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Independence and interaction of affect and cognition.
... Rosch's (1978) model has been used in the prototype analysis of trait and situation categories (Cantor & Mischel 1979, Cantor et al 1982), in the analysis of partner preferences in various situations (Cantor et al 1984), and in the analysis of diagnostic catego ries (Cantor et a1 1980, Clarkin et aI 1983). Work on impression formation and. hypothesis testing in social interaction also appears to have implications for personality psychologists (Bargh 1982, Bargh & Pietromonaco 1982, Ebbesen 1981, Snyder 1981, Snyder & White 1982). Nisbett & Ross' (1980) book on the person as an intuitive scientist is described by Miller & Cantor (1982) as an important work whose implications cannot be ignored. ...
... Rosch's (1978) model has been used in the prototype analysis of trait and situation categories (Cantor & Mischel 1979, Cantor et al 1982), in the analysis of partner preferences in various situations (Cantor et al 1984), and in the analysis of diagnostic catego ries (Cantor et a1 1980, Clarkin et aI 1983). Work on impression formation and. hypothesis testing in social interaction also appears to have implications for personality psychologists (Bargh 1982, Bargh & Pietromonaco 1982, Ebbesen 1981, Snyder 1981, Snyder & White 1982). Nisbett & Ross' (1980) book on the person as an intuitive scientist is described by Miller & Cantor (1982) as an important work whose implications cannot be ignored. ...
... Among the most important aspects of people's implicit theories of mind and causation are the attributions people make for events and their associated implications for cognition, affect, and motivation (Abelson 1983, Abramson et al 1980, Weiner 1982). Of particular interest to personality psychologists may be research on the self as a cognitive structure that influences attention, organization or categorization of information, recall, and judgments about others (Bandura 1982, Bargh 1982, Fong & Markus 1982, Ingram et al 1983, Kuiper & Derry 1981, Locksley & Lenauer 1981, Markus 1983, Markus & Sentis 1982, Markus & Smith 1981, Rogers 1981). Early research in this area emphasized the purely cognitive aspects of the self but more recently there has been an interest in the role of affect in the organization of self-relevant information (Fiske 1982). ...
... He called these attributes preferenda. Preferenda, Zajonc suggested, form the basis of emotions (cf Zajonc, Pietromonaco & Bargh, 1982). The description of those states require inference processes. ...
... But this should not be confounded with the fact that emotional states are dependent on inference processes. Based on this assumption, Zajonc et al (1982) suggested that the study of affects as schemadependent processes, as is the case in some theories (e.g. Bem, 1972;Schachter, 1964;Zanna & Cooper, 1976) focusing on perceivers' conscious explanations of arousal states, runs the risk of confounding self-explanations for emotions with emotional states themselves. ...
... In that case, category-validity should take the form of value-validity, and, consequently, the instances of a category may be pseudo-descriptive: they may serve to justify previously existing preferences or connotations. This point of view also coincides with that presented by Zajonc (1980;Zajonc et al, 1982; cf Chapter 2). ...
... Zajonc and his colleagues have proposed a provocative, general hypothesis about recognition memory. They proposed that the motor system, in general, and the facial muscles, in particular, play crucial roles in facial recognition (Pietromonaco, Zajonc, & Bargh, 1981;Zajonc & Markus, 1984;Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982). Part of the reason people show superior memory for faces, compared with nonfacial objects, is that people produce motoric responses to faces when they see them. ...
... (Evidently, college students cannot chew gum and recognize faces at the same time.) The Pietromonaco et al. (1981) study has been cited extensively and has been used by Zajonc and others to support claims about the links among facial motor processes, cognition, and affect (e.g., Zajonc & Markus, 1984;Zajonc et al., 1982). Derivations and extensions of the facial motoric model have been developed and generalized to explain such seemingly diverse phenomena as the recognizing of faces in crowds (Hansen & Hansen, 1988), the inhibiting effects of facial feedback (Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988), and appearance similarity in married couples (Zajonc, Adelmann, Murphy, & Niedenthal, 1987). ...
... At least two alternative explanations, however, remained. First, it is possible that the research participants were not actually engaging in the kinds of coordinated, focused, systematic motoric processes Zajonc et al. (1982) required in imitating the stimulus faces even though they were explicitly instructed to do so. Second, the mimicry effect may be better tested as a within-condition rather than a between-condition effect. ...
Four multimethod studies probed the hypothesis, derived from the Zajonc-Markus motor theory of emotion, that facial recognition is enhanced by imitation of the faces. In all studies, participants were (a) randomly assigned to imitate or to concentrate on a set of faces presented on slides; (b) covertly videotaped, or measured for facial electromyographic responses, to assess facial motor responsiveness; (c) asked to recognize faces previously seen from a larger set; and (d) asked to complete individual difference measures relevant to imitation or memory. The major dependent variable was the percentage of faces accurately recognized. Across variations in procedure, persons who initially imitated faces later recognized fewer faces than did persons in various control conditions. No evidence was found for individual difference moderators of this general conclusion. Results call into question the adequacy of the Zajonc-Markus motoric theory explanation of memory for faces.
... Thus, this could be explained to mean that the attitude of male and female in using ICT is not like in the past; the reason for this statement is that the spread of ICT tools such as computers in Rwandan secondary schools increases the students' access to ICT and hence become attached to ICT in learning. This is in line with the theory of Zajonc which states that the time a person spent with an object determines his/her attitude toward that object [41]. Hence, the female and male realistic attitudes towards VBM in learning astrophysics are the same. ...
... So, this raises the intrinsic motivation of urban students towards the use of ICT. As already mentioned, the more a person uses an object, the more is likely to respond positively to that object [41]. Researchers in other settings revealed that urban students show a positive motivation towards the latest cutting edge technology which is favored by the influence of the environment and this appreciates the effectiveness of VBM in their learning and other academic work [42]. ...
p class="Abstract">Educational literature is richly provided with research confirming the benefits of video-based multimedia (VBM) in education. So, understanding learners’ attitude about learning using video-based multimedia makes sense. A convergent parallel mixed methods research design was used to analyze and interpret learners’ attitudes in the context of learning astrophysics using video-based multimedia. The research involved 294 students (168 male and 126 female) of senior five (grade 11) who purposively selected from eight public secondary schools in Rutsiro and Rubavu districts, Rwanda. Data were collected using a questionnaire (Cronbach alpha=.87), a semi-structured interview, and class observation. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and t-test (P level of significance) while content analysis was employed to analyze qualitative data. The findings revealed that there is no significant difference between male and female attitudes towards the use of video-based multimedia in learning astrophysics. Besides, the geographical location of the school influences the learners’ attitude. The results revealed some factors that affect learners’ attitudes towards learning astrophysics using video-based multimedia. Moreover, the findings recommend how the identified challenges could be alleviated not only in the Rwandan but in other science subjects worldwide. </p
... Esta medida é, habitulamente, realizada após as avaliações de preferência, tendo por objectivo aceder à relação entre os julgamentos de memória e preferência (simples correlação). Zajonc (1980) sugere que estas duas medidas devem ser independentes, corrobo rando empiricamente a inexistencia de uma correlação (ver também Wilson & Zajonc, 1980; Moreland & Zajonc, 1977; Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982). Porém, alguns estudos, têm sugerido que existe uma relação que, apesar de fraca, é positiva (ver Birnbaum & Mellers, 1979; Szpunar, Schellenberg, & Pliner, 2004). ...
... É frequente incluir nestes estudos uma medida de memória para distinguir a forma como o participante diferencia itens repetidos dos não repetidos. Esta medida é, habitulamente, realizada após as avaliações de preferência, tendo por objectivo aceder à relação entre os julgamentos de memória e preferência (simples correlação).Zajonc (1980)sugere que estas duas medidas devem ser independentes, corroborando empiricamente a inexistencia de uma correlação (ver também KunstWilson & Zajonc, 1980;Moreland & Zajonc, 1977;Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982). Porém, alguns estudos, têm sugerido que existe uma relação que, apesar de fraca, é positiva (verBirnbaum & Mellers, 1979;Szpunar, Schellenberg, & Pliner, 2004). ...
O artigo define o paradigma que da suporte a deteccao do efeito de mera-exposicao, isto e, o efeito que a exposicao previa a um estimulo promove no modo como este e avaliado. Este efeito e dos efeitos mais replicados em psicologia, em contextos muito diversos, suscitando ainda hoje explicacoes alternativas a apresentada originalmente por Zajonc (1968). O paradigma e aqui apresentado nas suas caracteristicas tecnicas, fazendo-se referencia aos contextos em que tem sido detectado, variaveis que o moderam e explicacoes alternativas actualmente sob analise.
... The heart of the perspective taken is that humans are born with the rudiments of both affect (Ekman, 1982;Izard, 1982;Tompkins, 1962-3) and cognition (Bower, 1974;Fischer, 1980;Piaget, 1952). Furthermore, it is in the context of maturation and experience that humans generate new feelings, new cognitions, and integrations of affect with cognition (Zajonc, Pietromonaco, Bargh, 1982). Such a perspective, however, leaves unaddressed two issues that have been the focus of considerable theory and empirical research. ...
... Put another way, does cognition drive affect or affect drive cognition? Although recent study has emphasized the "executive" role of cognition (Damon & Hart, 1988;Plutchik, 1980;Scheier & Carver, 1982), there are those who hold that affect is the overriding influence on cognition, especially in early development (Brownell & Kopp, 1991;Izard, 1982;Ekman, 1984;Zajonc, 1980;Zajonc, et al., 1982). The arguments underlying each perspective are persuasive and coherent. ...
... En otros trabajos, Zajonc (Zajonc, Pietromonaco y Bargh, 1982; Zajonc y Markus, 1984; Zajonc, 1984a)Pylyshyn, 1981Pylyshyn, , 1988) o analógica (Kosslyn, 1981), pero en el caso del afecto, derivan de una transformación del input sensorial o cenestésico. La experiencia de la emoción es simplemente la Davey, 1987; Dawson y Schell, 1987; Brewin, 1988). ...
... "Varios experimentos han mostrado que procesos cognitivos (instrucciones verbales, imaginación, hipnosis) pueden inducir emoción, la cual a su vez influye significativamente sobre la emoción de forma específica. En el experimento de Así, los procesos motores ejercen una influencia significativa sobre la memoria, como se vio al analizar el experimento de reconocimiento de caras (Zajonc, Pietromonaco y Bargh, 1982). Los procesos mentales suelen ir acompañados de actividad muscular observable o no, pero registrable electromiográficamente (Schwartz y cols. ...
Resumen
En la literatura más reciente cognición y emoción son dos términos que aparecen juntos con bastante frecuencia. Está de moda, por así decir, estudiar las relaciones entre cognición y emoción; a nivel de procesos, o a nivel de estructuras, contenidos y representaciones; en los adultos, o en niños; en la normalidad, o en la psicopatología; en definitiva, en una gran variedad de contextos, infinidad de artículos, capítulos o libros enteros llevan en su título estos dos términos u otros similares.
Las relaciones entre cognición y emoción se han estudiado fundamentalmente desde dos perspectivas diferentes: (1) el estudio de la actividad cognitiva que está en la base de la conducta emocional; y (2) el estudio de la influencia de las emociones sobre la actividad cognitiva superior.
En este capítulo estudiaremos la actividad cognitiva que provoca una reacción emotiva, un estado emocional. Además, trataremos las influencias que los estados emocionales tienen sobre la actividad cognitiva. En ambos casos intentaremos integrar diferentes aportaciones teóricas y empíricas recientes, a base de resaltar los puntos comunes, o de acuerdo.
... En otros trabajos, Zajonc (Zajonc, Pietromonaco y Bargh, 1982; Zajonc y Markus, 1984; Zajonc, 1984a)Pylyshyn, 1981Pylyshyn, , 1988) o analógica (Kosslyn, 1981), pero en el caso del afecto, derivan de una transformación del input sensorial o cenestésico. La experiencia de la emoción es simplemente la Davey, 1987; Dawson y Schell, 1987; Brewin, 1988). ...
... "Varios experimentos han mostrado que procesos cognitivos (instrucciones verbales, imaginación, hipnosis) pueden inducir emoción, la cual a su vez influye significativamente sobre la emoción de forma específica. En el experimento de Así, los procesos motores ejercen una influencia significativa sobre la memoria, como se vio al analizar el experimento de reconocimiento de caras (Zajonc, Pietromonaco y Bargh, 1982). Los procesos mentales suelen ir acompañados de actividad muscular observable o no, pero registrable electromiográficamente (Schwartz y cols. ...
... In a number of papers, Zajonc (1981 Zajonc ( , 1984 Zajonc ( , 2000 Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982; Zajonc & Markus, 1984) responded to these objections. Most importantly, Zajonc clarifies his definition of cognition: My definition of cognition (Zajonc, 1980, p. (Zajonc, 1984, p. 118). ...
... In a number of papers, Zajonc (1981 Zajonc ( , 1984 Zajonc ( , 2000 Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982; Zajonc & Markus, 1984) responded to these objections. Most importantly, Zajonc clarifies his definition of cognition: (Zajonc, 1984, p. 118). ...
... Despite considerable findings with facial expressions, there is a dearth of empirical research on whole body postures as they relate to psychophysiological processes. This is surprising, given that theorists have considered that whole body displays may indeed be associated with approach-oriented behavior (Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982). In some cases, body postures can actually convey more emotional information to observers than facial expressions, such as when these emotional episodes are high in intensity (Aviezer, Trope, & Todorov, 2012). ...
Recent evidence suggests that certain postures and facial expressions are associated with motivational and emotional responses. This review considers behavioral, neuroscientific, and cognitive research associating movements of the body with emotive responses. Facial and bodily feedback theories of emotion have suggested that subjective reactions and outward expressions of emotions may be bidirectional; in particular, manipulated outward expressions of emotion may also trigger subjective emotional reactions. In addition, manipulated postures and facial expressions have been shown to influence physiological responses associated with emotion and motivation, such as skin conductance, heart rate, and blood temperature. More recent evidence suggests that manipulated bodily states influence prefrontal cortical activation measured with electroencephalographyd which has been associated with the motivational direction of emotional states. Furthermore, bodily manipulations influence neurophysiological correlates of motivated attention and defensive reflexes. Bodily manipulations also influence the broadening and narrowing of attentional scope, which has been associated with motivational intensity. Finally, postural manipulations influence cognitive
processes, such as dissonance reduction. This research, therefore, suggests that outward expressions of emotive states play a pivotal role in our emotive responses.
... There are several reasons to believe that the activation of the mental representation of affect is likely to precede the activation of associated cognitions, among these being speed and automaticity. Zajonc and other separate-systems theorists have characterized affective responses as quicker, more automatic, and less complex than cognitive responses (Cacioppo, Gardner, & Bernston, 1999;Zajonc, 1980Zajonc, , 2001Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1981). Many different features of affect, including its valence, arousal properties, and motivational properties, have the potential to influence social judgments and behaviors (Forgas, 1995). ...
... A form of reciprocation can happen at a nonconscious level. This occurs in cases of mimicry, where people unconsciously adopt other people's physical postures, facial expressions, speech, tone, and motor behavior (e.g., Bernieri & Rosenthal, 1991; Chartrand & Bargh, 1999; Levelt & Kelter, 1982; Neumann & Strack, 2000; Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982). Such effects have been shown to be extended to cognitive variables. ...
Many religious traditions, as well as nonreligious lay beliefs, suggest that people's actions should determine their impressions of their own future outcomes, a phenomenon commonly termed karma. The Mind-Only school of Buddhist thought postulates mechanisms through which karma might operate, mechanisms which share much in common with Western psychological research on construct activation. The evidence for these mechanisms, taken from social-cognitive research literature, is reviewed. This review suggests that that construct activation can lead people to experience karma-like effects, which in turn supplies evidence in support of certain key Buddhist beliefs. The manner in which this mechanism and the Buddhist theory underlying it can advance the aims of psychological research is discussed.
... affect transfer (e.g., Allen and Shimp 1990;Gom 1982;Stuart, Shimp, and Engle 1987). The simple premise of this mechanism is that when an unconditioned stimulus (US) spontaneously provokes a positive or negative affective response, the systematic pairing of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the US causes a transfer of affect from the US to the CS (Allen and Madden 1985; Zajonc, Pietromonaco and Bargh 1982). Thus, as exemplified in the experiments of Stuart, Shimp, and Engle (1987), when a person has carefully selected a US to prompt affective responses, Pavlovian learning principles can be used as directives for arranging the presentation of an appropriate CS with this US to accelerate or sustain direct affect transfer. ...
The authors examine the two principal mechanisms that have been proposed as possible explanations for the effects of classical conditioning procedures in attitude-shaping applications. They report two experiments that test conditioning procedures for prompting inferential beliefs, versus transferring affect, as means to influencing brand attitudes. Both studies use an established empirical paradigm for shaping brand attitudes with pictures or visual images as the unconditioned stimuli. The results indicate that brand attitudes can be conditioned using both attractive images that promote direct affect transfer and descriptive visual images that promote inferential belief formation. These data suggest that conditioning procedures can produce multiple benefits when they are applied in selecting and arranging the nonverbal cues to be featured in an advertising campaign.
... The relational developmental position understands them as moments of functioning. As Santostefano (1995) points out, "Cognition and emotion will remain segregated as long as investigators view the boundary as real and the domains as opposites, either independent of each other (e.g., Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982), parallel and interacting with one another (e.g., Leventhal, 1982) or with one dominating the other (e.g., Izard, 1982;G. Mandler, 1982)" (p. ...
Throughout its history, psychology and its sub disci-plines, including developmental psychology, have been captives of numerous fundamental contradictory posi-tions. These basic dichotomies, called antinomies, include subject-object, mind-body, nature-nurture, biology-culture, intrapsychic-interpersonal, structure-function, stability-change, continuity-discontinuity, observation-reason, universal-particular, ideas-matter, unity-diversity, and individual-society. While often ex-plicitly denying the relevance of philosophy to its opera-tions, psychology has implicitly used the philosophical assumptions of a seventeenth-century ontological dual-ism, a nineteenth-century epistemological empiricism, and an early twentieth-century neopositivism, to build a standard orthodox approach to the resolution of the antin-omies. This approach elevates one concept of the pair to a
... The different information processing modes thus refer to both cognitive and affective processes that develop and are formed through constant interaction with the environment (Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982). Despite the lively debate that has taken place among researchers, we still do not know whether it is emotional information that guides cognitive information, or vice versa. ...
The present research analyzes the relationship between attachment styles at an adult age and field dependence in order to identify possible individual differences in information processing. The "Experience in Close Relationships" test of Brennan et al. was administered to a sample of 380 individuals (160 males, 220 females), while a subsample of 122 subjects was given the Embedded Figure Test to measure field dependence. Confirming the starting hypothesis, the results have shown that individuals with different attachment styles have a different way of perceiving the figure against the background. Ambivalent and avoidant individuals lie at the two extremes of the same dimension while secure individuals occupy the central part. Significant differences also emerged between males and females. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... This is in contrast to subjects' own ratings of their emotions, which were not affected by the writing style manipulation. This finding indicates that, as Zajonc et aL (1982) suggest, there is a difference between the experience and the expression of emotion. In this experiment, subjects' expressions of emotion in their writing were susceptible to the writing style manipulation although their emotion ratings, which presumably represent their experience of emotion, were not. ...
Emotionality in environmental decisions arises from a complex interaction among the characteristics of the environmental planning problem, the attributes of the decider, and the situation in which decisions occur. The research reported here examines problem and situational characteristics which may influence emotional reactions and decision outcomes. Descriptions of one resource management problem were varied in a two-by-two-by-four factorial design with two writing styles (‘hot’ emotional and ‘cold’ objective), two decision contexts, and differential emphasis on four development and preservation issues. Subjects read a problem description, described, and evaluated a decision, placed the decision on a preservation-development continuum, and rated their emotionality on 42 scale items. Pro-development issue emphases resulted in more development decisions and lower decision confidence than did pro-preservation emphases. A trend for preservation decisions was found in response to the hot writing style. These results indicate that environmental decisions may be very sensitive to relatively subtle differences in the way information is presented. Emotions varied with the context in which decisions were made. Subjects who rated their emotions before making decisions had higher levels of negative emotion than those who made decisions before rating emotional reactions. Also, negative emotions were associated with preservation decisions. In order to understand better the role of emotion in environmental decisions, further studies of decision processes, behavioral consequences, individual differences, and a broader array of other environmental problems are needed.
... Their work revealed how sensory, motor, and perceptual processes influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors before this enterprise received a unifying framework with the development of embodied theories. For example, Wells and Petty (1980) showed that people who engaged in vertical (nodding) rather than horizontal (shaking) head movements were more likely to agree with a message; Zajonc, Pietromonaco, and Bargh (1982) found that chewing gum while viewing faces interfered with participants' later memory for those faces by impairing mimicry; Frank and Gilovich (1988) observed that athletes who wore darker (versus lighter) uniforms committed more malevolent behavior; and Strack, Martin, and Stepper (1988) found that people rated cartoons as funnier if they held a pen with their teeth (facilitating a smile) rather than their lips (inhibiting a smile). While social psychological research that explicitly uses an ''embodied'' language is fairly new, even this work builds on a long tradition. ...
Psychologists are increasingly interested in embodiment based on the assumption that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are grounded in bodily interaction with the environment. We examine how embodiment is used in social psychology, and we explore the ways in which embodied approaches enrich traditional theories. Although research in this area is burgeoning, much of it has been more descriptive than explanatory. We provide a critical discussion of the trajectory of embodiment research in social psychology. We contend that future researchers should engage in a phenomenon-based approach, highlight the theoretical boundary conditions and mediators involved, explore novel action-relevant outcome measures, and address the role of individual differences broadly defined. Such research will likely provide a more explanatory account of the role of embodiment in general terms as well as how it expands the knowledge base in social psychology.
... The relational developmental position understands them as moments of functioning. As Santostefano (1995) points out, "Cognition and emotion will remain segregated as long as investigators view the boundary as real and the domains as opposites, either independent of each other (e.g., Zajonc, Pietromonaco, & Bargh, 1982), parallel and interacting with one another (e.g., Leventhal, 1982) or with one dominating the other (e.g., Izard, 1982;G. Mandler, 1982)" (p. ...
All scientific concepts, theories, and research methods are built on sets of fundamental, often implicit, assumptions termed metatheoretical. This chapter examines the history and contemporary developmental theoretical and methodological implications of two alternative widely held metatheories – split and relational. Split metatheory emerged from Cartesian dualism. It dichotomizes the world into elemental pure forms that stand as antinomies, resolved only by suppressing the reality of one member of the pair. This metatheory generates atomism, reductionism, foundationalism, the assumption of strictly additive complexity or aggregates, and a neo-positivist methodology. Relational metatheory emerged from a holistic ground. It synthesizes splits into integrated wholes, mends antinomies (e.g., brain and body, subject and object, nature and nurture, and continuity and discontinuity) and promotes relative standpoints of inquiry. Relational metatheory generates part-whole analysis, the assumption of nonadditive complexity or dynamic systems, and a retroductive (abductive) methodology.
Keywords:
concepts;
dynamic systems;
methods;
relational metatheory;
split metatheory;
transformational change;
variational change
... The finding of enhanced right amygdala activity during encoding of positive stimuli in adolescents has developmental and clinical implications. Enhanced neural activity during the encoding and recall of emotional stimuli can enhance survival by promoting defensive strategies and reproductive success (Adolphs and Damasio, 2000). A positive encoding bias may be evolutionarily necessary for adolescents to achieve developmental goals, notably autonomy and individuation. ...
While studies among adults implicate the amygdala and interconnecting brain regions in encoding emotional stimuli, few studies have examined whether developmental changes occur within this emotional-memory network during adolescence. The present study examined whether adolescents and adults differentially engaged the amygdala and hippocampus during successful encoding of emotional pictures, with either positive or negative valence. Eighteen adults and twelve adolescents underwent event-related fMRI while encoding emotional pictures. Approximately 30 min later, outside the scanner, subjects were asked to recall the pictures seen during the scan. Age group differences in brain activity in the amygdala and hippocampus during encoding of the pictures that were later successfully and unsuccessfully recalled were separately compared for the positive and negative pictures. Adolescents, relative to adults, demonstrated enhanced activity in the right amygdala during encoding of positive pictures that were later recalled compared to not recalled. There were no age group differences in amygdala or hippocampal activity during successful encoding of negative pictures. The findings of preferential activity within the adolescent right amygdala during successful encoding of positive pictures may have implications for the increased reward and novelty seeking behavior, as well as elevated rates of psychopathology, observed during this distinct developmental period.
... Estas alteraciones son evocadas por situaciones, o eventos, internos o externos, que resultan significativos para la persona (Frijda, 1986). El estudio de la emoción ha venido delimitado por el énfasis que se ha dado a unos u otros de los sistemas que intervienen en la respuesta emocional, pero también está más asumido que la independencia entre los sistemas de respuesta es únicamente una forma de conceptualizar la emoción con el fin de conseguir una mayor operatividad en su estudio (Zajonc, Pietromonaco y Bargh, 1982). No es de extrañar, por tanto, el fuerte impacto que nuevas propuestas están teniendo al partir de un marco teórico basado en los modelos dinámicos no lineales, y que apoyan la idea de que el proceso emocional se fundamenta en la interacción entre sistemas (ver Lewis,1996Lewis, , 1997Lewis, , 2000Lewis, , 2001. ...
Existe una amplia variedad de aproximaciones teóricas sobre los procesos de valoración y la emoción. La presente revisión persigue organizar y estructurar en una visión de conjunto los modelos teóricos y los resultados empíricos que intentan explicar el papel que estos procesos de valoración juegan en la emoción. Para ello, tras describir algunas características generales de los procesos de valoración, se revisa la evolución histórica del concepto y las posibles formas de clasificación de las distintas aproximaciones teóricas. A continuación se describen la versión actual de dos de los modelos con más relevancia en el momento: el que deriva de los trabajos de Lazarus y el que deriva de los trabajos de Scherer; para finalizar con una revisión de la línea de investigación que en la actualidad sigue el estudio de los procesos de valoración y que pasa por la identificación de variables dependientes para los procesos de valoración, como, por ejemplo, los indicadores fisiológicos.
... Third, this study concurs with the work of Marcus and colleagues that one of the key functions of the emotional system, particularly as it relates to foreign policy, concerns threat identification (Marcus 1988; Marcus and MacKuen 1993). This approach is further compatible with a number of findings which stress the importance of emotion as a monitoring mechanism (Zajonc et al. 1982). ...
Current approaches to foreign policy decision making and international conflict have ignored the role of emotions as variables influencing foreign policy choices. However, a growing area of political research suggests that emotions are of critical importance to many aspects of political life. Predominant foreign policy decision making models currently attend to either rational calculations or âÂÂcoldâ cognitive processes and heuristics. These models provide little theoretical space for propositions about how enduring and intense emotions such as hatred and fear influence perceptions and interpretations of interstate conflict. In this paper we propose a model which addresses this deficiency in foreign policy decision making research. A theory of emotions is introduced and integrated into the existing research on foreign policy decision making. Hypotheses pertaining to the influence of negative emotions on information processing and choice in international relations are derived from the model and tested in a multimethod setting. Findings are reported and discussed within the framework of existing empirical research on process-oriented models of foreign policy decision making.
... [58], human interaction and communication (e.g. [66] , cognition (e.g. [210], and child development (e.g. [38]. ...
of the Dissertation : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : xvii 1 Introduction : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1 1.1 Summary : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 1 1.2 Unsupervised Learning in Object Representations : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3 1.2.1 Generative models : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 3 1.2.2 Redundancy reduction as an organizational principle : : : : : : : : : : 6 1.2.3 Principal component analysis : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 8 1.2.4 Hebbian learning : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 9 1.2.5 Learning rules for explicit discovery of statistical dependencies : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 11 1.2.6 High-order statistical dependencies : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 13 1.2.7 Self-organization of the visual system through correlation sensitive mechanisms : : : : : : : : ...
Один из многообещающих вариантов внедрения моторной активности в процесс решения мыслительных задач был предложен в статье Weller и коллег. В ходе «интерактивного» условия эксперимента испытуемые могли взаимодействовать с реальными предметами, составлявшими проблемную ситуацию. Эта экспериментальная манипуляция привела к значимому увеличению успешности решения большинства использованных задач спичечной алгебры. С учетом того, что задачи различались по источникам сложности, трудно предложить один (или общий) вариант движений решателя, который мог бы объяснить одинаковое положительное влияние интерактивного условия на успешность решения задач разнойстепени сложности. Чтобы удостовериться в точности полученных результатов и оценить перспективность подобной экспериментальной манипуляции, мы провели концептуальную репликацию названного исследования в трех экспериментальных сериях, нацеленных: 1) напроверку эффектов интерактивного условия, 2) на расширенную репликацию тех же эффектов, поскольку она включала в себя экспериментальные условия, предполагающие разную степень моторной активности решателя, 3)на расширенную репликацию тех же эффектов, так как она содержала условия с максимально выраженной интерактивностью, благодаря использованию технологий виртуальной реальности. Кроме того, мы увеличили список зависимых переменных: помимо успешности решения было использовано количество эпистемических и прагматических действийрешателя. Увеличение количества первых может свидетельствовать о переносе части когнитивных функций на окружающую предметную среду. Ни в одном случае мы не смогли реплицировать результаты коллег. Хотя во второй серии эксперимента эпистемических действий было значимо больше, это никак не повлияло на успешность решения. Обсуждаются потенциал и проблемы интерактивного решения и его роль для изучения воплощенного познания.
The authors examine the two principal mechanisms that have been proposed as possible explanations for the effects of classical conditioning procedures in attitude-shaping applications. They report two experiments that test conditioning procedures for prompting inferential beliefs, versus transferring affect, as means to influencing brand attitudes. Both studies use an established empirical paradigm for shaping brand attitudes with pictures or visual images as the unconditioned stimuli. The results indicate that brand attitudes can be conditioned using both attractive images that promote direct affect transfer and descriptive visual images that promote inferential belief formation. These data suggest that conditioning procedures can produce multiple benefits when they are applied in selecting and arranging the nonverbal cues to be featured in an advertising campaign.
Introduction: Aim of this study is to analyze the associations between young adults attachment working models, alexithymia, end the cognitive style in terms of the field-dependence/independence. The research involved 309 subjects (189 females and 120 males), aged 18 and 25. All the subjects were administered, the Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) questionnaire in order to examine the attachment styles and the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), in order to measure the degree of alexithymia. In a subsample of 112 subjects (189 females and 120 males), between the ages of 19 and 24, the field dependence measurement was made by way of the Embedded Figure Test. Results show that the data confirms the hypothesis advanced. The dimensional components of ECR, anxiety and avoidances, predict both TAS-20 and field-dependence. Alexithymia, measured in terms of total scale of TAS-20, associated with an insecure style of attachment, and specifically with disorganization and avoidance. Furthermore, avoidance seems to be predictive, both of field-dependence and of the elevated degree of alexithymia. From the results, it is possible to argument in favour of the hypothesis that alexithymia and the difficulty in determining and describing the emotions are the outcome of having experimented caregivers that were thick-skinned and incapable of recognizing the requests for comfort and replying accordingly. Field-dependence/independence associates both to alexithymia and to styles of attachment, but attachment, and more specifically its avoidance component, seems to be mostly predictive of high levels of alexithymia and of a marked field-dependence.
This study examines the combined effects of arousal and valence on viewers’ capacity allocation to and memory for television messages. Results show that when valence (how positive or negative a message is) is controlled, arousing messages are remembered better than calm messages. When arousal is controlled, positive messages are remembered better than negative messages. Reaction time results suggest that capacity allocation is a function of both valence and arousal. Viewers allocate the most capacity to positive arousing messages and the least capacity to negative arousing messages. The calm messages (both positive and negative) fall between these two.
A survey of different senses of the term ‘representation’ is presented. The presentation is guided by the appraisal that this key term is employed in the cognitive literature in different senses and that the distinction between these is not always explicitly stated or appreciated. Furthermore, the different senses seem to be associated with different rationales for the postulation of representation. Given that there may be a lack of convergence between the various senses of the construct in question and the rationales for its postulation, a clear differentiation of these may be crucial for any evaluation of the role of representations in cognition and in cognitive theory.
This study investigates the role of affect in attitude formation. Two experiments, using established conditioning procedures,
assessed the impact of affect on attitude formation. The results of Experiment 1 indicate that affect can influence attitudes
even in the absence of product beliefs. The results of Experiment 2 suggest that affect plays as important or more important
a role than the belief mechanism in attitude formation, depending on the number of repetitions. Implications of the results
for understanding the role of affect in advertising are discussed.
Very low click-through rates (CTR) raise serious questions about the effectiveness of banner advertisements. However, we believe that the effect of a banner ad is not limited by clicks. Banner ad information itself can be processed by the audience.
We propose that the exposure effect of a banner ad exists even when the banner is not clicked. The results of our experiments strongly support this effect. Analyses also revealed that a non-clicked banner ad can create as strong of an exposure effect as clicked banner ads. Also, audiences that are able to recall the existence of the banner ad on a web page develop stronger implicit memory than those who cannot. Researchers are invited to re-test these interesting findings in various cultures with differing levels of Internet penetration and experience.
The scope test is widely recommended as a way to evaluate the validity of contingent valuation (CV) studies. We measured contingent values of parts and wholes for four different environmental goods and applied the conventional scope test. In addition, the study design allowed examination of scope relationships for individual respondents. We also used social psychological theory to expand the definition of scope to include attitudinal and behavioral scope. Looking at the individual responses showed that conventional economic scope test results, which depend on comparisons of average values, can hide important relationships that are relevant to the validity of CV studies. We showed that, as a validity test, the conventional scope test can lead to false positives and false negatives. We are led to question the efficacy and cost effectiveness of making scope tests a routine part of validity assessment in applied CV studies.
En: Revista de psicodidáctica Bilbao 2002, n.13; p. 49-74 El objeto es reflexionar sobre la posible influencia del conocimiento generado por la actividad metacognitiva y considerar las posibilidades motivacionales que pueden surgir como mecanismo de mejora educativa. El texto se divide en tres apartados: en un primero trata de considerar la eficacia de la metacognición para desarrollar una imagen próxima de la eficacia por parte de los alumnos; en una segunda parte se habla de la influencia de la opinión de las propias capacidades para motivar al alumno; por último se trata de considerar algunas formas para incrementar la motivación y el rendimiento escolar por medio del desarrollo de la metacognición, p. 69-73
Presents a model arguing that affect and emotion are often formed in an expectation-driven fashion. A pilot study and 2 experiments manipulated undergraduate Ss' affective expectations (e.g., how funny they expected a set of cartoons to be) and whether Ss' expectations were confirmed (e.g., whether the cartoons really were funny). When the value of a stimulus was consistent with an affective expectation, people formed evaluations relatively quickly. Even when the value of a stimulus was discrepant from an affective expectation, people sometimes assimilated the value of the stimulus to their expectations. Other times, such as when making a more fine-grained evaluation of the cartoons, people noticed that they were discrepant from their affective expectations. Under these conditions, people appeared to have more difficulty forming preferences. They took longer to evaluate and spent more time thinking about the cartoons.
Previous research has shown that trait concepts and stereotype become active automatically in the presence of relevant behavior or stereotyped-group features. Through the use of the same priming procedures as in previous impression formation research, Experiment 1 showed that participants whose concept of rudeness was printed interrupted the experimenter more quickly and frequently than did participants primed with polite-related stimuli. In Experiment 2, participants for whom an elderly stereotype was primed walked more slowly down the hallway when leaving the experiment than did control participants, consistent with the content of that stereotype. In Experiment 3, participants for whom the African American stereotype was primed subliminally reacted with more hostility to a vexatious request of the experimenter. Implications of this automatic behavior priming effect for self-fulfilling prophecies are discussed, as is whether social behavior is necessarily mediated by conscious choice processes.
Perceiving other people's behaviors activates imitative motor plans in the perceiver, but there is disagreement as to the function of this activation. In contrast to other recent proposals (e.g., that it subserves overt imitation, identification and understanding of actions, or working memory), here it is argued that imitative motor activation feeds back into the perceptual processing of conspecifics' behaviors, generating top-down expectations and predictions of the unfolding action. Furthermore, this account incorporates recent ideas about emulators in the brain-mental simulations that run in parallel to the external events they simulate-to provide a mechanism by which motoric involvement could contribute to perception. Evidence from a variety of literatures is brought to bear to support this account of perceiving human body movement.
Findings in the social psychology literatures on attitudes, social perception, and emotion demonstrate that social information processing involves embodiment, where embodiment refers both to actual bodily states and to simulations of experience in the brain's modality-specific systems for perception, action, and introspection. We show that embodiment underlies social information processing when the perceiver interacts with actual social objects (online cognition) and when the perceiver represents social objects in their absence (offline cognition). Although many empirical demonstrations of social embodiment exist, no particularly compelling account of them has been offered. We propose that theories of embodied cognition, such as the Perceptual Symbol Systems (PSS) account (Barsalou, 1999), explain and integrate these findings, and that they also suggest exciting new directions for research. We compare the PSS account to a variety of related proposals and show how it addresses criticisms that have previously posed problems for the general embodiment approach.
In the article by S. Schachter and J. Singer, which appeared in Psychological Review (1962, 69(5), 379-399) the following corrections should be made: The superscript "a" should precede the word "All" in the footnote to Table 2. The superscript "a" should appear next to the column heading "Initiates" in Table 3. The following Tables 6-9 should be substituted for those which appeared in print. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 196306064-001.) It is suggested that emotional states may be considered a function of a state of physiological arousal and of a cognition appropriate to this state of arousal. From this follows these propositions: (a) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no immediate explanation, he will label this state and describe his feelings in terms of the cognitions available to him. (b) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has a completely appropriate explanation, no evaluative needs will arise and the individual is unlikely to label his feelings in terms of the alternative cognitions available. (c) Given the same cognitive circumstances, the individual will react emotionally or describe his feelings as emotions only to the extent that he experiences a state of physiological arousal. An experiment is described which, together with the results of other studies, supports these propositions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Describes experiments in which happy or sad moods were induced in Ss by hypnotic suggestion to investigate the influence of emotions on memory and thinking. Results show that (a) Ss exhibited mood-state-dependent memory in recall of word lists, personal experiences recorded in a daily diary, and childhood experiences; (b) Ss recalled a greater percentage of those experiences that were affectively congruent with the mood they were in during recall; (c) emotion powerfully influenced such cognitive processes as free associations, imaginative fantasies, social perceptions, and snap judgments about others' personalities; (d) when the feeling-tone of a narrative agreed with the reader's emotion, the salience and memorability of events in that narrative were increased. An associative network theory is proposed to account for these results. In this theory, an emotion serves as a memory unit that can enter into associations with coincident events. Activation of this emotion unit aids retrieval of events associated with it; it also primes emotional themata for use in free association, fantasies, and perceptual categorization. (54 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It is generally assumed that some form of learning, such as recognition, both precedes and mediates the affective response. The present study questioned that assumption by seeking to obtain positive exposure effects in the absence of stimulus recognition. To unconfound affect and learning effects, 2 experiments with 48 undergraduate females employed a dichotic-listening procedure for stimulus exposure, in which the critical stimuli were exposed on the unattended channel. Reliable attitudinal enhancement toward objectively familiar stimuli was obtained in both experiments, even though recognition levels were low (Exp I) or at chance levels (Exp II). Subjective stimulus familiarity was not a significant predictor of affect in either experiment. It is concluded that positive feelings toward a previously encountered object are not dependent on consciously knowing or perceiving that the object is familiar. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Compared the applicability of M. H. Birnbaum and B. A. Mellers' (see PA, Vol 64:00000) 1-factor (subjective recognition) model with the present author's (see record
1979-23525-001) 2-factor model to data on the role of stimulus recognition in the mere exposure phenomenon. Results of a series of linear structural equation analyses show that the 2-factor model provided a significantly greater degree of fit. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Argues that although a number of closed-loop postulations to explain motor skills learning and performance phenomena have appeared recently, each of these views suffers from either (a) logical problems in explaining the phenomena or (b) predictions that are not supported by the empirical evidence. After these difficulties are discussed, a new theory for discrete motor learning is proposed that is considered to be capable of explaining the existing findings. The theory is based on the notion of the schema and uses a recall memory to produce movement and a recognition memory to evaluate response correctness. Some of the predictions are mentioned, research techniques and paradigms that can be used to test the predictions are listed, and data in support of the theory are presented. (89 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Impression and recall order effects were examined in the context of N. H. Anderson and S. Hubert's (1963) information integration model of impression formation. 80 undergraduates read 4 items of information about each stimulus person and participated in 1 of 5 between-Ss conditions: (a) rated the stimulus person after the presentation of each item and, after the 4th rating, recalled the 4 items; (b) did the same, except that a trait-rating filler task was interpolated between each rating and the next presentation; (c) did the same, except that the filler task was math problems; (d) made only 1 rating, after the presentation of the 4th item, did no filler task, and did recall the 4 items; (e) did the same, without recall. In the 1st 3 conditions, each impression rating was affected most by the most recently presented item, whereas, in the 2 final conditions, there was a slight primacy effect. Task conditions had little effect on recall; serial position curves for all conditions were U-shaped, exhibiting both primacy and recency, as commonly found in free recall research. Low and nonsignificant correlations between impression weights and recall, as well as the markedly different serial position curves, are discussed as evidence for distinct processes of recall and impression formation. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Portrait photographs were taken of actors facing a 1-way mirror. Consciously shaped facial expressions of sadness and thoughtfulness were obtained from actors as they viewed themselves in a mirror, spontaneous expressions of sadness and thoughtfulness were obtained when actors looked up while reading emotional and technical passages, and a neutral expression was obtained as actors stared expressionlessly into the mirror. Raters (50 undergraduates) subsequently judged the expressiveness of right-side, left-side, and original orientation composites of each of the portrait photographs. Their ratings revealed lateral asymmetry in the expressive movements of the face. The nature of the asymmetry was affected by whether the expression was of emotion or cognition and by whether the expression was shaped consciously or spontaneously. These results are explained by a model in which the expressive movements of each side of the face are controlled by the efferentiation from the contralateral hemisphere. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Judgments of the relative similarity of pairs of alternatives are used to construct a model of the decision space of a group of college admissions officers. This model is then used to predict the preferences of the officers. The accuracy of the predictions supports the hypothesis that preference judgments are made on the basis of the similarity of given alternatives to an "ideal" alternative. A nonmetric multidimensional scaling procedure is used to construct the space. This procedure yields a dimensional representation based upon very few assumptions about the nature of the similarity measures.
Affect is considered by most contemporary theories to be postcognitive,
that is, to occur only after considerable cognitive operations have
been accomplished. Yet a number of experimental results on preferences,
attitudes, impression formation, and decision making, as well as
some clinical phenomena, suggest that affective judgments may be
fairly independent of, and precede in time, the sorts of perceptual
and cognitive operations commonly assumed to be the basis of these
affective judgments. Affective reactions to stimuli are often the
very first reactions of the organism, and for lower organisms they
are the dominant reactions. Affective reactions can occur without
extensive perceptual and cognitive encoding, are made with greater
confidence than cognitive judgments, and can be made sooner. Experimental
evidence is presented demonstrating that reliable affective discriminations
(likedislike ratings) can be made in the total absence of recognition
memory (oldnew judgments). Various differences between judgments
based on affect and those based on perceptual and cognitive processes
are examined. It is concluded that affect and cognition are under
the control of separate and partially independent systems that can
influence each other in a variety of ways, and that both constitute
independent sources of effects in information processing. (139 ref)
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies investigated the effect of good mood on cognitive processes. In the first study, conducted in a shopping mall, a positive feeling state was induced by giving subjects a free gift, and good mood, thus induced, was found to improve subjects' evaluations of the performance and service records of products they owned. In the second study, in which affect was induced by having subjects win or lose a computer game in a laboratory setting, subjects who had won the game were found to be better able to recall positive material in memory. The results of the two studies are discussed in terms of the effect that feelings have on accessibility of cognitions. In addition, the nature of affect and the relationship between good mood and behavior (such as helping) are discussed in terms of this proposed cognitive process.
Many theories of exposure effects involve the operation of psychological processes that depend on some form of stimulus recognition. Two experiments investigated the role of stimulus recognition in the mere exposure phenomenon. Female subjects viewed novel stimuli at various exposure frequencies, then measures of stimulul recognition and effect were obtained. In each experiment, a significant and positive relationship was found between stimulus exposure and affect, even when the effects of stimulus recognition were held constant. Thus, stimulus recognition was not a necessary condition for the occurrence of the observed exposure effects. The results suggest that the relationship between stimulus exposure and affect does not depend on the operation of higher order cognitive processes, at least to the extent that such processes are themselves dependent upon stimulus recognition.
Cinq expériences sur la perception de 20 reproductions de peintures non occidentales et pré-Renaissance: (1) jugement de ressemblance ou dissemblance en présentation par couples; (2) jugements portés sur des variables affectives et collatives; (3) évaluation du style; (4) temps d'observation; (5) jugement preférentiel en présentation par couples. Le classement multidimensionnel et I'analyse factorielle confirment la plupart des résultats obtenus dans une étude précédente portant sur des peintures post-Renaissance. L'échelle de complexité s'avère toutefois liée de moins près aux autres échelles et moins importante dans la détermination du temps d'observation que dans l'étude précédente. On observe une corrélation canonique significative entre les structures factorielles dérivées des échelles portant sur le style, quand on les applique aux peintures exotiques et pré-Renaissance ainsi qu'aux peintures post-Renaissance. Les dimensions du style identifiées par des rotations Varimax diffèrent toutefois d'une étude à l'autre et exigent done des designations diiférentes.
Examined the concept of response competition in relation to stimulus recognition in an experiment with 24 male and 24 female undergraduates. Of 3 indexes of recognition, only recognition latency proved to be consistently affected by response competition manipulation. Further, recognition was related to affect only under certain conditions. Data provide additional evidence of the correlations between frequency and liking and between response competition and affect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
The role of stimuli and responses in perceptual defense was examined by first obtaining recognition thresholds and GSRs to taboo and neutral words. Subsequently, Ss learned a paired-associate list with the original words serving as stimulus terms and a new set of words as response terms. Half of the neutral stimuli were paired with neutral and half with taboo responses. The same was true of taboo stimuli. Following training, recognition thresholds and GSRs were again measured with one group required to indicate recognition by means of response terms and another by means of stimulus terms. Both recognition threshold and GSR were found to depend primarily on the response required of the Ss in indicating recognition.
The mouth is a border zone dividing the feeding domain into two separate regions, each with its own empirical laws. The first region is the external arena, in which terrestrial animals cope with signals precisely located in space and time to obtain food or drink. The second is the internal homeostatic pool, which places demands for food or drink upon the animal. Pavlovian laws of conditioning were formulated in the external environment, where the flavor of food acts like an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which, if applied promptly, can be used to modify a vast array of coping behaviors in man, rat or pigeon. These same laws do not apply to the internal environment, where the flavor of food acts more like a conditioned stimulus (CS) and a specialized visceral feedback acts as the UCS to modify the specific flavor incentive for which man, rat or pigeon strives.
The concept of preference is of primary importance in psychology. It has had an implicit role in almost every psychological theory, but no major efforts have been directed toward the explication of preference as a psychological concept. Why is one object preferred to another? is a question which has remained unan- swered, at least to the extent that the psychological nature of pref- erence has remained subservient to the other purposes of investigators.
To test the comparative discriminability of the recognition judgment method and an affective (like-dislike) judgment method of brand discrimination, 246 regular cigarette smokers were divided into two groups, and each group member was given one of the 'Big Three' cigarettes with brand name obscured. Members of one group made a recognition judgment; members of the other made a 'like-dislike' judgment. Analysis of variance showed that (1) both types of judgment were made with better than chance accuracy, (2) the like-dislike judgment was slightly but not significantly more sensitive than the recognition judgment, (3) the distribution of responses for each type of judgment was radically different. "It was suggested that… the use of affective judgment… merits further study." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous studies have shown that individuals may attend to different dimensions in making an overall judgment of similarity
between complex stimuli. The present study investigated the nature of differences in the perceived similarity of reproductions
of paintings by the use of multidimensional scaling techniques. Using the INDSCAL model, a group of art-trained students are
shown to differ significantly from a group of nonart students in terms of their differential weighing of a set of common dimensions.
The same subjects’ preferences are examined in relation to these differences by use of the PREFMAP hierarchy of models. While
the simplest (vector) model was found to be appropriate for almost all subjects, large differences in vector direction and
average subject ideal-point location are found. Implications for future studies of responses to art are discussed.
In two experiments, Ss were read sets of 6 or 8 personality adjectives, and asked to rate their liking of the person so described. In some conditions, S was also requested to recall the adjectives just read.The personality impression data showed a primacy (first impression) effect when recall was not required. Introduction of recall reduced the primacy and, in one condition, caused a recency effect. These results were interpreted as indicating that the primacy was primarily caused by decreased attention to the later adjectives, and that the use of concomitant recall destroyed this primacy by causing S to attend to the later adjectives more completely.The serial recall curves showed a small to moderate primacy component, and a very strong recency component. Further detailed analyses of the recall data were also given.Two implications were drawn from the data. First, it was concluded that the impression memory is distinct from the verbal memory for the adjectives. This conclusion was based on contrasts between the observed impression effects and those that would be expected if the impression depended on the verbal memory. Three objections to this conclusion, based on the possibility that recall probability was an inappropriate index of verbal-memory strength, were also discussed.Second, it was tentatively suggested that a linear model, together with the attention decrement notion, gave the best account of the data. It was finally noted that the linear model also provides a representation of the impression memory that is in harmony with the first conclusion.
"Reprinted from the American journal of psychology, April, 1909, vol. XX, pp. 157-193." "From the Psychological laboratory of Cornell university." Thesis (PH. D.)--Cornell University.
Seventy-two female subjects memorized two photographed faces and subsequently discriminated these "target" faces from two "non-target" faces. The faces were presented unilaterally for 150 msec, and manual reaction times for the discriminations served as the dependent variable. The face stimuli were either "neutral" or "emotional" in facial expression, these attributes having been shown, by a preliminary study, to be highly reliable. Faster reaction times were obtained for left visual field than for right visual presentation. Subjects (N = 36) who memorized emotional faces showed significantly faster discrimination of faces presented in the left than in the right visual field (25·7 msec); subjects (N = 36) who memorized faces lacking emotional expression also showed significant left visual field superiority (11·6 msec), but this left field superiority was significantly smaller than that of subjects memorizing emotional faces. Results are consistent with previous tachistoscopic evidence of right hemisphere superiority in face recognition speed and with diverse non-tachistoscopic evidence of preferential memory storage of affective material. The pattern of latencies for the different visual field-response hand conditions supported a model of lateral specialization in which the specialized hemisphere normally processes both directly-received and interhemispherically- transferred stimuli.
Cats with permanently implanted electrodes were trained to discriminate between trains of flashes or clicks at two different repetition frequencies. After substantial overtraining with these sensory stimuli, high levels of stimulus generalization were obtained to electrical stimulation of the reticular formation at either frequency stimultaneously with contradictory flicker or click stimulation at the opposite frequency resulted in control of the behavior by the reticualr stimulus. Lateral geniculate stimulation failed to show this effect.
Right-handed subjects tend to look to the left when answering affective questions. The relative shift in gaze from right to left is accentuated when the questions also involve spatial manipulation and attenuated when the questions require verbal manipulation. The data support the hypothesis that the right hemisphere has a special role in emotion in the intact brain, and that predictable patterning of hemispheric activity can occur when specific combinations of cognitive and affective processes interact.
Animal and human subjects readily develop strong preferences for objects that have become familiar through repeated exposures. Experimental evidence is presented that these preferences can develop even when the exposures are so degraded that recognition is precluded.
This chapter discusses the closed-loop theory of motor learning. Motor behavior is guided by covert verbal behavior in the early stages of learning. Subjects accompany the learning process with hidden verbal activity, where they form hypotheses and plans about the next movement on the basis of the knowledge of results that they have just received. Perhaps from the days when motor behavior was studied by physiologists as a “spinal” activity, there have been those who have identified motor behavior with the lower senses and remote from the upper reaches of the mind. The empirical reinforcement conception of motor learning is open-loop. The response outcome for the system is primarily determined by system changes that reinforcement has made, which has often been conceptualized as habit. An open-loop system treats errors incidentally as evidence of system incompetence because the focus is on occurrences of the correct response, but errors and their processing lie at the center of a closed-loop system.
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