapt short form of the UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8) to Turkish and investigate the validity and reliability of the scale for Turkish adolescents. Method: The participants in this study were 293 high school students aged between 14 and 19. Among the participants 110 (37.5%) were male, 183 (62.5%) were female and mean age was found to be 15.85 (SS=1.20). Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were used to evaluate the construct validity of the scale. In order to check criterion validity of Turkish version of the ULS-8 scale, the General Belongingness Scale, and the Life Satisfaction Scale were used. For reliability of Turkish version of the ULS-8, average variance extracted (AVE), composit reliability, Cronbach alpha level and test-retest correlation were computed. Results: The factor analysis resulted in one factor. Factor loadings of the items varied between 0.31 and 0.71. All of the fit indices indicated a good-fit model for the ULS-8. Criterion-related validity analysis revealed that there were significant relationships between loneliness and the general belongingness (r=-0.71), life satisfaction (r=-0.42). The results also showed that internal consistency coefficients of the factors were highly satisfactory for whole scale α=0.74. Test-retest reliability scales was found to be (r=0.84, p<0.001) on a sample of 64 high school students in a period of two weeks. Conclusion: Findings suggested that the Turkish version of the ULS-8 was found a valid and reliable instrument for Turkish adolescents.
Impulsive behavior is a core DSM-5 diagnostic feature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) that is associated with several pejorative outcomes. Impulsivity is multidimensional, consisting of two sub-constructs: rapid-response impulsivity and reward-delay impulsivity (i.e., choice-impulsivity). While previous research has extensively examined the presence and implications of rapid-response impulsivity in children with ADHD, reviews of choice-impulsive behavior have been both sparse and relatively circumscribed. This review used meta-analytic methods to comprehensively examine between-group differences in choice-impulsivity among children and adolescents with and without ADHD. Twenty-eight tasks (from 26 studies), consisting of 4320 total children (ADHD=2360, TD=1,960), provided sufficient information to compute an overall between-group effect size for choice-impulsivity performance. Results revealed a medium-magnitude between-group effect size (g=.47), suggesting that children and adolescents with ADHD exhibited moderately increased impulsive decision-making compared to TD children and adolescents. Further, relative to the TD group, children and adolescents with ADHD exhibited similar patterns of impulsive decision-making across delay discounting and delay of gratification tasks. However, the use of single-informant diagnostic procedures relative to multiple informants yielded larger between-group effects, and a similar pattern was observed across samples that excluded females relative to samples that included females.
Abstract There is an ongoing debate in the literature whether problematic Internet use (PIU) and problematic online gaming (POG) are two distinct conceptual and nosological entities or whether they are the same. The present study contributes to this question by examining the interrelationship and the overlap between PIU and POG in terms of sex, school achievement, time spent using the Internet and/or online gaming, psychological well-being, and preferred online activities. Questionnaires assessing these variables were administered to a nationally representative sample of adolescent gamers (N=2,073; Mage=16.4 years, SD=0.87; 68.4% male). Data showed that Internet use was a common activity among adolescents, while online gaming was engaged in by a considerably smaller group. Similarly, more adolescents met the criteria for PIU than for POG, and a small group of adolescents showed symptoms of both problem behaviors. The most notable difference between the two problem behaviors was in terms of sex. POG was much more strongly associated with being male. Self-esteem had low effect sizes on both behaviors, while depressive symptoms were associated with both PIU and POG, affecting PIU slightly more. In terms of preferred online activities, PIU was positively associated with online gaming, online chatting, and social networking, while POG was only associated with online gaming. Based on our findings, POG appears to be a conceptually different behavior from PIU, and therefore the data support the notion that Internet Addiction Disorder and Internet Gaming Disorder are separate nosological entities.
To evaluate the associations between cyberbullying behaviors and problematic internet use, and to compare psychopathologic symptoms in victims, perpetrators, and victims-perpetrators of cyberbullying to those in youths who were not involved in cyberbullying. A total of 4531 youths (11-14 years of age) were recruited from elementary and middle schools. Among 4531 youths, 9.7% were involved in cyberbullying; 3.3% were only victims; 3.4% were only perpetrators; and 3.0% were victims-perpetrators. Cyberbullying behaviors were associated with problematic internet use as well as various psychopathologic symptoms. Depressive symptoms were associated with cyberbullying victimization, and rule-breaking behaviors and aggressive behaviors have relevance to cyberbullying perpetration. Greater attention needs to be paid to identify youths earlier who are involved in cyberbullying and prevent serious adverse consequences in them.
Previous studies have identified significant variability in attention-deficit / hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) prevalence estimates worldwide, largely explained by methodological procedures. However, increasing rates of ADHD diagnosis and treatment throughout the past few decades have fuelled concerns about whether the true prevalence of the disorder has increased over time.
We updated the two most comprehensive systematic reviews on ADHD prevalence available in the literature. Meta-regression analyses were conducted to test the effect of year of study in the context of both methodological variables that determined variability in ADHD prevalence (diagnostic criteria, impairment criterion and source of information), and the geographical location of studies.
We identified 154 original studies and included 135 in the multivariate analysis. Methodological procedures investigated were significantly associated with heterogeneity of studies. Geographical location and year of study were not associated with variability in ADHD prevalence estimates.
Confirming previous findings, variability in ADHD prevalence estimates is mostly explained by methodological characteristics of the studies. In the past three decades, there has been no evidence to suggest an increase in the number of children in the community who meet criteria for ADHD when standardized diagnostic procedures are followed.
To investigate prevalence and patterns of psychiatric disorders in young subjects with Internet addiction (IA).
Subjects were taken from a sample of patients, aged 10-18 years old, referred to Istanbul Medical Faculty, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Department due to a variety of behavioral and emotional problems alongside problematic Internet use. Inclusion criteria included IQ ≥70 and score ≥80 on Young's Internet Addiction Scale (YIAS). Psychiatric comorbidity was assessed using the Turkish version of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version.
Subjects were 45 boys (75%) and 15 girls (25%) with an age range of 10-18 years old (mean age, 13.38 ± 1.79 years). A total of 60% (n = 36) had been using Internet for ≥5 years. Mean hours/week spent on the Internet was 53.7 (range, 30-105 h) and the average YIAS score was 85. All subjects (100%) had at least one and 88.3% (n = 53) had at least two comorbid psychiatric disorders. The frequency of diagnostic groups were as follows: behavioral disorder, n = 52 (86.7%); anxiety disorder, n = 43 (71.7%); mood disorder, n = 23 (38.3%); elimination disorder, n = 16 (26.7%); tic disorder, n = 10 (16.7%); and substance use disorder, n = 4 (6.7%). The most common psychiatric disorders were attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (n = 53; 83.3%), social phobia (n = 21; 35.0%) and major depressive disorder (n = 18; 30.0%).
High rates of psychiatric comorbidity, particularly behavioral, anxiety and mood disorders were found in young subjects with IA. Because the presence of psychiatric disorders may affect the management /prognosis of IA, assessment should include that for other psychiatric disorders.
To examine the relationship between children's and adolescents' experiences with cyberbullying and traditional bullying and psychological health, physical health, and academic performance.
Nine hundred thirty-one students in grades 6 through 12 completed an anonymous survey examining their experiences with cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Also included were measures of anxiety, depression, self-esteem, physical well-being, school attendance, and academic performance.
Participants were categorized as belonging to one of four groups: cyber victims, cyberbullies, cyber bully/victims, and those not involved in cyberbullying. A similar categorization was done with traditional bullying. Those in the bully/victim groups (and particularly the cyber bully/victim group) had the most negative scores on most measures of psychological health, physical, health, and academic performance.
There appears to be a substantial, although not perfect, overlap between involvement in traditional bullying and cyberbullying. Additionally, the physical, psychological, and academic correlates of the two types of bullying resembled one another.
Our study aims to assess the prevalence of behavioural addictions in an adolescent population, evaluating the effects of gender and age, and to assess the correlations among different behavioural addictions. 2853 high school students were assessed in order to evaluate the prevalence of behavioural addictions such as Pathological Gambling (PG), Compulsive Buying (CB), Exercise Addiction (EA), Internet Addiction (IA), and Work Addiction (WA), in a population of Italian adolescents. The South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised Adolescent (SOGS-RA), the Compulsive Buying Scale (CBS), the Exercise Addiction Inventory (EAI), the Internet Addiction Test (IAT), and the Work Addiction Risk Test (WART), were compiled anonymously by the students. Overall prevalence was 7.0% for PG, 11.3% for CB, 1.2% for IA, 7.6% for WA, 8.5% for EA. PG and EA were more common among boys, while gender had no effect on the other conditions. CB was more common among younger (<18 years old) students. The scores of all of these scales were significantly correlated. The strong correlation among different addictive behaviours is in line with the hypothesis of a common psychopathological dimension underlying these phenomena. Further studies are needed to assess personality traits and other clinical disorders associated with these problems behaviours.
The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-20) and a four-item short form (ULS-4) are widely used in personality research (Russell, Peplau, & Cutrona, 1980). In an exploratory factor analysis of the ULS-20, we identified eight items that loaded substantially on the first factor. These items were combined to form an alternative short-form measure, the ULS-8. The results of this study indicate that the ULS-8 is reliable, valid, and a better substitute for the ULS-20 than is the ULS-4. Consistent with the previous research, the loneliness measures (ULS-20, ULS-8, ULS-4) were strongly related to socially undesirable personality characteristics, but loneliness was uncorrelated with the six different health-related behaviors (exercise, meal regularity, alcohol use, hard drug use, smoking, and hours of sleep) assessed in this study.
Introduction:
The ubiquity of technology is reshaping the way teens express themselves and interact with peers. Considering that teens with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) experience a range of social impairments and that risk behaviors have the potential to be more widespread and damaging online, understanding how teens with ADHD use the Internet is important.
Methods:
The current study included 58 teens (72.4% boys; 13-16 years old) from the United States of America with ADHD. Study aims were to examine these teens' Internet use frequency, preferred online activities, Facebook interactions, and online risk behaviors (i.e., cyberbullying and sexting). Associations between online behaviors and offline symptoms and behaviors were explored to identify potential risk and protective factors.
Results:
Findings suggested that teens with ADHD use technology in similar ways as do the general population of teens described in previous research but appeared at unique risk of cyberbullying behaviors. Offline risks were associated with online risk behaviors. Using Facebook was associated with online risks (e.g., weak online connections) and offline risks (e.g., poorer social skills and more internalizing symptoms).
Conclusions:
Online social platforms permit the exploration of social behaviors via naturalistic observation. It is imperative researchers gain understanding of the increasingly prevalent online social worlds of teens. Such an understanding may enable researchers to formulate effective social interventions for teens with ADHD.
Aim:
The diagnostic criteria of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) have been included in section III of DSM-5. This study aims to systematically review both cross-sectional and longitudinal epidemiological studies of IGD.
Methods:
All publications included in PubMed and PsychINFO up to May 2016 were systematically searched to identify cross-sectional studies on prevalence and longitudinal studies of IGD. In the process of identification, articles in non-English languages, and studies focusing solely on the use of gaming were excluded, and those meeting the methodological requirements set by this review were included. As a result, 37 cross-sectional and 13 longitudinal studies were selected for review.
Results:
The prevalence of IGD in the total samples ranged from 0.7% to 27.5%. The prevalence was higher among males than females in the vast majority of studies and tended to be higher among younger rather than older people in some studies. Geographical region made little difference to prevalence. Factors associated with IGD were reported in 28 of 37 cross-sectional studies. These were diverse and covered gaming, demographic and familial factors, interpersonal relations, social and school functioning, personality, psychiatric comorbidity and physical health conditions. Longitudinal studies identified risk and protective factors, and health and social consequences of IGD. The natural course of IGD was diverse but tended to be more stable among adolescents compared to adults.
Conclusion:
Although existing epidemiological studies have provided useful data, differences in methodologies make it difficult to compare the findings of these studies when drawing consensus. Future international studies using reliable and uniform methods are warranted.
Objectives:
Cyberbullying research in China is in early stage. This study describes the cyberbullying experiences of junior and senior high school students in Guangzhou, China, and to examine the risk factors associated with cyberbullying perpetrators, victims and perpetrator-victims among students. We also investigated the frequency of cyberbullying and coping strategies of student victims.
Methods:
Participants were 2590 students in grades 7, 8, 9 and 10 from six junior and senior high schools in October 2015 in Guangzhou, in south China, who completed a questionnaire. Data on participants' experiences with cyberbullying perpetration and victimisation during the previous 6 months were collected. Multinomial logistic regression was used to analyse factors associated with being perpetrators, victims and perpetrator-victims.
Results:
In this sample, 28.0% (725) of participants reported being a perpetrator and 44.5% (1150) reported being a victim in the previous 6 months. Specifically, 2.9% (74) reported being perpetrators only, 19.3% (499) reported being victims only and 25.2% (651) reported being perpetrator-victims (both perpetrator and victim). In addition, flaming was the most common form of cyberbullying in both perpetration and victimisation. Logistic regression analyses indicated that online game addiction in participants was associated with increased odds of being a perpetrator only; no democratic parenting style in the mother and physical discipline by parents were associated with increased odds of being a victim only; male students, students with low academic achievement, those spending over 2 hours a day online, experiencing physical discipline from parents and online game addiction were associated with increased odds of both perpetration and victimisation.
Conclusions:
Cyberbullying is a common experience among Chinese junior and senior high school students. These findings add to the empirical data on cyberbullying and reinforce the urgent need for cyberbullying prevention in China. Furthermore, from the perspective of practice, it is important to raise our awareness of cyerbullying and reduce the risk factors.
This study examines the nature and extent of adolescents' cyberbullying experiences, and explores the extent to which various factors, including bullying, culture, and gender, contribute to cyberbullying and cyber victimisation in junior high schools. In this study, one in three adolescents was a cyber victim, one in five was a cyberbully, and over half of the students had either experienced or heard about cyberbullying incidents. Close to half of the cyber victims had no idea who the predators were. Culture and engagement in traditional bullying were strong predictors not only for cyberbullying, but also for cyber victimisation. Gender also played a significant role, as males, compared to their female counterparts, were more likely to be cyberbullies.
Excessive use of online computer games which leads to functional impairment and distress has recently been included as Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) in Section III of the DSM-5. Although nosological classification of this phenomenon is still a matter of debate, it is argued that IGD might be described best as a non-substance-related addiction. Epidemiological surveys reveal that it affects up to 3 % of adolescents and seems to be related to heightened psychosocial symptoms. However, there has been no study of prevalence of IGD on a multi-national level relying on a representative sample including standardized psychometric measures. The research project EU NET ADB was conducted to assess prevalence and psychopathological correlates of IGD in seven European countries based on a representative sample of 12,938 adolescents between 14 and 17 years. 1.6 % of the adolescents meet full criteria for IGD, with further 5.1 % being at risk for IGD by fulfilling up to four criteria. The prevalence rates are slightly varying across the participating countries. IGD is closely associated with psychopathological symptoms, especially concerning aggressive and rule-breaking behavior and social problems. This survey demonstrated that IGD is a frequently occurring phenomenon among European adolescents and is related to psychosocial problems. The need for youth-specific prevention and treatment programs becomes evident.
Anecdotal reports indicated that some on-line users were becoming addicted to the Internet in much the same way that others became addicted to drugs or alcohol, which resulted in academic, social, and occupational impairment. However, research among sociologists, psychologists, or psychiatrists has not formally identified addictive use of the Internet as a problematic behavior. This study investigated the existence of Internet addiction and the extent of problems caused by such potential misuse. Of all the diagnoses referenced in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1995), Pathological Gambling was viewed as most akin to the pathological nature of Internet use. By using Pathological Gambling as a model, addictive Internet use can be defined as an impulse-control disorder that does not involve an intoxicant. Therefore, this study developed a brief eight-item questionnaire referred to as a Diagnostic Questionnaire (DQ), which modified criteria for pathological gambling to provide a screening instrument for classification of participants. On the basis of this criteria, case studies of 396 dependent Internet users (Dependents) and 100 nondependent Internet users (Nondependents) were classified. Qualitative analyses suggest significant behavioral and functional usage differences between the two groups such as the types of applications utilized, the degree of difficulty controlling weekly usage, and the severity of problems noted. Clinical and social implications of pathological Internet use and future directions for research are discussed.
This article introduces a cognitive-behavioral model of Pathological Internet Use (PIU). While previous studies on Internet addiction have described behavioral factors, such as withdrawal and tolerance, the present article focuses on the maladaptive cognitions associated with PIU. The cognitive-behavioral model of PIU distinguishes between specific PIU and generalized PIU. Specific PIU refers to the condition in which an individual pathologically uses the Internet for a particular purpose, such as online sex or online gambling, whereas generalized PIU describes a more global set of behaviors. The model implies a more important role of cognitions in PIU, and describes the means by which PIU is both developed and maintained. Furthermore, it provides a framework for the development of cognitive-behavioral interventions for PIU.
The paper presents results from an exploratory study that: (1) developed a theory-based measure of PIU and (2) administered the instrument to a sample of undergraduate students to assess the associations among PIU and several psychosocial variables including, depression, self-esteem, loneliness, and shyness. A new instrument, the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) was designed to operationalize Davis's [Computers in Human Behavior, 17 (2001), 187] theoretical construct of generalized PIU. The GPIUS and several measures of psychosocial well-being were administered to 386 undergraduate students. Results from this preliminary study indicate that the GPIUS is both reliable and valid. A factor analysis identified seven unique sub-dimensions of the GPIUS, including: mood alteration, perceived social benefits available online, negative outcomes associated with Internet use, compulsive Internet use, excessive amounts of time spent online, withdrawal symptoms when away from the Internet, and perceived social control available online. All GPIUS subscales were correlated with psychosocial health variables including: depression, loneliness, shyness, and self-esteem. A regression analysis identified several important psychosocial and cognitive–behavioral predictors of negative outcomes associated with generalized PIU. Results also suggest that one's preference for computer-mediated social interaction, as opposed to face-to-face interaction, plays a role in the etiology, development, and outcomes of generalized PIU.
Internet addiction is a newly emergent disorder. It has been found to be associated with a variety of psychiatric disorders. Information about such coexisting psychiatric disorders is essential to understand the mechanism of Internet addiction. In this review, we have recruited articles mentioning coexisting psychiatric disorders of Internet addiction from the PubMed database as at November 3, 2009. We describe the updated results for such disorders of Internet addiction, which include substance use disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, depression, hostility, and social anxiety disorder. We also provide discussion for possible mechanisms accounting for the coexistence of psychiatric disorders and Internet addiction. The review might suggest that combined psychiatric disorders mentioned above should be evaluated and treated to prevent their deteriorating effect on the prognosis of Internet addiction. On the other hand, Internet addiction should be paid more attention to when treating people with these coexisting psychiatric disorders of Internet addiction. Additionally, we also suggest future necessary research directions that could provide further important information for the understanding of this issue.
To provide empirical data-driven identification of a group of addicted online gamers.
Repeated cross-sectional survey study, comprising a longitudinal cohort, conducted in 2008 and 2009.
Secondary schools in the Netherlands.
Two large samples of Dutch schoolchildren (aged 13-16 years).
Compulsive internet use scale, weekly hours of online gaming and psychosocial variables.
This study confirms the existence of a small group of addicted online gamers (3%), representing about 1.5% of all children aged 13-16 years in the Netherlands. Although these gamers report addiction-like problems, relationships with decreased psychosocial health were less evident.
The identification of a small group of addicted online gamers supports efforts to develop and validate questionnaire scales aimed at measuring the phenomenon of online video game addiction. The findings contribute to the discussion on the inclusion of non-substance addictions in the proposed unified concept of 'Addiction and Related Disorders' for the DSM-V by providing indirect identification and validation of a group of suspected online video game addicts.
Research into online gaming has steadily increased over the last decade, although relatively little research has examined the relationship between online gaming addiction and personality factors. This study examined the relationship between a number of personality traits (sensation seeking, self-control, aggression, neuroticism, state anxiety, and trait anxiety) and online gaming addiction. Data were collected over a 1-month period using an opportunity sample of 123 university students at an East Midlands university in the United Kingdom. Gamers completed all the online questionnaires. Results of a multiple linear regression indicated that five traits (neuroticism, sensation seeking, trait anxiety, state anxiety, and aggression) displayed significant associations with online gaming addiction. The study suggests that certain personality traits may be important in the acquisition, development, and maintenance of online gaming addiction, although further research is needed to replicate the findings of the present study.
To assess the severity of depression in school-aged children, self-report, clinician-rated and peer-rated instruments have been developed. Since these rating scales attempt to quantify an alleged clinical phenomenon, they represent a needed step toward more systematic scientific research into childhood depression. On the other hand, they are not diagnostic tools. The available instruments are promising but are still experimental. Additional data are needed to support their usefulness and accuracy as measurement devices.
This case involves a homemaker 43 years of age who is addicted to using the Internet. This case was selected as it demonstrates that a nontechnologically oriented woman with a reportedly content home life and no prior addiction or psychiatric history abused the Internet which resulted in significant impairment to her family life. This paper defines addictive use of the Internet, outlines the subject's progression of addictive on-line use, and discusses the implications of such addictive behavior on the new market of Internet consumers.
To develop a reliable and valid child and parent self-report instrument to screen children with anxiety disorders.
An 85-item questionnaire was administered to 341 outpatient children and adolescents and 300 parents. Utilizing item analyses and factor analyses, the original scale was reduced to 38 items. A subsample of children (n = 88) and parents (n = 86) was retested an average of 5 weeks (4 days to 15 weeks after the initial screening.
The child and parent Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) both yielded five factors: somatic/panic, general anxiety, separation anxiety, social phobia For the total score and each of the five factors, both the child and parent SCARED demonstrated good internal consistency (alpha = .74 to .93), test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficients = .70 to .90), discriminative validity (both between anxiety and other disorders and within anxiety disorders), and moderate parent-child agreement (r = .20 to .47, p < .001, all correlations).
The SCARED shows promise as a screening instrument for anxiety disorders. Future studies using the SCARED in community samples are indicated.
To describe the psychometric properties of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime version (K-SADS-PL) interview, which surveys additional disorders not assessed in prior K-SADS, contains improved probes and anchor points, includes diagnosis-specific impairment ratings, generates DSM-III-R and DSM-IV diagnoses, and divides symptoms surveyed into a screening interview and five diagnostic supplements.
Subjects were 55 psychiatric outpatients and 11 normal controls (aged 7 through 17 years). Both parents and children were used as informants. Concurrent validity of the screen criteria and the K-SADS-PL diagnoses was assessed against standard self-report scales. Interrater (n = 15) and test-retest (n = 20) reliability data were also collected (mean retest interval: 18 days; range: 2 to 36 days).
Rating scale data support the concurrent validity of screens and K-SADS-PL diagnoses. Interrater agreement in scoring screens and diagnoses was high (range: 93% to 100%). Test-retest reliability kappa coefficients were in the excellent range for present and/or lifetime diagnoses of major depression, any bipolar, generalized anxiety, conduct, and oppositional defiant disorder (.77 to 1.00) and in the good range for present diagnoses of posttraumatic stress disorder and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (.63 to .67).
Results suggest the K-SADS-PL generates reliable and valid child psychiatric diagnoses.
An analysis of the research on how computer use effects childern's development, whether it increases or decreases the disparities between rich and poor, and whether it can be used effectively to enhance learning, including recommendations to improve children's access to and use of computers both at school and at home.
The current study introduced a theory-driven, multidimensional measure of problematic Internet use: the Online Cognition Scale (OCS). Undergraduate students (n = 211) in an industrial/organizational psychology course completed the OCS, along with measures of procrastination, rejection sensitivity, loneliness, depression, and impulsivity. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated that problematic Internet use consists of four dimensions: diminished impulse control, loneliness/depression, social comfort, and distraction. As hypothesized, the OCS predicted all of the study variables in the expected directions. Representing a departure from previous research in this area, the current article focused on procrastination, impulsivity, and social rejection as key elements of problematic Internet use. Furthermore, interactive applications (e.g., chat) were most related to problematic Internet use, and scores on the OCS predicted being reprimanded at school or work for inappropriate Internet use. As a result, the utility of the OCS for both clinical assessment of Internet addiction and as an organizational preemployment screening measure to identify potential employees who are likely to abuse the Internet in the workplace (also known as "cyberslacking") were discussed.
The aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of the impact of cyber bullying on students and the possible need for prevention messages targeting students, educators, and parents. A total of 148 middle and high school students were interviewed during focus groups held at two middle and two high schools in a public school district. The focus groups were approximately 45 minutes in length. Students were divided by gender and asked a series of scripted questions by a same-gender student assistance counselor. We found that students' comments during the focus groups suggest that students-particularly females-view cyber bullying as a problem, but one rarely discussed at school, and that students do not see the school district personnel as helpful resources when dealing with cyber bullying. Students are currently experiencing the majority of cyber bullying instances outside of the school day; however there is some impact at school. Students were able to suggest some basic strategies for dealing with cyber bullying, but were less likely to be aware of strategies to request the removal of objectionable websites, as well as how to respond as a helpful bystander when witnessing cruel online behavior. We conclude that school districts should address cyber bullying through a combination of policies and information that are shared with students and parents. Schools should include cyber bullying as part of their bullying prevention strategies and include classroom lessons that address reporting and bystander behavior.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders -5th Edition.
The role of internet usage in the development of adolescents (Unpublished master's dissertation) Ege University
- F Bayraktar
Bayraktar F: The role of internet usage in the development
of adolescents (Unpublished master's dissertation) Ege
University, Izmir, 2001.
Demirtaş Madran H: The Reliability and Validity of the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BAQ)-Turkish Version
Demirtaş Madran H: The Reliability and Validity of the
Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BAQ)-Turkish Version. Turk J of Psychiatry 2013;24:124-129.
Adolescentes con Trastorno por juego en Internet (IGD): perfiles y respuesta al tratamiento
- M Martín-Fernández
- J L Matalí
- S García-Sánchez
- M Pardo
- M Lleras
- C Castellano-Tejedor
Martín-Fernández M, Matalí JL, García-Sánchez S, Pardo M, Lleras M, Castellano-Tejedor C: Adolescents with
Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD): profiles and treatment
response. Adolescentes con Trastorno por juego en Internet (IGD): perfiles y respuesta al tratamiento. Adicciones
2016;29(2):125-133.
Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development
- Ç Topcu
- Ö Erdur-Baker
- Rcbi-Ii
Topcu Ç & Erdur-Baker Ö: RCBI-II: The Second Revision of the Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development,
2018;51(1):32-41.
- K Young
Young K: Internet Addiction: A New Clinical Phenomenon and Its Consequences. American Behavioral Scientist
2004;48:402-415.