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Training Anticipation for Intermediate Tennis Players
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the trainability of anticipation in intermediate tennis players. In particular, the study examined whether video presentations could improve on-court tennis serve returns. A series of separate A-B designs across 6 participants was implemented, with baseline and intervention scores for on-court serve-return performance being recorded. Intervention consisted of 2 phases: a training phase and an on-court testing phase. The training phase, which employed a changing criterion design, consisted of a series of tennis-serve video presentations that were replayed with gradually increasing speed. All serves were occluded on racquet/ball contact, and participants were asked to predict the type, depth, and width of the serve. Following completion of the training phase, participants were again tested on their ability to return tennis serves on the tennis court. On-court results suggested that anticipation ability and performance did improve as a result of the intervention.
... Antecedent interventions used in both direct and indirect competition sports experiments included instruction, modeling, video modeling, self-talk, self-imagery, relaxation training, and task analysis. Two categories of antecedent interventions were utilized in direct competition sports only: discrimination training (Christina et al., 1990;Scott et al., 1998;Simek & O'Brien, 1988) and enhancement of stimulus saliency, when Osborne et al. (1990) added orange stripes to baseballs. ...
... Other interventions used in both direct and indirect competition sports experiments included behavioral rehearsal, goal setting, and cognitive-behavioral interventions. Two interventions were used in three direct sports competition experiments that were not used in indirect sports competition experiment: acceptance and commitment training (ACT; Little & Simpson, 2000) and simulated practice (Christina et al., 1990;Scott et al., 1998). Behavioral contracting was investigated in one indirect competition sports experiment (Simek et al., 1994). ...
... For example, discrimination training was employed with direct competition sports experiments only, which seems logical given the opponent's behavior serves as an antecedent setting the occasion for the athlete's behaviors to be differentially reinforced. Some examples include Simek and O'Brien (1988) where discriminating balls and strikes resulted in more at bats and more hits for little leaguers, Christina et al. (1990) where quick and accurate reads by a football linebacker was expected to improve defense, and Scott et al. (1998) where discriminating locations of opponents' serves resulted in better return volleys for tennis players. ...
For over 50 years, numerous behavioral interventions have been applied across different sports to increase the performance of competing athletes (Martin et al., 2004; Schenk & Miltenberger, 2019). When a base of supporting literature has grown, systematic reviews can be used to summarize findings and help define the limits of generality of the procedures researched (Hagopian, 2020). In this review, sports were categorized by competition type according to the behavioral contingency and the role of the opponent, as defined by the rules of the sport. This categorization may serve researchers and practitioners in considering the impact of the opponent on the generality of behavior change, thus informing interventions and procedures. In direct competition sports, the opponent serves as an antecedent stimulus setting the occasion for, interfering with, changing the topography of, or otherwise influencing sports performance. In indirect competition sports, the opponent is prohibited from interference by rule and competition is limited to setting (or beating) a score or criteria. To assess direct and indirect competition sports, data were extracted from 64 experiments intervening to improve the performance of competing athletes across 18 sports. Despite stringent criteria, such as including studies with competing athletes only, these categories were equally represented. Results indicated some procedures were specific to a category and generality of intervention effects into competition settings was assessed more in direct than indirect competition sports experiments. Also, few experiments included participants competing at the highest levels. The limits of generality of sport behavior change into competition settings are discussed.
... Social positive reinforcement, punishment (Time out from practice) (Connelly, 1988) Increase correct execution of defensive performance Imagery rehearsal, self-talk, relaxation techniques (Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin, & Kendall, 1990) Improve foul shooting accuracy Verbal feedback, instruction, social positive reinforcement (Kladopoulos & McComas, 2001) Teach individuals to be proficient in 9 essential basketball skills Instruction, expert modeling, forward chaining, Sr+, physical prompting (Lambert et al., 2016) Improve shot accuracy Self-imagery (Shapiro & Shapiro, 1985) Cycling Improve standing start Verbal feedback, video modeling (Jennings, Reaburn, & Rynne, 2013) Improve pressure distribution when pedaling Auditory feedback, graphical feedback (Broker, Gregor, & Schmidt, 1993) Improve pressure distribution when pedaling Auditory feedback, video feedback (Sanderson & Cavanagh, 1990) Dancing Improve ability to engage in specific competition related movements Auditory feedback (Quinn et al., 2016) Improve efficiency of three specific dance steps Instruction, self-talk (Ming & Martin, 1996) Improve execution of all "figures" Self-talk (Palmer, 1992) Self-monitoring, instruction (Rushall & Smith, 1979) Increase number of laps swam Attention, candy, and money as Sr+ (reinforcer preference assessment) (Rushall & Pettinger, 1969) Tennis and Table Tennis Improve overall serve Instruction, video modeling (Bouchard & Singer, 1998 (Allison & Ayllon, 1980) Improve execution of forehand, backhand, and service swings Social positive reinforcement (DR) (Buzas & Ayllon, 1981) Improve execution paddle swing Video modeling, expert-modeling, physical prompting, verbal feedback, video feedback (Carroll & Bandura, 1982) Improve strategic ball-placing performance Self-talk (Landin & Hebert, 1999) Improve execution of service swing Video feedback, instruction (Rikli & Smith, 1980) Improve execution of service return Video modeling, simulated practice (Scott et al., 1998) Rikli & Smith, 1980; 41%), competitive club sport or studio (e.g., Quinn et al., 2015;31%), collegiate (e.g., Silva, 1982; 25%), high school (e.g., 8%), and international (e.g., Scott et al., 1997;1%). The percentages were calculated using the skill level assessed in each experiment divided by the total number of experiments (109) within all studies. ...
... x x x (Scott et al., 1998) x (Silva III, 1982) x x (Tai & Miltenberger, 2017) $ (Templin & Vernacchia, 1995) x x (Thelwell & Greenlees, 2001) x x x x (Thelwell & Greenlees, 2003) x x x x (Wanlin et al., 1997) x x x x (Ziegler, 1987) x x (Ziegler, 1994) x x x x Note. # = Habit reversal; + = ACT; % = Discrimination Training; $ = BST. ...
... For example, Christina et al. (1990) demonstrated that a male collegiate football linebacker increased his directional response accuracy to the opposition during actual play by training response accuracy to a video highlight using a joystick to indicate which movement he would make given the movements of the offense. Furthermore, Scott et al. (1998) used simulated practice to help tennis players identify direction of their opponents serve more quickly by verbally responding to a video recording of an individual's serve. Finally, ACT, BST, habit reversal, and discrimination training interventions were implemented in one study each. ...
Research on applied behavior analysis and sports performance has become an increasingly popular subject. It involves using behavioral measures to assess the utility of numerous interventions to enhance athletic performance. We identified 101 studies published since the late 1960s focusing on behavioral interventions to enhance sports performance. To determine the breadth of the current research, we identified each sport and the different interventions used to improve performance. Of the studies included in this review, research has investigated 23 interventions with 21 sports. The purpose of this paper is to review the current literature regarding what procedures have been evaluated, the results of this research, some of the limitations, and future directions of behavioral research on sports performance enhancement. In doing so, this review will allow readers to easily browse the current literature by the sport or intervention of interest.
... To our knowledge there is one study that has investigated individual differences in training anticipatory skill. Scott, Scott, and Howe (1998) used a within-subject design to investigate individual differences in training anticipatory skill in recreational tennis players with an in-situ sport-specific test. First, in a baseline phase, the return of serve response accuracy of six participants was tested on a tennis court with an opponent. ...
... The field hockey goalkeeper who attempts to save a shot on goal from the drag flick was used as the exemplar interceptive timing sport skill. As near-elite-level goalkeeper populations are smaller, a within-subject intervention study design like Scott et al. (1998) was used to investigate individual differences in learning. A short-term video-based anticipation training intervention over one week was applied to accommodate participant availability, which is a key factor for near-elite-level and elite players, who are constantly involved in sport-specific practice and competition. ...
... These findings are consistent with previous literature that has reported improvements in response timing with novices at the group level of analysis (Williams et al., 2004). Although measures are different, our findings are in contrast to Scott et al. (1998), who reported that all individual participants improved across baseline to intervention in their in-situ test. This could be because their participants were recreational players and, as a result, there may have been greater scope for improvement. ...
Training studies in a variety of domains focus on between group comparisons. This study investigated individual differences in learning based upon visual anticipation training using field hockey goalkeeping as the exemplar motor skill. In a within-subject design, four state-league level field hockey goalkeepers were tested before and after visual anticipatory training in an in-situ test that required them to save goals from a drag flick. Response initiation time and response accuracy were measured. Participants were tested at baseline, completed a control phase of sport-specific practice, re-tested, then given an intervention phase of temporal occlusion training plus sport-specific practice, and re-tested. Results indicated that two goalkeepers’ response initiation times were earlier after the intervention. Effect sizes indicated that the two goalkeepers improved response accuracy after the intervention. Another goalkeeper’s response initiation time was later after the intervention, but this did not impede response accuracy of goals saved. The mechanism of individual learning appeared to be modulation of response timing to save goals. Anticipation training can improve in-situ visual-perceptual motor skill performance in an individualized and non-linear fashion. Further research is needed to better understand how each individual learns the visual-perceptual motor skills of high time-stress tasks in the sport domain.
... The lack of formal pre-testing before the intervention may limit the generalisability of the results because it is unknown whether the groups were equal in skill level before the intervention and whether the observed performance differences were due to a training effect elicited by the intervention. Scott, Scott, and Howe (1998) implemented a single case A-B design, whereby participants were classified as their own controls with pre-intervention baseline measures compared to postintervention performance. Single case designs are somewhat exploratory investigations with an underlying assumption that a single case may be representative of a larger cohort (Thomas et al., 2011). ...
... A one-on-one interceptive task is characterised by the performer's ability to coordinate the body with respect to another object in the playing environment (Davids, Savelsberg, Bennett, & Van der Kamp, 2002). Furthermore, interceptive sports were examined in another 12 studies (i.e., tennis, badminton, baseball, softball, cricket) and attempted to train the ability to anticipate the direction of a struck, or thrown, ball (Cassidy & Wade, 1998;Fadde, 2006;Farrow & Abernethy, 2002;Farrow et al., 1998;Gabbett et al., 2007;Hagemann et al., 2006;Hopwood et al., 2011;Memmert et al., 2009;Scott et al., 1998;Smeeton et al., 2005;Tanaka et al., 2011;Williams et al., 2002). ...
... In 13 studies, although it was stated that groups were randomly allocated, they did not report the specific method of randomisation (Abernethy et al., 2012;Cassidy & Wade, 1998;Gabbett et al., 2007;Hagemann et al., 2006;Poulter et al., 2005;Savelsbergh et al., 2010;Schorer et al., 2010;Schorer et al., 2012;Schweizer et al., 2011;Shafizadeh et al., 2012;Tanaka et al., 2011;Williams et al., 2003;. Finally, one investigation did not explain the method to generate participant groups (Gabbett et al., 2008), and in one investigation all participants completed the intervention program (Scott et al., 1998). ...
In this review we identified sport-based perceptual-cognitive training literature to systematically evaluate current video-based methodologies and their resultant effectiveness to improve perceptual-cognitive performance (i.e., decision-making). A comprehensive literature search of electronic databases from 1994-2013 was conducted to identify relevant studies. We identified 139 articles, of which 25 met all the inclusion criteria. Study design and test measures of the 25 articles were assessed against a classification scale to rate methodological quality. The methodological quality of the 25 studies varied, with quasi-experimental the most common design. Additionally, studies varied in the skill level of participants and the amount of video-based information presented during the training. We conclude that video based training programs can be used to enhance perceptual-cognitive performance and outline several recommendations for future video-based perceptual-cognitive training programs particularly with respect to the validity and reliability of the instruments used to measure perceptual-cognitive performance.
... Concernant la précision, Scott et al. (1998) Même si de nombreuses études montrent des améliorations de la performance suite à un entraînement perceptif, Williams et Grant (1999), dans une revue d'études sur l'entraînement perceptif ont soulevé un certain nombre de limites présentes dans ces recherches. Tout d'abord, on peut noter l'absence de groupe placebo ou de groupe contrôle dans de nombreuses recherches. ...
... Cette amélioration de 11.52% peut paraître relativement réduite, mais elle vient s'ajouter à des scores déjà élevés puisque ce test s'adressait à des pratiquants experts du meilleur niveau. L'absence de progrès du groupe contrôle et du groupe « apprentissage non spécifique » permet de conclure que les progrès du groupe « apprentissage spécifique » sont bien liés à cette condition de pratique et non à une habituation à la tâche (Williams & Grant, 1999 Scott et al., 1998 ;Abernethy et al., 1999), soit de leur temps de réponse (e.g., Singer et al., 1994 ;Farrow et al., 1998; ou encore des inversions entre le temps de réponse et le pourcentage de bonnes réponses, une amélioration de l'un engendrant une diminution de performance de l'autre (Moreno et al., 2002 & Proteau, 1980 ;Proteau et al., 1989). ...
... Dans notre étude, nous n'avons pas mis en place de test de transfert sur le terrain. Il y a tout lieu de penser que ce transfert pourrait être effectif comme cela a pu être montré auparavant parScott et al. (1998) ou Williams et al. (2003) par exemple. Il faut noter cependant que les temps de réponses observés dans cette étude sont très longs et ne correspondent pas à des temps requis sur le terrain. ...
The aim of this work was to analyse anticipation in fast ball sport by using the support of tennis. For anticipation, two different sources of information can be used: on one hand, the opponents' postural cues and on the other hand, tactical and contextual information.To achieve this work, we used the " expert performance approach " proposed by Ericsson and Smith (1991). To begin, we carried out an in situ analysis of expert tennis player anticipation (study 1). The results showed that experts anticipate when they are in an unfavorable situation and when the risk to lose the point is high. Moreover, two different temporal windows appeared: a very early temporal window in which the level of response accuracy is high and information used can be related to tactics; a later temporal window in which response accuracy is weaker and information can be related to the opponents' postural cues.Secondly, we ran two experiments in order to analyse these two windows, using different types of information. In study 2, we worked on the availability of postural cues according to tactical information. We showed that experts contrary to novices could use postural cues information to improve anticipation accuracy. In the third study, we varied the amount of tactical information inside the point with different conditions presenting 1, 3 or 5 strokes before the occlusion. Results didn't show any differences in prediction accuracy between different occlusion conditions. However, response time was shorter in the five strokes condition than in other conditions, revealing that the decision for anticipation was taken sooner in this condition.Finally, in a third step, we ran a learning protocol. The aim was to improve anticipation based on tactical and probabilistical knowledge of one particular opponent. The results showed an improved anticipation performance and a shorter response time for the specific learning group.The results, we obtained during this phD work, give quantitative data on expert anticipation in tennis. These results provide a basis to design representative tasks to explore with more details anticipation. Moreover, they suggest the possibility of using the different sources of information to anticipate. To conclude, it seems possible to improve anticipation skills, even for some expert players, by running training protocols. This work opens a lot of perspectives of research which can allow, for example, to formalize with more accuracy the nature of information used to anticipate.
... There were eight appearances of the A-B (Baseline-Treatment) design in the selected studies with a typical application to athletes in real-world applied settings (e.g., Annesi, 1998;Mellalieu, Hanton, & O'Brien, 2006;Thelwell & Maynard, 2003;Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998). Furthermore, the A-B design was also applied to reflect consultancy work with individual athletes (e.g., Barker & Jones, 2005, 2006 and a sports team (Pain & Harwood, 2009). ...
... Specifically, 12 studies involved imagery (e.g., Bell, Skinner, & Fisher, 2009;Mellalieu, Hanton, & Thomas, 2009;Post, Muncie, & Simpson, 2012;Wakefield & Smith, 2011), six studies used hypnosis-based interventions (e.g., Barker & Jones, 2005, four studies used goalsetting (Lambert et al., 1999;Mellalieu et al., 2006;O'Brien, Mellalieu, & Hanton, 2009;McCarthy, Jones, Harwood, & Davenport, 2010), three studies used feedback (Anderson & Kirkpatrick, 2002;Scott et al., 1997;Kladopoulous & McComas, 2001), and three studies used self-talk (Hamilton, Scott, & MacDougall, 2007;Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004;Landin & Hebert, 1999). Additionally, 17 studies examined various interventions including public-posting (Galvan & Ward, 1998), bio-feedback (Galloway, 2011), self-monitoring (Polaha et al., 2004), behavioral coaching (Stokes, Luiselli, Reed, & Fleming, 2010), perceptual training (Oudejans, Koedijker, Bleijendaal, & Bakker, 2005;Scott et al., 1998), coping effectiveness (Reeves, Nicholls, & McKenna, 2011), self-modeling (Ram & McCullagh, 2003), pre-performance routines (Marlow et al., 1998;Mesagno et al., 2008), social-support (Freeman, Rees, & Hardy, 2009), music (Mesagno et al., 2009), mutual-sharing (Pain & Harwood, 2009), rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT; Turner & Barker, 2013/this issue), cognitive self-dialogue (Neil, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2013/this issue), and financial contingiences (Bordieri et al., 2013/this issue). ...
... From the literature search, all 66 studies employed both visual analysis and graphical procedures. Nine studies used the split-middle technique to assess trends and patterns in data (Callow et al., 2001;Callow & Waters, 2005;Marlow et al., 1998;Mesagno et al., 2008Mesagno et al., , 2009Munroe-Chandler & Hall, 2004;Oudejans et al., 2005;Post et al., 2012;Scott et al., 1998;Turner & Barker, 2013/this issue), Mann-Whitney U (Calmels, Holmes, Berthoumieux & Singer, 2004;McCarthy et al., 2010), F tests (Barker & Jones, 2006, Landin & Hebert, 1999Bordieri et al., 2013/this issue), ITSACORR (Callow & Waters, 2005;Freeman et al., 2009), binomial tests (Marlow et al., 1998;Wakefield & Smith, 2011), and standard mean difference . ...
Single-case research methods are an important facet of applied sport psychology because they provide a framework for researchers and practitioners to outline intervention effects across time with individuals or groups. This paper reviews the research published since Hrycaiko and Martin's (1996) milestone overview of single-case research in sport psychology. Specifically, we examined the literature between 1997 and 2012 and located 66 studies that met our inclusion criteria of assessing interventions in sport psychology. The review summarizes the body of research, outlines trends, considers the limitations of the extant literature, and identifies areas that require further investigation for future single-case research.
... Seven studies improved the execution of the service swing (e.g., Rikli & Smith, 1980) and four studies enhanced the performance of forehand or backhand swings (e.g., Buzas & Ayllon, 1981). Two studies improved the performance of service returns (e.g., Scott et al., 1998). Two studies decreased inappropriate outbursts during play to improve performance (e.g., Allen, 1998). ...
... A limitation of this study was that it did not examine generalization to on-field performance. However, Scott et al. (1998) demonstrated that simulated practice of tennis skills could generalize to actual performance. ...
This chapter discusses applied behavior analysis interventions for enhancing sports performance. The chapter discusses the importance of sports, the different types of sports and target behaviors, the ages and populations that have been targeted, the different types of interventions evaluated in research, and current issues and future research directions.KeywordsApplied behavior analysisFeedbackSportsVideo modelingVideo feedback
... Of the 101 studies Schenk and Miltenberger (2019) identified, 73 (72%) used interventions with more than one component, including behavioral skills training (BST) (Tai & Miltenberger, 2017); habit reversal (Allen, 1998); behavioral contracts (Simek, O'Brien, & Figlerski, 1994); ACT (Little & Simpson, 2000); and simulated practice (Fery & Ponserre, 2001;Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998). To date, behavioral contracting has only been researched in indirect sports (e.g., golf); ACT and simulated practice have only been researched in direct sports (e.g., baseball, tennis, and football). ...
... After a failed attempt to recruit injured student athletes to evaluate the effectiveness of their Return to ACTion protocol, Shortway, Wolanin, Block-Lerner, and Marks (2018) conducted a preliminary feasibility study of the protocol that does offer suggestions for implementation and evaluation. Both O'Donnell et al. (2021) and Schenk and Miltenberger (2019) identified a variety of antecedent interventions that effectively improved athlete performance, including but not limited to: instruction (Kladopoulos & McComas, 2001;Rogers, Hemmeter, & Wolery, 2010); modeling (Aiken, Fairbrother, & Post, 2012;Baudry, Leroy, & Chollet, 2006;Boyer, Miltenberger, Batsche, & Fogel, 2009); self-talk (Landin & Hebert, 1999;Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002); self-imagery (Lerner, Ostrow, Yura, & Etzel, 1996;Shapiro & Shapiro, 1985); and discrimination training (for direct competition only; Christina, Barresi, & Shaffner, 1990;Scott et al., 1998). Self-talk and self-imagery are two methods of intervening on covert verbal behavior in sports, warranting their inclusion as behavioral interventions. ...
... Of the 101 studies Schenk and Miltenberger (2019) identified, 73 (72%) used interventions with more than one component, including behavioral skills training (BST) (Tai & Miltenberger, 2017); habit reversal (Allen, 1998); behavioral contracts (Simek, O'Brien, & Figlerski, 1994); ACT (Little & Simpson, 2000); and simulated practice (Fery & Ponserre, 2001;Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998). To date, behavioral contracting has only been researched in indirect sports (e.g., golf); ACT and simulated practice have only been researched in direct sports (e.g., baseball, tennis, and football). ...
... After a failed attempt to recruit injured student athletes to evaluate the effectiveness of their Return to ACTion protocol, Shortway, Wolanin, Block-Lerner, and Marks (2018) conducted a preliminary feasibility study of the protocol that does offer suggestions for implementation and evaluation. Both O'Donnell et al. (2021) and Schenk and Miltenberger (2019) identified a variety of antecedent interventions that effectively improved athlete performance, including but not limited to: instruction (Kladopoulos & McComas, 2001;Rogers, Hemmeter, & Wolery, 2010); modeling (Aiken, Fairbrother, & Post, 2012;Baudry, Leroy, & Chollet, 2006;Boyer, Miltenberger, Batsche, & Fogel, 2009); self-talk (Landin & Hebert, 1999;Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002); self-imagery (Lerner, Ostrow, Yura, & Etzel, 1996;Shapiro & Shapiro, 1985); and discrimination training (for direct competition only; Christina, Barresi, & Shaffner, 1990;Scott et al., 1998). Self-talk and self-imagery are two methods of intervening on covert verbal behavior in sports, warranting their inclusion as behavioral interventions. ...
... Studies using this approach have reported improvement on video (Abernethy, Schorer, Jackson, & Hagemann, 2012) and field (Fadde, 2016;Smeeton, Hodges, Williams, & Ward, 2005;Williams, Ward, Knowles, & Smeeton, 2002) tests. Two studies have employed video temporal occlusion training to investigate individual improvements in anticipation (Müller, Gurisik, Hecimovich, Harbaugh, & Vallence, 2017;Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998). Both studies were conducted over a very short time frame of between one and three sessions and focused upon improving pick-up of kinematic information. ...
... Second, that temporal occlusion training improved integration of contextual and kinematic information for anticipation is crucial, because performers are required to deal with both sources of information in sequence within a game (Runswick et al., 2018). Our findings extend upon previous studies that have reported individualized improvement to pick-up of kinematic information Scott et al., 1998), by indicating a synchronized improvement of attention to contextual and kinematic information. ...
The study of anticipation in truly expert performers can provide insight into how they cope with extreme time constraints. The purpose of this dual-experiment paper was to investigate individual differences; in anticipation of the penalty corner drag-flick, its trainability, and transfer of improvement to field settings. Australian international and national male field-hockey goalkeepers participated. In experiment 1, international and national goalkeepers (n = 11) completed a penalty corner drag-flick temporal occlusion task that presented; defensive runner positioning at the penalty spot, drag-flicker kinematics, and ball flight. Results indicated seven goalkeepers integrated runner contextual and drag-flicker kinematic information to anticipate above chance. The cause of individual differences was independent pickup of run and kinematic cues that presented greater opportunity to integrate sources for anticipation. In experiment 2, a sub-sample of goalkeepers participated and received temporal occlusion training or no training. Results indicated individualized improvement in anticipation across video, field, and competition assessments for those that received the intervention, but not controls. Improvements on video test were retained for six months. An individual differences approach can identify deficiencies in anticipation, which can be improved through perceptual training that transfers to motor responses. This contributes to theoretical and practical knowledge to develop anticipation skill.
... Some sporting scenarios require only one skill to be practiced in a discrete manner, such as penalty kicks in soccer or serves in tennis (see Figure 1). Approximately half of published studies examining the training of anticipation and decision making involve training anticipation of a single skill or action that is presented with some variations, such as different end locations of smash shots in badminton (Hagemann & Memmert, 2006;Hagemann, Strauss, & Cañal-Bruland, 2006) or volleyball (Klostermann, Vater, Kredel, & Hossner, 2015), serves in tennis (Farrow & Abernethy, 2002;Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998;Williams et al., 2004) or badminton (Alder, Ford, Causer, & Williams, 2016), penalty kicks in soccer (Dicks et al., 2017;Poulter, Jackson, Wann, & Berry, 2005;Ryu, Kim, Abernethy & Mann, 2013;Savelsbergh et al., 2010), throws in handball (Abernethy et al., 2012;Schorer, Cañal-Bruland, & Cobley, 2010) or flicks in hockey (Williams, Ward, & Chapman, 2003). In general, all of these studies showed a significant training effect, although they did not specifically manipulate or control for practice structure, leaving the possibility that other well-established practice structures may have led to greater or lesser improvement. ...
... Another technique used to provide variability during practice is to manipulate the speed of the videos viewed during training. Scott et al. (1998) used video simulations to train anticipation using tennis serves. During training, the videos were replayed at five different speeds beginning with the slowest speed. ...
... Forskarna rekommenderade att för bästa inlärning så skulle mental träning kombineras med fysisk träning (Rahahleh, Al-Kahayyat, 2001). Ytterligare en studie (Scott, Scott, Howe, 1998) mätte tennisspelares returkapacitet i form av förutseende av servar. De returnerande spelarna fick se videosekvenser och gissa vilken typ, djup och bredd servarna hade. ...
... Efter träningsfasen fick de på tennisbanan returnera servar. Interventionen visade sig förbättra prestationen och förutseende av servemottagandet (Scott, Scott, Howe, 1998). De Francesco och Burke (1997) gjorde en undersökning på 115 professionella tennisspelare under en stor turnering i USA där det visade sig att den mest använda mentala strategin var visualisering. ...
... Trabajos recientes como el de Ávila, Moreno, Reina y Luis (2006) o Reina, Moreno, Sanz, Damas y Luis (2006) confirman la diferencia en la elaboración de estrategias de búsqueda visuales, en concreto en variables como el número y tiempo de fijaciones visuales, según sea la situación de dimensionalidad (2D y 3D), es decir, según se trate de un entorno estimular de laboratorio o un entorno real de juego. sugieren la necesidad de realizar estudios en situaciones reales de juego para contrastar los resultados obtenidos en laboratorio, dada la falta de evidencias claras existentes para la transferencia de aprendizajes con proyección de vídeo a entornos naturales (Adolphe, Vickers y Laplante, 1997;Scott, Scott y Howe, 1998;Starkes y Lindley, 1994). Además, estas situaciones de laboratorio han tenido dificultades en incluir las propias condiciones del juego, donde aspectos como la motivación, la ansiedad, la emoción o las propias limitaciones temporales de muchas acciones deportivas podían influir en la elaboración de las estrategias de búsqueda visual o en el propio rendimiento (Abernethy, 1987b). ...
... Un razonamiento que podría explicar el bajo rendimiento obtenido en la precisión de la respuesta después del entrenamiento en el grupo preíndices, en situación 3D respecto a 2D, es el que plantea Green y Flowers (1991), Magill (1997) y Shea et al. (2001); según el cual la estrategia de administrar instrucciones explícitas sobre los índices visuales podría interferir en la identificación de regularidades de la tarea, debido al intento continuado de retener y aplicar la información verbalmente explicitada (Reber, 1989;Magill, 1998), con el consiguiente efecto negativo sobre el proceso de aprendizaje y la toma de decisiones en el deporte. También, la falta de evidencias claras en la transferencia de aprendizajes de vídeo a entornos reales de juego Scott et al., 1998;Starkes y Lindley, 1994) podría haber dificultado una mejora de la precisión en la respuesta. ...
La Tesis Doctoral estudia la influencia de varias técnicas (preíndices y oclusión), basadas en la anticipación, sobre aspectos del comportamiento visual y de reacción de una muestra de deportistas. Además, se valora el papel de la práctica física en el aprendizaje de la tarea así como la prescripción de información por el investigador.
... More likely, the visual attention "software" of athletes is thought to contribute to the expert advantage, with substantial empirical evidence available to support this view (Abernethy, 1986;Applegate, 1992;Vinger, 1996). In an attempt to enhance performance and improve visual perception, recent empirical efforts have been made to identify of the most effective perceptual-cognitive skills and how those "software" skills should be trained (Abernethy, Woods, & Parks, 1999;Caserta & Singer, in press;Farrow et al., 1998;Grant & Williams, 1996;Scott et al., 1998;Singer et al., 1994;Smeeton, Williams, Hodges, & Ward, 2005;Williams, Ward, Knowles, & Smeeton, 2002;Williams, Ward, Smeeton, & Allen, 2004). ...
... The current findings replicate recent work that has demonstrated the effectiveness of training perceptual-cognitive skills (Abernethy, Woods, & Parks, 1999;Caserta & Singer, in press;Farrow et al., 1998;Grant & Williams, 1996;Scott et al., 1998;Singer et al., 1994;Smeeton et al., 2005;Williams et al., 2002;Williams et al., 2004), especially with aged athletes (Caserta, Young, & Janelle, in press). ...
... Although researchers have evaluated VM to improve performance in a variety of sports, it is typically not used alone and is often paired with some form of feedback (e.g., Boyer et al., 2009;Mulqueen et al., 2021). There are only three single-subject design studies (Dowrick & Dove, 1980;Quinn et al., 2020;Scott et al., 1998) evaluating VM alone for teaching sports skills for individual athletes. Similar to the sports literature, VM is often provided within a treatment package in other fields, such as teaching skills to individuals with autism spectrum disorder (McCoy & Hermansen, 2007;Park et al., 2019;Syriopoulou-Delli & Sarri, 2021); training parents, educators, and human service staff to implement procedures or teach others (Gerencser et al., 2020;Marano et al., 2020) and training medical practitioners to perform medical procedures (Jamshidi et al., 2009;Yu et al., 2020). ...
Scant literature exists assessing the effectiveness of video modeling (VM) alone in the sports literature. Further evaluations of VM to improve sports skills is warranted because VM is an accessible and efficient procedure that has successfully improved skills in other fields of practice (e.g., staff training, medical procedures). Additionally, behavior analysts have not evaluated interventions for improving goalkeeping skills for individual soccer players. Therefore, we replicated the 1 behavior‐analytic sports study on VM (Quinn et al., 2020), using a multiple baseline design across behaviors to evaluate the effects of VM and VM + video feedback (VF) to train 3 goalkeeper skills to two 9‐year‐old soccer players. The results showed that, although VM had some effect on performance compared to baseline, VM + VF resulted in the robust outcomes necessary for proficient performance of the goalkeeper skills. We discuss the results and limitations.
... Perceptual training has a positive effect on anticipation performance and its transfer. [29][30][31][32][33][34] Based on our findings, we suggest several recommendations on how to practice serve return and improve anticipation. ...
Kinematic and contextual information is important for players as they can use these for anticipation and facilitating motor responses. The interaction of the use of this information with an understanding of how the mind works in elite players is crucial but difficult to obtain by empirical research methods. The aim was to: (i) explore and identify anticipatory information sources among professional tennis players, (ii) verify findings of Vernon et al. ¹ and elaborate on these findings based upon the perspective of European players and coaches. We interviewed 9 active or former professional players (current coaches) for 30–60 min each, replicating the same methodology and questions as Vernon. ¹ An open-coding analysis approach was used, with codes to identify common themes extracted from the transcribed interviews. Our findings were generally in support of Vernon's findings, verifying the importance of ball toss kinematics, contextual information sources such as the score or weather, as well as the importance of constantly updating the available kinematic and contextual information sources throughout the match. We elaborate on these findings by providing more detail regarding Vernon's findings, and add new sources of information mentioned by the interviewed players such as server's rear foot position and server's gaze. Participants shared information about their returning strategies, how they build pressure on the server, and their own service return practice, noting that this is not practiced as much as they would like it to be. Overall, focus on developing and improving visual anticipation skill is limited, even at this level of expertise.
... Study participants with different degrees of tennis expertise are tasked with categorizing the type of serve while viewing occluded video clips. Expert tennis players were shown to better categorize serve type based on less visual information compared with novices (Scott et al., 1998) to the point where experts' performance is much better than novices at earlier occlusions compared with late occlusions (Jackson et al., 2006). ...
Effective anticipation skills in sporting cognition have been shown to facilitate expertise in sports. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has shown to improve motor and cognitive functioning. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the assistive effects of tDCS on the action observer network in both novice and expert gamers during an occlusion task, as well as the related electroencephalographic spectral power response. Twenty-three novice and 23 expert video gamers received either sham or active tDCS with a right parietal anode and left frontal cathode. Only experts demonstrated a significant improvement in predicting ball direction for the overall and early occlusions after tDCS. Spectral power results revealed significant changes in theta, high-gamma, and delta frequencies. The findings indicate that tDCS was able to modulate anticipatory behavior and cortical activity in experts compared with novice participants, suggesting a facilitatory role for tDCS to improve anticipatory effects and assist as a neurocognitive training technique.
... Here, evidence further suggests presenting learners with models of movement patterns of different performers at different performance levels, to showcase a range of movement possibilities in the affordance landscape (Al-Abood et al., 2002). Specifically, strategies regarding (expert) video modeling before and after skill performance have been considered by previous research; for example, studies on video modeling in sports, such as tennis, wall climbing, basketball, and volleyball, showed enhanced movement performance following this video intervention (e.g., Scott et al., 1998;Harle and Vickers, 2001;Boschker and Bakker, 2002;Zetou et al., 2002). Further, active, on-field demonstrations and "freezing strategies" (i.e., freezing skill training exercises or play) by coaches could additionally constrain the perceptual search space and help attune athletes to visual information for functional movement solutions (Pacheco et al., 2019). ...
In specialist sports coaching, the type and manner of augmented information that the coach chooses to use in communicating and training with individual athletes can have a significant impact on skill development and performance. Informed by insights from psychology, pedagogy, and sport science, this position paper presents a practitioner-based approach in response to the overarching question: When, why, and how could coaches provide information to athletes during coaching interventions? In an ecological dynamics rationale, practice is seen as a search for functional performance solutions, and augmented feedback is outlined as instructional constraints to guide athletes’ self-regulation of action in practice. Using the exemplar of team sports, we present a Skill Training Communication Model for practical application in the context of the role of a specialist coach, using a constraints-led approach (CLA). Further based on principles of a non-linear pedagogy and using the recently introduced Periodization of Skill Training (PoST) framework, the proposed model aims to support practitioners’ understanding of the pedagogical constraints of feedback and instruction during practice. In detail, the PoST framework’s three skill development and training stages work to (1) directly impact constraint manipulations in practice designs and (2) indirectly affect coaches’ choices of external (coach-induced) information. In turn, these guide practitioners on how and when to apply different verbal instruction methodologies and aim to support the design of effective skill learning environments. Finally, several practical guidelines in regard to sports coaches’ feedback and instruction processes are proposed.
... Despite the consistency of these findings, we know very little about how these skills are trained (Williams and Grant, 1999;Schorer et al., 2015). Previous studies of perceptual training in sport have focused on the influence of different forms of instruction (Smeeton et al., 2005;Abernethy et al., 2012) or feedback (Memmert et al., 2009;Schorer et al., 2010), as well as transfer from the laboratory to field settings (Scott et al., 1998;Williams et al., 2003;van Maarseveen et al., 2016) or from virtual realities to reality (Tirp et al., 2015). ...
In sport, perceptual skill training software is intended to assist tactical training in the field. The aim of this field study was to test whether “laboratory-based” pattern recall training would augment tactical skill training performed on the field. Twenty-six soccer players between 14 and 16 years of age from a single team participated in this study and were divided into three groups. The first received field training on a specific tactical skill plus cognitive training sessions on the pattern recall task. The second performed only the field training while the third group served as a control group and had field training on other topics. The task on the pre-, post-, and retention-tests was to recall specific soccer patterns displayed on a computer screen. Results showed significant changes between pre- and post-test performance. There was no significant interaction between groups and tests but the effect size was large. From pre- to retention-test, there was a significant difference between tests and an interaction between groups and tests, but no main effect difference between groups. On the basis of significance testing only retention was affected by the additional training, however, descriptive results and effect sizes from pre- to post-test were as expected and suggested there were learning benefits. Together these results indicate that augmented perceptual-cognitive training might be beneficial, but some limitations in our study design (e.g., missing field test, missing placebo group, etc.) need to be improved in future work.
... These interventions seek to direct attention toward the most critical cues (as determined from process measures such as gaze behavior and verbal reports) and the effectiveness of this training is assessed by comparing performance postintervention to an earlier pre-test. In general, these training programs have reported positive findings across sports (e.g., Scott et al., 1998;Williams et al., 2003;Murgia et al., 2014). ...
We used a novel approach to examine whether it is possible to improve the perceptual–cognitive skill of pattern recognition using a video-based training intervention. Moreover, we investigated whether any improvements in pattern recognition transfer to an improved ability to make anticipation judgments. Finally, we compared the relative effectiveness of verbal and visual guidance interventions compared to a group that merely viewed the same sequences without any intervention and a control group that only completed pre- and post-tests. We found a significant effect for time of testing. Participants were more sensitive in their ability to perceive patterns and distinguish between novel and familiar sequences at post- compared to pre-test. However, this improvement was not influenced by the nature of the intervention, despite some trends in the data. An analysis of anticipation accuracy showed no change from pre- to post-test following the pattern recognition training intervention, suggesting that the link between pattern perception and anticipation may not be strong. We present a series of recommendations for scientists and practitioners when employing training methods to improve pattern recognition and anticipation.
... D'ailleurs, Lorains, Ball, et MacMahon (2013b) ont montré que l'amélioration de la pertinence des décisions de footballeurs experts était plus rapide chez un groupe soumis à un entraînement basé sur des vidéos accélérées de 50 % comparé à un groupe faisant face à des animations dynamiques à vitesse réelle. À l'inverse, Scott, Scott, et Howe (1998) ont rapporté l'intérêt de ralentir la vitesse des images pour améliorer la pertinence des décisions de joueurs de tennis peu expérimentés. Récemment, Khacharem, Zoudji, Kalyuga, et Ripoll (2013a, b) ont même suggéré que la présentation de visualisations statiques était plus bénéfique que celle de visualisations dynamiques pour favoriser l'apprentissage des systèmes de jeux tactiques chez des footballeurs novices. ...
Cette revue de la littérature examine, d’une part, l’efficacité de l’entraînement cognitivo-perceptif basé sur la vidéo pour améliorer les prises de décisions des sportifs et, d’autre part, les avantages des différents modes d’instruction explicite, implicite et guidée pen- dant l’apprentissage. Ainsi, il est montré que l’entraînement basé sur la vidéo favorise l’optimisation des processus de reconnais- sance de la situation grâce à l’amélioration des habiletés cognitives et perceptives. Ces progrès se traduisent par la baisse des temps de réponse et/ou l’augmentation de la pertinence des décisions pendant la phase d’acquisition et sur le terrain. Par ailleurs, il est souligné l’intérêt des approches explicites en début d’apprentissage pour permettre l’acquisition rapide de connaissances. D’autre part, il est suggéré que les modes d’instruction implicite sont plus propices aux experts pour éviter qu’ils «réinvestissent» leurs connaissances lors des situations à enjeu. Enfin, il est envisagé que les instructions guidées constituent des alternatives pertinentes aux approches explicites et implicites pour guider efficacement l’attention des sportifs sans utiliser d’instructions explicites.
... Moreover, some studies suggest that the transfer of improvements of perceptual trainings to real-world situations is possible. For example, intermediate tennis players improved receiving the serve after video training intervention (51). Similarly, highly skilled cricket players improved in their fielding performance above the control group, after 6 weeks of on-field training combined with visual-perceptual training (28). ...
THE PURPOSE OF THIS ANALYSIS IS TO DETERMINE WHETHER THERE IS A LEFT FOOT ADVANTAGE IN SOCCER PERFORMANCE. THE OUTCOME OF THE REVIEWED ARTICLES SUGGESTS THAT THERE IS A LEFT FOOT ADVANTAGE IN SOCCER, NO MATTER HOW SMALL THAT MAY BE. NEVERTHELESS, THIS CONCLUSION MAY BE TENTATIVE BECAUSE LITTLE WORK WAS CONDUCTED IN THIS AREA AND THE FOCUS IS VERY DIVERSE. THE CURRENT REVIEW RAISES IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK. THE EXAMINATION OF THE TEMPORAL OCCLUSION PARADIGM AND THE COMPARISON OF SPATIAL ORIENTATIONS AND THE ATTENTIONAL ABILITIES OF RIGHT- AND LEFT-FOOTED SOCCER PLAYERS MAY GENERATE EMPIRICAL WORK IN THE FIELD.
... D'ailleurs, Lorains, Ball, et MacMahon (2013b) ont montré que l'amélioration de la pertinence des décisions de footballeurs experts était plus rapide chez un groupe soumis à un entraînement basé sur des vidéos accélérées de 50 % comparé à un groupe faisant face à des animations dynamiques à vitesse réelle. À l'inverse, Scott, Scott, et Howe (1998) ont rapporté l'intérêt de ralentir la vitesse des images pour améliorer la pertinence des décisions de joueurs de tennis peu expérimentés. Récemment, Khacharem, Zoudji, Kalyuga, et Ripoll (2013a, b) ont même suggéré que la présentation de visualisations statiques était plus bénéfique que celle de visualisations dynamiques pour favoriser l'apprentissage des systèmes de jeux tactiques chez des footballeurs novices. ...
This literature review examines both the effectiveness of simulation training video to improve decision-making of athletes and secondly, the benefits of explicit, implicit and guided instructions used during video-based perceptual training. Thus, it is shown that video-based perceptual training improves cognitive and perceptual skills resulting in decrease in decision time and increase in decision's accuracy in simulations and field. Furthermore, the benefits of explicit approaches in early stage of learning to promote rapid acquisition of knowledge is highlighted. On the other hand, it is suggested that implicit approaches will be more conducive to the experts to ensure that they "reinvest" their knowledge in stressful situations. Finally, it is envisaged that guided approaches are relevant alternatives to explicit and implicit approaches.
... Sin embargo, el entorno simulado solo será útil en la mejora del rendimiento deportivo de los deportistas cuando estos sean capaces de establecer relaciones entre los índices visuales relevantes y el comportamiento motor posterior (Farrow, Chivers, Hardingham & Sachse, 1998) a través de un proceso de instrucción y administración de feedback que conduzca a aumentar el conocimiento en la tarea (Janelle, Champenoy, Coombes & Mousseau, 2003; Williams & Ward, 2003;Williams et al., 2002). En todo caso, Williams, Davids y Williams (1999) señalan la necesidad de complementar estos estudios de laboratorio con mediciones en si-tuaciones reales de juego para contrastar los resultados de ambas situaciones, dada la falta de evidencia empírica sólida en la transferencia de aprendizajes con proyección de video a entornos naturales (Adolphe, Vickers & Laplante, 1997;Scott, Scott & Howe, 1998). ...
El estudio compara el comportamiento visual y motor de 40 tenistas noveles en laboratorio (2D) y en pista de tenis (3D) cuando visualizan una secuencia de passing-shots
ejecutada por un oponente experto desde el fondo de la pista. Los tenistas deben responder rápida y precisamente mediante un armado de volea de derecha o de revés según
la dirección del golpeo. Para el registro del comportamiento visual, se utiliza el sistema
tecnológico ASL SE 5000, mientras que para el comportamiento motor, se adapta un sistema tecnológico para el entrenamiento de las habilidades motoras abiertas. Las variables
dependientes son: el tiempo de fijación visual en cada localización corporal o espacial;
el tiempo de reacción y de movimiento, tiempo de respuesta (o suma de las dos variables anteriores), y eficacia de la respuesta. Los resultados evidencian que la muestra de
tenistas noveles se fija más en la zona central del cuerpo del oponente (tronco, cadera)
y son más rápidos en 2D. En cambio, en 3D se fijan más en la zona superior del oponente
(cabeza, hombros). Por lo tanto, los tenistas desarrollan un comportamiento visual y motor diferenciado según perciban el movimiento del oponente de forma videoproyectada
o en pista de tenis. Se recomienda diseñar tareas representativas en laboratorio que
ofrezcan a los deportistas procesos de percepción y de acción similares a situaciones
reales de competición.
... Sin embargo, el entorno simulado solo será útil en la mejora del rendimiento deportivo de los deportistas cuando estos sean capaces de establecer relaciones entre los índices visuales relevantes y el comportamiento motor posterior (Farrow, Chivers, Hardingham & Sachse, 1998) a través de un proceso de instrucción y administración de feedback que conduzca a aumentar el conocimiento en la tarea (Janelle, Champenoy, Coombes & Mousseau, 2003; Williams & Ward, 2003;Williams et al., 2002). En todo caso, Williams, Davids y Williams (1999) señalan la necesidad de complementar estos estudios de laboratorio con mediciones en si-tuaciones reales de juego para contrastar los resultados de ambas situaciones, dada la falta de evidencia empírica sólida en la transferencia de aprendizajes con proyección de video a entornos naturales (Adolphe, Vickers & Laplante, 1997;Scott, Scott & Howe, 1998). ...
This study addresses the visual and motor behavior, and success rate, of 40 novice tennis players in a laboratory setting and an on-court situation when viewing a passing-shots rally performed by an expert tennis player located at the back line of the court. The tennis players had to move fast and quickly through forehand or backhand volleys. Visual search strategies were recorded with an ASL SE5000 eye tracking system, and a computerized system was used to analyze the time parameters of the motor response. The dependent variables are the time of visual fixation on the corporal or spatial locations, reaction and movement times, response time (or the sum of the two variables), and success rate of the responses. The results show that the sample of novice players were faster in 2D and fixed more time on the central area of the opponent body (e.g., trunk, hip). Thus, novice players fixed more on the upper body of the opponent (e.g., head, shoulders) in 3D. Therefore, tennis players develop a differentiated visual and motor behavior according to the way they perceive the opponent's movement, whether in a video projection or on the tennis court. It is recommended to carry out representative tasks in the laboratory to provide perceptive and motor processes similar to real situations. (C) 2015, Konrad Lorenz University Foundation. Published by Elsevier Espana, S.L.U. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons CC BY-NC ND Licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
... Una de las líneas de investigación desarrollada desde entonces, sigue utilizando los videos como herramienta en su método. Scott, Scott y Howe (1998) utilizaron la presentación de videos con incremento de velocidad de exposición para entrenar la anticipación, después del aprendizaje con video encontró resultados en pista que sugieren una mejora en la capacidad. Rowe y McKenna (2001) desarrollaron una prueba con video válido para evaluar la anticipación de los jugadores en tenis, con ello también fueron capaces de diferenciar la capacidad de anticipación desarrollada por los jugadores expertos. ...
The aim of this study was to describe four perceptual cues during real situation to help the anticipate response on tennis serve devolutions. An observational design was used thru bi-dimensional kinematics analysis. Were participants professional male players (n=18) with ATP ranking (M = 112.84, DT = 86.02). Canonical correlation analysis was applied in 42 variates by 293 serves to define wide, depth, and speed cues. Main result showed strong correlation on second serves Rc = 0.97 (Wilks = 0.0056, Chisq = 303.45, pChisq < 0.001, F = 4.67, pF < 0.001, df1 = 117, df2 = 117.74). Inside equation strongest canonical coefficients earlier from impact suggest the racket elbow and toss shoulder as speed perceptual cues. The Opponent Study importance as facilitator of faster and better adjusted responses in sport opposition situations was marked.
... This study extends research utilizing video feedback for improving athletic skill execution (Boyer et al., 2009;Hazen et al., 1990;Scott et al., 1998;Zeigler 1994). Hazen et al. (1990) compared standard behavioral coaching with an individual feedback and a group feedback package for swimmers. ...
This study used video feedback to enhance the martial arts performance of capoeira, an Afro-Brazilian martial art that utilizes acrobatic movements (revesado, au de costa, and macaco). A multiple baseline across behaviors was used for five participants where baseline conditions consisted of standard coaching. The intervention consisted of video feedback, in which the participants were filmed attempting a movement and immediately viewed the video afterwards, while receiving positive and corrective feedback from the instructor. The target behaviors were scored on a 15-item checklist, resulting in a percentage correct. A second video feedback condition similar to the first was also introduced to some participants, in which participants practiced the movements with live feedback before being filmed again. Results show that the video feedback conditions increased performance over baseline in most cases. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... If intervention studies are to be implemented with the upper level of the expertise continuum (international or state level players) the smaller population of players will prevent a multiple between groups design. An alternative is to use a within-subject intervention study with baseline test, control phase (e.g., either no intervention or an intervention that is predicted to result in no or less improvement) and retest, followed by the intervention phase and retest (see Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998). Finally, a combination of timing and accuracy measures have been used to assess the benefits of interventions to visual anticipation skill (Müller & Abernethy, 2014;Williams et al., 2002). ...
This article discusses some key methodological issues related to conducting complex whole body in situ studies involving high-speed interceptive timing skills. The methodological issues that are discussed include the use of object projection machines versus live opponents, the use of multiple opponents (actors), presentation of stimulus information, trial numbers for participants, participant group sample sizes, small-scale comparisons across expertise groups and individuals, as well as timing and accuracy measures. The position argued in each of the foregoing methodological issues is formulated from the theoretical framework of representative task design, where experimental design needs to reflect (and accommodate) the key constraints of the real-world game setting that the researcher intends relevant findings to be generalized. To help conceptualization, a diagram is included showing different methodologies, their degree of representative task design and their respective generalization to the game setting. Collectively, it is hoped that this article will assist researchers in the design, implementation and reporting of in situ studies in expertise and motor skill learning in sport.
... Abernethy, Wood and Parks (1999) conducted a perceptual training intervention with novice squash players in which the players received formal instruction about the biomechanical properties of the forehand and backhand drive shots and formal instruction about the most important cues for anticipating shot depth and direction, interspersed with sessions in which they practiced using this knowledge to make either verbal or physical responses to tennis serves. The results of this and similar studies (e.g., Farrow, Chivers, Hardingham, & Sachse, 1998;Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998) have been encouraging in terms of showing improvements in anticipatory skill, as measured by performance on laboratory temporal occlusion tasks. There has also been encouraging recent evidence that perceptual training benefits seen in the laboratory can transfer to improved performance in the natural performance setting, as indicated by faster decision times and/or improved accuracy (Williams, Ward, & Chapman, 2003;Williams, Ward, Knowles, & Smeeton, 2002). ...
The History and Scope of Cognitive Sport PsychologyEffects of Cognitive Factors on Sports PerformanceEffects of Sports Participation on CognitionSummary, Conclusions, and Future DirectionsReferences
... Sin embargo, el entorno simulado solo será útil en la mejora del rendimiento deportivo de los deportistas cuando estos sean capaces de establecer relaciones entre los índices visuales relevantes y el comportamiento motor posterior (Farrow, Chivers, Hardingham & Sachse, 1998) a través de un proceso de instrucción y administración de feedback que conduzca a aumentar el conocimiento en la tarea (Janelle, Champenoy, Coombes & Mousseau, 2003;Williams & Ward, 2003;Williams et al., 2002). En todo caso, Williams, Davids y Williams (1999) señalan la necesidad de complementar estos estudios de laboratorio con mediciones en si-tuaciones reales de juego para contrastar los resultados de ambas situaciones, dada la falta de evidencia empírica sólida en la transferencia de aprendizajes con proyección de video a entornos naturales (Adolphe, Vickers & Laplante, 1997;Scott, Scott & Howe, 1998). ...
This study addresses the visual and motor behavior, and success rate, of 40 novice tennis players in a laboratory setting and an on-court situation when viewing a passing-shots rally performed by an expert tennis player located at the back line of the court. The tennis players had to move fast and quickly through forehand or backhand volleys. Visual search strategies were recorded with an ASL SE5000 eye tracking system, and a computerized system was used to analyze the time parameters of the motor response. The dependent variables are the time of visual fixation on the corporal or spatial locations, reaction and movement times, response time (or the sum of the two variables), and success rate of the responses. The results show that the sample of novice players were faster in 2D and fixed more time on the central area of the opponent body (e.g., trunk, hip). Thus, novice players fixed more on the upper body of the opponent (e.g., head, shoulders) in 3D. Therefore, tennis players develop a differentiated visual and motor behavior according to the way they perceive the opponent's movement, whether in a video projection or on the tennis court. It is recommended to carry out representative tasks in the laboratory to provide perceptive and motor processes similar to real situations.
... The videos were stopped after a given event and the subject had to retrieve the remainder of the sequence. This exercise has also been performed in, tennis [7,13,11], squash [1] and karate [10]. ...
... Multi-media based training approaches that include video have, on the whole, been shown to be very successful for training various aspects of perceptual skill (Abernethy, Wood, & Parks, 1999;Franks & Hanvey, 1997;Scott, Scott & Howe, 1998;Tayler, Burwitz & Davids, 1994;Williams & Burwitz, 1993;Williams, Ward & Chapman, 2003). highlight several important reasons why multi-media video approaches are appropriate for training perceptual recognition skills in sport. ...
... This is imperative because incorrectly placed sutures may result in a knot slippage, unintentional shear force, or undue ischemia of tissue, which can lead to knot failure and postoperative hemorrhage. 30,31 Previous research has highlighted the paucity of research into the effect of anxiety on surgical skills, and also the lack of formal training to overcome these effects. 18 Despite both groups improving their knot tying performance from pretest to the lowanxiety conditions, only the QET group maintained their knot tying performance under conditions of high anxiety; performance of the TT group significantly decreased close to pretest levels. ...
Background:
We examined the effectiveness of traditional technical training (TT) and quiet eye training (QET) on the performance of 1-handed square knot tying among first-year surgery residents under normal and high-anxiety conditions.
Methods:
Twenty surgery residents were assigned randomly to 1 of 2 groups and completed pretest, training, and simple and complex retention tests under conditions of high and low anxiety. The TT group received traditional instruction on improving hand movements; the QET group received feedback on their gaze behaviors. Participants wore an eye tracker that recorded simultaneously their gaze and hand movements. Dependent variables were knot tying performance (%), quiet eye duration (%), number of fixations, and total movement time (s).
Results:
Both groups improved their knot tying performance (P < .05) from pretest to the low anxiety conditions (mean difference: QET, 28%; TT, 17%); however, only the QET group maintained their knot tying performance under the high-anxiety conditions (mean difference: QET, 18%; P < .05), with the TT group decreasing their performance close to pretest levels (P > .05). The QET group also demonstrated more efficient gaze and hand movements post training.
Conclusion:
These data demonstrate the effectiveness of training gaze behaviors, not only to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of performance, but also to mediate negative effects of anxiety on performance. These findings may have important implications for medical educators and practitioners, as well as surgeons who may be (re)training or learning new procedures.
... Because of high IED casualty and injury rates, detection of IEDs and similar hazards has become increasingly important in combat applications and is expected to have ongoing and increased importance in the future (e.g., Cameron, 2008). In an attempt to enhance performance and improve visual perception, recent empirical efforts attempted to identify critical perceptual-cognitive skills and how those skills should be trained (Abernethy, Woods, & Parks, 1999;Farrow et al., 1998;Grant & Williams, 1996;Scott et al., 1998;Singer et al., 1994;Smeeton, Williams, Hodges, & Ward, 2005;Williams & Ward, 2003;Williams, Ward, Knowles, & Smeeton, 2002;Williams, Ward, Smeeton, & Allen, 2004 (Hess & Sharps, 2008, Murphy, 2009 ...
... Video-based training has been shown to be useful in sports contexts (Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998;Walker & Fisk, 1995). It may also be used either to provide feedback to the trainee or to provide a model of the correct or desired performance (Franks & Miller, 1991). ...
Effective training programs are critical for successful employee performance. The same can be said for volunteer programs. Volunteers need to have the knowledge and skills necessary to fulfill the mission of the organization. In this study, we examine the impact of training methods and trainees’ demographic factors on the effectiveness of a training program for a voluntary program. Survey results (N = 5,727) indicate a very low percentage of participation (16.46%) in the voluntary program after training. Responses also indicate that content knowledge recall after training is affected by training year (the year receiving training), industrial sector, calling history, and training delivery method. Participants’ desires for retraining are also impacted by the type of training received, the industry sector, as well as past participation in the program. Recommendations for voluntary training programs based on study results and future research directions are presented.
... Video-based training has been shown to be useful in sports contexts (Scott, Scott, & Howe, 1998;Walker & Fisk, 1995). It may also be used either to provide feedback to the trainee or to provide a model of the correct or desired performance (Franks & Miller, 1991). ...
Effective training programs are critical for successful employee performance. The same can be said for volunteer programs. Volunteers need to have the knowledge and skills necessary to fulfill the mission of the organization. In this study, we examine the impact of training methods and trainees' demographic factors on the effectiveness of a training program for a voluntary program. Survey results (N = 5,727) indicate a very low percentage of participation (16.46%) in the voluntary program after training. Responses also indicate that content knowledge recall after training is affected by training year (the year receiving training), industrial sector, calling history, and training delivery method. Participants' desires for retraining are also impacted by the type of training received, the industry sector, as well as past participation in the program. Recommendations for voluntary training programs based on study results and future research directions are presented.
Badminton is popular among people of all ages, and it also occupies an important position in the Chinese badminton market. As a global sports activity, badminton has received extensive attention in recent years at home and abroad. With the rapid development of Internet technology, all walks of life are actively exploring the integration of the Internet and traditional industries. In this context, the badminton training industry has also ushered in new opportunities and challenges. Traditional badminton training mainly relies on training venues and coaches for badminton. And now online training platforms provide more possibilities for it. With the gradual improvement of living standards, more and more parents attach more importance to the comprehensive development of their children, and interest training institutions for teenagers and children have mushroomed. However, from the perspective of the interest training market for teenagers and children, there are few sports trainings, most of which have no educational qualifications, and the cost is expensive. In this context, Internet plus+badminton training will have unique advantages, we can provide a platform for physical exercise for teenagers aged 6-16 through online self-learning, self-training, and offline small class tutoring.
Learning curves for endoscopic surgery are long and flat. Various techniques and methods are now available for surgical endoscopic training, such as pelvitrainers, virtual trainers, and body donor surgery. Video modeling and video feedback are commonly used in professional training. We report, for the first time, the application of video modeling and video feedback for endoscopic training in gynecology. The purpose is to present an innovative method of training. Attendees (residents and specialists) of minimally invasive surgery courses were asked to perform specific tasks, which were video recorded in a multimodular concept. Feedback was given later by an expert at a joint meeting. The attendees were asked to fill a questionnaire in order to assess video feedback given by the expert. The advantages of video feedback and video modeling for the development of surgical skills were given a high rating (median 84%, interquartile ranges (IQR) 72.5–97.5%, n = 37). The question as to whether the attendees would recommend such training was also answered very positively (median 100%, IQR 89.5–100%, n = 37). We noted a clear difference between subjective perception and objective feedback (58%, IQR 40.5–76%, n = 37). Video feedback and video modeling are easy to implement in surgical training setups, and help trainees at all levels of education.
We used a novel meta regression analysis approach principles to examine the effectiveness of psychological skills training and behavioral interventions in sport assessed using single-case experimental designs (SCEDs). One hundred and twenty-one papers met the inclusion criteria applied to eight database searches and key sport psychology journals. Seventy-one studies reported sufficient detail for effect sizes to be calculated for the effects of psychological skills training on psychological, behavioral, and performance variables. The unconditional mean effect size for weighted (Δ = 2.40) and unweighted (Δ = 2.83) models suggested large improvements in psychological, behavioral, and performance outcomes associated with implementing cognitive-behavioral psychological skills training and behavioral interventions with a SCED. However, meta-regression analysis revealed important heterogeneities and sources of bias within this literature. First, studies using a group-based approach reported lower effect sizes compared to studies using single-case approaches. Second, the single-case studies, (over 90 per cent the effect sizes), revealed upwardly biased effect sizes arising from: (i) positive publication bias such that studies using lower numbers of baseline observations reported larger effects, while studies using larger numbers of baseline observations reported smaller – but still substantial – effects; (ii) not adopting a multiple baseline design; and (iii) not establishing procedural reliability. We recommend that future researchers using SCED’s should consider these methodological issues.
Changing criterion designs (CCD) are single-case experimental designs that entail a step-by-step approximation of the final level desired for a target behavior. Following a recent review on the desirable methodological features of CCDs, the current text focuses on an analytical challenge: the definition of an objective rule for assessing the correspondence between criterion levels and behavior. We review extensively applied research and methodological recommendations for establishing experimental control, such as the range-bound CCD, and integrate them into a proposal for a formal expression of an objective rule. We illustrate how this proposal can lead to establishing the acceptable level of behavior prior to gathering the intervention phase data and how it leaves space for professional judgment. A discussion of software implementing the suggested proposal is included.
Objectives: The present article aims to (i) critically review and classify the studies on the tennis serve return by the degree of representativeness of the experimental task design, (ii) assess the quality of the studies classified with a high degree of representativeness, (iii) analyze to what extent expert tennis players demonstrate anticipa- tory behavior when actually performing a first serve return.
Design and method: Searches were performed in Web of Science and Scopus up to 31st December 2017. The main search term tennis was combined with four groups of key words: anticipation, perception and action, response time and serve return. Researchers selected 62 studies after applying the inclusion criteria. Subsequently, they were screened by degree of experimental task design representativeness through 6 further criteria.
Results: Fifty-four studies were found with a medium to low degree of representativeness (87%) and only 8 studies with a high degree of representativeness (13%). Among those eight studies, only one attained the best methodological quality in terms of variables analyzed and information reported. Also, some methodological rec- ommendations were outlined for future research.
Conclusions: After 40 years of research, evidence has not yet been found that expert tennis players move to ei- ther side before the ball is hit in representative task conditions. Hence, players do not demonstrate observable anticipatory behavior towards the ball direction on the first serve in tennis, but guide their actions upon the information unfolding around the server’s action and first moments of the ball flight
This work comes from several observations. First, it is now accepted that the ability to pick up and attend to the most relevant visual information from an opponent action is a determinant of performance and even more so if the action is uncertain and deceptive. The second observation, deriving from the first, is that deception is put into play in many human interactions, and it is particularly crucial in sports strategies. Finally the last observation is that exploration of athletic performance, for methodological or theoretical reasons, can't explain, in certain cases, why an expert is better than a novice.The aim of our work is to understand these determinants (perception and action) of expertise in a 1 vs. 1 duel in rugby, presenting an attempt of deceptive movement by the attacker. We summarize this work in three specific questions we answer: How to make a deceptive movement? How to detect a deceptive movement? How to answer to a deceptive movement? The first study aims to analyse the biomechanical differences between a movement with a simple changeof direction and a deceptive movement in rugby. The second study, using virtual reality, links the prospective information of the attacker's movement and the decision making of the rugby defender (expert or novice). Finally, based on a quasi-similar methodology, the third study immerses the participants in a situation requiring a complete action of defence, allowing us to explore the perception and action strategies of the participants. This whole process allows us to demonstrate the effectof expertise but also to explain why experts are better by drawing up the differences characterizing them in terms of perception and action strategies. If the implications mainly concern the field of rugby (basic knowledge and training), they are also of great interest for any interaction, human or animal, involving deception. We are convinced, a predatory animal, apoker player, a defender of basketball ... must present similar strategies to detect the deceptive intention of an opponent.
This chapter focuses on training complex psychomotor performance skills, advocating a part-task approach that involves de-coupling the conjoined cognitive and motor domains for targeted training. Psychomotor performance skills typically include two types of component skills: production of motor actions and recognition of environmental conditions that trigger actions. The chapter summarizes eight principles for training psychomotor performance skills. It lists the guidelines for designing psychomotor training in a distinctly non-sports domain. The theory and methods that support the part-task approach comes from expertise research in the field of sports science. The chapter outlines an extended scenario that draws on the provided principles and guidelines of psychomotor training as well as the emerging sports science research on recognition training. The scenario involves designing a part-task production/recognition training program that is intended to improve the truck backing skill of over-the-road truck drivers.Controlled Vocabulary TermsTraining evaluation
Este estudio tuvo como objeto analizar la conducta cognoscitiva de los jugadores de fútbol-sala, verificando de que forma se producen las modificaciones en el pensamiento táctico tras el desarrollo de un programa de entrenamiento específico de las capacidades de percepción, anticipación y toma de decisiones. Se llevó a cabo una investigación de carácter experimental con dos grupos de atletas practicantes de fútbol-sala: un grupo de control y un grupo experimental en el que se realizó un entrenamiento específico de las capacidades cognoscitivas. Se utilizó un test para medir la capacidad de concentración de los atletas; una prueba para medir la capacidad de captar señales importantes en situación de juego resuelta; un test para medir la capacidad de elaboración de esquemas en situaciones concretas de juego y un test para medir la capacidad para captar y procesar información bajo la presión de un tiempo limitado para emitir la respuesta. Los resultados obtenidos indican que el entrenamiento específico de las capacidades cognoscitivas es más eficaz para el desarrollo de las mismas que el entrenamiento tradicional basado en el desarrollo de las capacidades físicas y técnicas, optimizando la resolución de situaciones-problema en secuencia con intervalos de tiempo reducidas. Se pone además de manifiesto que el volumen de entrenamiento no garantiza la calidad en el aprendizaje cognoscitivo ni una mejora del rendimiento cognoscitivo en el fútbol-sala y que el entrenamiento específico no depende de la edad y la experiencia para el desarrollo de las capacidades cognoscitivas de los atletas.
A table tennis player should fixate at different distances; track the objects with different speed, and in different visual environment. Their visual skills must be well developed for these capabilities. Therefore, visual acuity in reduced lumination and facility of ocular accommodation those are two criteria for visual skills have been compared in table tennis players and normal non-players. Twenty-nine young table tennis champions and 29 normal matched non-players (did not take part in any racket sports game) were evaluated. Basic visual and eye examinations were done for both of them. Normal results in basic examination were fundamental requirement for all the subjects. +/-2.00 sphere lenses for accommodation facility are used. An electrical current regulator changed the output light intensity of a conventional chart projector (Topcon). Light intensity decreased to 10 cd·m -2 and visual acuity tested. In comparison of visual acuity in reduced lumination and facility of ocular accommodation in table tennis champions and non-players there are significant differences (p < 0.001). In the preliminary visual tests there was not any significant different in the two groups but the results in the top level table tennis player was very uniform and in every test and the standard deviation was lesser in tennis player group than non-players. These results show that motor and sensorial functions of expert players are well developed. That is consistent with other researchers. This result was interpreted as reflecting a better perceptual system of experts to the constraints encountered during table tennis and its use in practical settings for evaluating athletes or detecting sport talents. However some visual and perceptual training that usually used in orthoptics can be used for novice table tennis player to improve their abilities.
A major element in expert sports performance, particularly racket-and-ball games, is excellent anticipatory skill. A prestudy combined the temporal and spatial occlusion paradigms to ascertain which key stimuli badminton players use for anticipating the direction of overhead shots. The main study then evaluated a program for training anticipatory skills; 200 video clips were employed to orient attention toward these key stimuli. Participants were 63 badminton novices, 20 national league players, and 21 local league players. A transparent red patch (exogenous orienting) was used to orient attention toward the trunk up to 160 ms before racket-shuttle contact; the arm, from 160 ms to 80 ms before contact; and the racket, from 80 ms before to actual contact. Results showed that badminton novices who trained with this program significantly improved their anticipatory skill between post- and retention test compared with controls. Whereas local league players improved from pre- to posttest, training had no effect on expert national league players. It is concluded that using red transparent patches to highlight the most informative cues in perceptual training programs is a promising way to improve anticipatory skill.
In an effort to develop more efficient and practical interventions for athletic performance, some behavioral researchers have incorporated a variety of technological innovations. In sports research, only a few studies have examined the effects of video feedback on athletic skill development. The effects of combining expert video modeling with self video feedback as an adjunct to standard coaching techniques were analyzed in this study. Participants in this study were four 7-10 year old competitive gymnasts. During the intervention, each gymnast performed a specific gymnastics skill and then viewed a pre-recorded video segment showing an expert gymnast performing the same skill. The gymnast then viewed a video replay of her own performance of the skill. Next she saw a side by side slow motion with freeze frame comparison of her performance with that of the expert model. Lastly, in normal time, the gymnast viewed the expert video clip again, followed by her own performance of the skill. The effect of expert video modeling with self video feedback on gymnastics skill performance was evaluated in a multiple baseline across behaviors research design. The results showed that the gymnasts' skills increased in performance following exposure to video feedback.
This study investigated the efficacy of explicit and implicit perceptual training approaches designed to improve the pattern perception capabilities of skilled basketball players, relative to control and placebo groups. The explicit and implicit groups completed 4 weeks of training using temporally occluded video footage while the placebo group used general visual stimuli. Results from a video-based test showed no significant differences between the four groups after the training intervention, despite large absolute gains by the two experimental groups. After a 14-day retention interval, improvements by the control group suggested that test familiarity may have influenced the retention test results. The transfer data showed that the laboratory-based training failed to elicit a significant change in on-court performance. The results, while not statistically significant, highlight a number of key considerations when attempting to develop perceptual-cognitive abilities in experienced athletes and provide direction for researchers and practitioners when designing similar training approaches.
The Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE), which is a computer-simulated 3D virtual reality (VR) system, is expected to provide sport learners with interactive and immersive learning materials. The purpose of this study was to reveal perceptual characteristics of tennis players when they viewed the tennis ball flight reconstructed in CAVE. The visual stimuli of this study were reconstructed based on the actual measured values of the tennis court and the ball flight. Perceptual performances, subjective impression scoring and shot type discrimination (flat, topspin and slice), were assessed by varying the conditions of three visual VR settings: binocular disparity, screen number, and viewpoint.
The augmented-disparity setting was likely to induce a higher sense of discomfort than the no-disparity and normal-disparity settings. The four-screen condition was more likely to induce a correct response than the one-screen condition. The viewpoint of the umpire induced a significantly higher sense of discomfort than the field player viewpoints, and the viewpoint close to the approaching ball made it more difficult to discriminate the shot type. This research was a pilot study on sport perception in VR, and the results will contribute to the construction of sport-simulating VR systems.
Examined whether response selection (RS) accuracy could be improved without sacrificing a male 22-yr-old football linebacker's RS speed by practicing his RS skills in relation to various offensive plays that were seen via videotape from an angle similar to what he would see in a game. The S responded to the cues of the tight end and backfield play by manipulating a joystick as accurately and quickly as possible. There was an improvement in RS accuracy without sacrificing RS speed. Training using a videotape can be an effective method for improving the perceptual skills needed for RS accuracy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Discusses the potential for training perception and cognition in sport through video simulation of game situations. The paper reviews perceptual training studies and data from studies involving slide and video training in basketball. Issues that arise when creating simulations and assessment of transfer are discussed. (SM)
Visual information is critical for performing a variety of motor activities, especially when the performer's movements must coincide with a changing environment, such as in catching a ball, or in motor activities requiring precise movements of the hand to a target. The study of “manual aiming” activities, such as pointing at a target, relocating a body segment in space, or reaching for an object, is directly linked to vision. Vision plays a number of roles in producing skilled movements. For example, it is evident that vision facilitates performance in manual aiming by specifying the target position, by indicating the position of the moving limb, and/or by providing error information regarding the discrepancy between the target and limb position. The actual performance benefit derived from visual information is a function of a number of factors, with one of the most important being temporal processing delays. The duration of the temporal delay between picking up visual information and using this information to trigger or guide movements is critical for precise manual aiming and is also important for a broad range of other activities.
A film was designed to shorten the time necessary to perceive the direction of a tennis return. A successful method of validation was conceived and experimentation conducted to determine whether training with the film significantly shortened response time. Preliminary controls were run to estimate the effects of practice and time on response time. All results indicated significant improvement in response time, thus the training device appears to be successful.
High school males (N = 28) were divided into two groups, equated on intelligence, and then trained for play recognition from the defensive end position in football. Motion pictures were used with one group and flash cards were used with the second group. Then they were tested for play recognition times in a live situation. The group trained with motion pictures had significantly shorter response times. Differences in intelligence, over the limited range used in this study, did not result in differences in response times.