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La linguistique légale à la recherche du locuteur natif. De la détermination de l'origine des demandeurs d'asile
Abstract
Forensic linguistics and the search for the native speaker : establishing the national origins of asylum seekers
This article seeks to show how the field of forensic linguistics is currently forcing a reevaluation of the notion of native speaker, as a result on new methods of linguistic analysis. Such methods, which have existed since the mid-1990s in countries such as Britain, Switzerland, and Australia, seek to determine the national origins of asylum seekers suspected of making false declarations. The notion of native speaker, which has no academically accepted theoretical basis in linguistics, is drawn on in two ways here. Firstly, the native speaker is idealized by the government as a monolingual whose geographical origin is identifiable in discursive markers of various types (phonetic, content-based). The “Guidelines for the Use of Language Analysis in Relation to Questions of National Origin in Refugee Cases” published in 2004 by university-trained linguists (the Language and National Origin Group), aim to redefine this political requirement in a way which is scientifically acceptable to forensic linguistics. Secondly, a native speaker is a speaker whose skills are called on in identification procedures, competing directly with university-trained linguists. Some signatories to the Guidelines explicitly reject the use of natives as experts in asylum cases, arguing that they represent a profane, rather than learned type of knowledge, and that this latter should be the only type used in forensic linguistics.
... L'analyse de cette mise en mot de l'expérience migratoire n'est pas seulement rendue nécessaire par l'essor de l'analyse du discours dans les sciences sociales au début des années 2000. C'est aussi le rôle du discours dans la gestion de la nouvelle migration par les étatnations européens et les enjeux politiques qui entourent les régimes de vérités auxquels les récits de demandeurs d'asile sont soumis qui force la sociolinguistique à repenser ces outils théoriques et analytiques (Muni Toke, 2010). Rappelons ici que depuis la fin des années 1970 une large majorité des États européens met fin à l'immigration économique et réduit la migration aux seuls cas de l'asile politique, du regroupement familial et de la poursuite d'études, rendant la dichotomie mensonge/vérité du récit de vie des demandeurs d'asile un axe de différentiation préstructurant le tri humain pour le statut de réfugié. ...
... Many studies examine the exploitation of migration (Duchêne et al., 2013; Lorente 2012) through labor that produces new inequalities (Codo & Garrigo, 2014;Del Percio, 2018) at all levels of society including education (Martin Rojo, 2010). Concomitantly, the fetishization of the native speaker (Muni Toke, 2010;Shohamy, 2006, p. 66) leads to a systematically prescriptive and negative assessment of migrants. 16 It is assumed that they will never succeed in mastering the "language" of the country of residence (Rosa & Flores, 2017) even when they engage in a process of 13 I was, myself, called by the Swiss Refugee Council only to confirm that it was possible for a person to live in the Kidal region in Mali for seven years without speaking either Songhay or Tamashek (but Pulaar, Arabic, French, and Bambara). ...
... As a linguistic category, the 'native speaker' has been rightly criticised by linguists and applied linguists (Paikeday 1985;Davies 1991;Rampton 1990;Cook 1999;Renaud 1998;Singh 1998;Muni Toke 2013). As a social and political category, the 'native speaker' is very much alive as advertising for language schools and language teachers keeps promoting the "native speaker teacher" worldwide and so do the general press or TV broadcasters (Blommaert 2010;Hackert 2012;Muni Toke 2010). This confusion has social implications for the language teacher or the social professional actor 1 of language teaching. ...
Based on the research literature of the “native/non-native” distinction and on Bourdieu’s notion of field and social action, this paper proposes to use the specific case of foreign language (FL) teaching in the French educational system to conceptualize the FL teaching field as a highly contested space where unequal actors vie for symbolic power and influence. The FL teaching field is organised into two large spaces: one representing state school educational systems, the other representing private language schools. Symbolic power and teaching legitimacies have been jointly constructed giving more power and legitimacy to non-native teachers in state school settings, and more power and legitimacy to native teachers in private language schools. Universities occupy a middle position between the educational settings of the national education systems and the private settings of language schools: the teaching of language to future specialists is still in the hands of non-native speaker teachers whereas the teaching of language to non-language specialists seems more open to native speaker teachers. The “native/non-native” opposition that linguists thought to be relevant linguistically might no longer be a linguistic concept (
Although a well-established domain of research in English language teaching, native-speaker ideologies have received little attention in French language education. This article reports on a study that examined the salience of "authentic French" in the identity construction of French as a second language (FSL) teachers in English-speaking Canada. Adopting a discursive-constructionist approach, the qualitative multiple case study analyzed FSL teachers' discursive representations of their experiences while on professional development in France. Findings point to FSL teachers' continuing orientation to a native-speaker ideal and its significant impact on their professional self-conceptions. The discussion focuses on how non-francophone teachers in particular negotiate a legitimate identity as FSL teachers through various discursive processes. Implications of the study foreground identity as a key factor in how teachers learn and practise their profession and remind us that non-native-speaker teachers must be given opportunities to develop alternative ideas about what it means to be a competent language teacher. ©2017 The Canadian Modern Language Review/La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes.
This article addresses narrative inequality in the Belgian asylum procedure by means of a complex of preconditions for communication, noticeable in recorded interviews with African asylum seekers in Belgium. The author first examines the issue of linguistic-communicative resources: the `broken' varieties of European languages in which asylum seekers tell their stories. Next, the structure and functions of a particular type of densely contextualizing sub-narrative, called `home narratives' are explored, with special emphasis on their role as localizing discourse. Finally, the role of narratives in the asylum procedure is discussed, and the contrast in contextualizing directions between asylum seekers' narratives and text trajectories in the procedure is highlighted.
Many British social anthropologists have been asked in recent years to provide expert evidence for use in legal appeals by asylum seekers. This article describes the administrative and legal decision-making procedures to which asylum claims are subject. It considers how the courts respond to ‘objective evidence’ from ‘country experts’ such as anthropologists, comparing this to legal approaches to evidence from medical experts. The problems which arise – especially in relation to the key issue of an asylum seeker's ‘credibility’– are analysed with reference to diverse forms of reasoning among social scientists and lawyers, and their different understandings as to the nature of ‘fact’ and ‘truth’.
The authors of this report are five Australian experts in the fields of sociolinguistics, phonetics (analysis of accent or
pronunciation)and language testing. Their report raises concerns about the “language analysis” that is being done by overseas
agencies and that is being used by the Australian government in determining the nationality of refugee claimants, and concludes
that “languageanalysis”, as it is currently used, is not valid or reliable. It appears to be based on “folk views” about the
relationship between language and nationality and ethnicity, rather than sound linguistic principles. The report found that:
i) a person's nationality cannot always be determined by the language he or she speaks, ii) a few key words and their pronunciation
normally cannot reveal a person's nationality or ethnicity, iii) common perceptions about pronunciation differences among
groups of people cannot be relied upon, iv) any analysis of pronunciation must be based on thorough knowledge of the language
and region in question and must involve detailed phonetic analysis. Further more, in a study of 58 Refugee Review Tribunal
(RRT) decisions in which this “language analysis” was at issue, it was found that there were doubts over its validity. The
authors have grave concerns that the use of “languageanalysis” in the determination of nationality may be preventing Australia
from properly discharging its responsibilities under the Refugees Convention and therefore call on the Australian Government
to stop using this type of analysis.
For forty years linguists have talked about idiolect and the uniqueness of individual utterances. This article explores how far these two concepts can be used to answer certain questions about the authorship of written documents—for instance how similar can two student essays be before one begins to suspect plagiarism? The article examines two ways of measuring similarity: the proportion of shared vocabulary and the number and length of shared phrases, and illustrates with examples drawn from both actual criminal court cases and incidents of student plagiarism. The article ends by engaging with Solan and Tiersma's contribution to this volume and considering whether such forensic linguistic evidence would be acceptable in American courts as well as how it might successfully be presented to a lay audience.
Language ideologies are cultural representations, whether explicit or implicit, of the intersection of language and human beings in a social world. Mediating between social structures and forms of talk, such ideologies are not only about language. Rather, they link language to identity, power, aesthetics, morality and epistemology. Through such linkages, language ideologies underpin not only linguistic form and use, but also significant social institutions and fundamental nottions of person and community. The essays in this new volume examine definitions and conceptions of language in a wide range of societies around the world. Contributors focus on how such defining activity organizes language use as well as institutions such as religious ritual, gender relations, the nation-state, schooling, and law. Beginning with an introductory survey of language ideology as a field of inquiry, the volume is organized in three parts. Part I, “Scope and Force of Dominant Conceptions of Language,” focuse on the propensity of cultural models of language developed in one social domain to affect linguistic and social behavior across domains. Part II, “Language Ideology in Institutions of Power,” continues the examination of the force of specific language beliefs, but narrows the scope to the central role that language ideologies play in the functioning of particular institutions of power such as schooling, the law, or mass media. Part III, “Multiplicity and Contention among Ideologies,” emphasizes the existence of variability, contradiction, and struggles among ideologies within any given society. This will be the first collection of work to appear in this rapidly growing field, which bridges linguistic and social theory. It will greatly interest linguistic anthropologists, social and cultural anthropologists, sociolinguists, historians, cultural studies, communications, and folklore scholars.
Document presented by an international group of linguists.
Les deux disciplines de science politique et de science studies utilisent toutes deux les mots de " politique " et de " science ", mais dans des sens qui semblent incommensurables. L'article propose d'expliquer aux spécialistes des sciences politiques l'emploi quelque peu inhabituel qui est fait de ces termes par les praticiens des études sur les sciences, de façon à établir un dialogue entre les deux disciplines. Il montre en particulier qu'un seul des sens du mot " science " (sur quatre) suppose une coupure radicale entre science et politique (qui peut prendre six sens). Cet effort de clarification effectué permettrait d'abandonner l'idée qu'il existe deux domaines distincts (la science et la politique) et permettrait aux disciplines de collaborer en qualifiant les différents stades des affaires (les issues) qui forment la vraie substance des sciences aussi bien que des politiques.
Why and for whom do linguists build linguistic theories ? One possibility is for the pleasure of theory, another for their relevance to social concerns. Labov showed how variationism could help him working as a linguistic expert in a courtroom. But variationism remains unable to help when the point concerns the production of meaning in interactions. In this paper, alternative sociolinguistic theories are examined for their relevance to social issues.
This paper presents an experimental investigation into whether a group of speakers could produce convincing text readings in various dialectal accents of Swedish, and the performance of listeners in identifying the accents and determining whether the accents were natural or a disguise. It was observed that individual speakers vary greatly in their ability to produce plausible imitations of accents and to mask their own dialectal background. Examination of the listeners' perceptual strategies contributes an important dimension to the understanding of reasoning processes in earwitnesses. The linguistically trained listeners were found to use combinations of accent markers as cues to the degree of naturalness, although some of the judgements reflected misconceptions or preconceived ideas about the possible forms of specific accents. The hazards of using speakers with certain accent features in voice line-ups and the potential problems associated with earwitness accent identification are discussed.
National belonging is a central facet of modern social identities. In Europe, nation-building often went hand in hand with linguistic nationalism. While the monarchial empires that preceded the modern nation had been multilingual polities (e.g., the Habsburg Empire), nations were founded on the ideology of “One Language, One Nation.” Nations are not only “Imagined Communities,” that is, systems of cultural representation whereby people come to imagine a shared experience of identification with an extended community, but also exclusionary historical and institutional practices to which access is restricted via citizenship. Linguistic restrictions to such access can be found in naturalization language testing, which usually takes place during the naturalization interview and tests the applicant's proficiency in a country's official and/or majority language. In this paper I examine the interrelationship of ideologies of national and linguistic identity and the ways in which they impact upon ideologies of citizenship. I describe current naturalization legislationina number of countries and the ways in which it is based on these ideologies. The paper has a special focus on Germany where naturalization legislation changed on January 1st, 2000. I describe the linguistic tests as they are stipulated by law and as they are conducted in actual practice. Finally, I turn away from the national ideologies behind these language tests to the linguistic ideologies that (mis)inform them. The data for this analysis come mainly from legal texts pertaining to naturalization, but also from newspaper accounts and interviews with naturalization candidates. I will show that the relationship between naturalization and language requirements depends on the different national ideologies that the various countries hold. The paper ends with the conclusion that most of the practices I report on are compatible neither with a contemporary understanding of citizenship nor with recent advances in linguistic research and the study of multilingualism.
This paper revisits the concept of refugee labelling I elaborated nearly two decades ago. In radically different conditions, the contemporary relevance and utility of the concept are re-examined and re-established. Formulated at a time of regionally contained, mass refugee migration in the south during the late 1970s and early 1980s, the paper argues that the concept still offers vital insights into the impacts of institutional and bureaucratic power on the lives of refugees in a globalized era of transnational social transformations, mixed migration flows, and the continuing presence of large scale refugee migration. The core of the paper argues that the 'convenient images' of refugees, labelled within a co-opting humanitarian discourse in the past, have been displaced by a fractioning of the label which is driven by the need to manage globalized processes and patterns of migration and forced migration in particular. The paper re-evaluates the concept using the three original axioms-forming, transforming and politicizing the label 'refugee'. The core argument is that in the contemporary era: a) the formation of the refugee label reflects causes and patterns of forced migration which are much more complex than in the past, contrasting with an essentially homogeneous connotation in the past; b) responding to this complexity, the refugee label is transformed by an institutional fractioning' in order to manage the new migration; c) governments, rather than NGOs as in the past, are the pre-eminent agency in the contemporary processes of transforming the refugee label, a process driven by northern interests; d) the refugee label has become politicized by the reproduction of institutional fractioning and by embedding the wider political discourse of resistance to migrants and refugees.
In Switzerland, asylum seekers are interviewed by a Government official, assisted by an interpreter. A representative of a
refugee welfare organization is present The asylum seekers take an oath before being questioned about their past, their political
activities and the reasons they left their country. The interviewer selects the answers to be recorded. On the basis of this
record, the authorities decide whether to grant the asylum seeker refugee status.
After a detailed description of the interviews, this article shows that in spite of these procedures, the decisions of the
authorities are arbitrary. The interview record cannot be considered as ‘absolute truth’ even if answers were obtained under
oath. Several cultural and psychological blocks affect asylum seekers, like anyone else, when they have to explain themselves
to strangers. The interviews of asylum seekers are not methodical and rigorous. They are rituals which legitimate official
banishment. This banishment is considered legal as the authorities respect the procedure, the law and the international conventions.
It is considered ‘moral’ as the refugee welfare organizations are present during the procedure.
When asylum seekers flee persecution or war in their home countries, they often arrive in a new country seeking asylum, without
documentation that can prove their nationality. They are thus open to the accusation that they are not actually fleeing persecution
and/or war, but they are from another country and they are merely seeking ‘a better life’. Indeed, among those who seek asylum
there may well be some such people. Anyone arriving in such a way without a genuine fear of persecution in their home country
cannot qualify for refugee status. In order to test nationality claims of asylum seekers, a number of governments are using
‘language analysis’, based on the assumption that the way that a person speaks contains clues about their origins. While linguists
would not dispute this assumption, they are disputing a number of other assumptions, as well as practices, involved in this
form of linguistic identification. This paper presents recent developments in this area of applied linguistics, including
the release of Guidelines by a group of linguists concerning the use of language analysis in such asylum seeker cases. It
concludes with discussion of the role of applied linguistics in questions of national origin.
Two issues are addressed here: the scope of applied linguistics, and the social justice issue of police procedures for dealing
with limited proficiency speakers of majority languages. This is done by examining evidence produced by police in court, and
the language addressed to second language speakers by police, particularly official cautions. Linguistic challenges to police
evidence in court demand a wide range of techniques, including language testing. Some of these techniques clearly fall outside
the domain of even a wide view of linguistics, thereby justifying through practical need the extension of applied linguistics
beyond the ‘linguistics applied’ approach still advocated by some linguists. The social justice issue is addressed by examining
police cautions and police procedures: it is shown that these clearly disadvantage second language speakers, and a range of
solutions to this problem is suggested.
Many sociolinguistic writings (e.g. Fishman, J. A., 1972. Language and Nationalism: Two Integrative Essays. Newbury House, Rowley, MA; Fishman, J. A. 1991. Reversing Language Shift. Multilingual Matters, Clevedon; Phillipson, R. and Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 1986. English: The Language of Wider Colonisation. Paper presented at the 11th World Congress, New Delhi) assume native language is inherently central to individual identity, so that those members of an ethnic group who natively speak a language particularly associated with that group are more ‘authentic’ than those who do not. Though such an ideology is true of many groups and many individuals, it is not true of all groups: some, such as Jews, Greeks, Armenians, overseas Indians, Chinese, etc., define their identity in other ways, according to religion, tradition, and/or ancestry, but not native language. An ideology defining identity in terms of native language will inevitably view groups rejecting this ideology as being deficient, low on the ‘authenticity hierarchy’ established by this ideology, deceptively speaking ‘other peoples' ’ languages, and perversely and insistently claiming distinctive identities and interests. It is just such an understanding of the alleged ‘natural’ connection between language and identity which was at the heart of the development of Nazi antisemitism, the view that Jews were impure, deceptive, and not normal human beings.
Changes in the Practice of Expertise : from the Search for a Rational Course of Action to the Democratization of Knowledge and Choices
Historical analysis shows that the practice of expertise has evolved from the idea of constructing certainty to that of examining uncertainty. In the beginning, expertise basically meant that an individual was specialized in an area of knowledge and that in virtue of this specialization was able to make clear-cut decisions on issues concerning that specific field. Since that time, the practice of expertise has taken on new forms (counter-expertise, collective expertise), and we now have a multifaceted type of expertise capable of articulating various types of knowledge and bringing together actors from various fields. Its purpose is not only to estimate risk, but to point out lingering uncertainties and to open the way for decisions which are not final and which can lead to further investigation and revisable measures.
This paper speaks to a debate which has arisen across various branches of linguistics (see Eades 2009) regarding the relative levels of responsibility that should be given to (a) qualified linguists with professional expertise in a particular language, and (b) 'educated native speakers' of the language, in conducting Language Analysis for the Determination of the regional or social Origin of asylum seekers (LADO). It reviews existing evidence from the phonetic and sociolinguistic literature regarding the reliability of accent judgments by linguists and non-linguists. It argues that, while LA DO is a valid form of assistance to offer in the asylum process, careful evaluation of its limitations, in general and in specific cases, is crucial, as in other branches of forensic linguistics. The paper concludes by calling for (a) a proper research program to investigate peopled actual abilities in recognising, discriminating and identifying accents under various sociolinguistic conditions; (b) collaboration between LADO agencies and linguists to develop analysis and testing procedures; and (c) a system of accreditation by an independent, international authority for the agencies that carry out LADO.
In 1993, the language section of the Swedish Migration Board initiated the production of documents they called "language analyses" to aid in the processing of asylum seekers. Today, 11 years later, 2 privately owned companies in Stockholm produce these documents. These companies have produced language analyses not only for the Swedish Migration board, but also for the Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs in Australia, the Immigration Authority in Austria, the National Police Departments in Denmark and Finland, the Home Office in Great Britain, the Ministry of Justice in the Netherlands, the Migration Authority in Norway, the National Board for Refugees in Switzerland and the Refugee Status Branch in New Zealand. There are also government departments in other European countries (including Belgium, Germany, Switzerland and the Netherlands) that produce language analyses. Very little information about Language Analysis in the Asylum Process (LAAP) is readily available to the public. Questions concerning how it is done, how it is used, what its purpose is, the consequences of its use, and, finally and perhaps most important, how successful it is in fulfilling the requirements of those who make use of it have not yet been fully answered. The aim of this article is to shed as much light as currently available resources permit on these questions. It also argues that research into this field is essential to answer the questions more fully, and thereby allow governments and police authorities to make informed decisions about their use of such documents in the asylum process.
Linguistic elements such as phonemes, lexemes, and syntactic or morphological rules cannot be taken for granted as the shape in which border-making elements come. From the actor’s viewpoint, border-making elements take on their social reality as “languages,” “accents,” “mixing,” or “words.” These terms emerge among the people to whom language identities matter, in relations shaped by the politics of ethnicity, race, and class within the nation and by the politics of ethnic nationalism.
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This article explores a public debate that took place in Sweden in 2002 in relation to the Swedish Liberal Party's proposal to introduce a language test for naturalization. On the basis of textual analysis of relevant policy documents and newspaper articles, it examines the explicit and implicit facets of an ideology of language testing. It is argued that a seemingly liberal, anti-racist, and anti-discriminatory ideology is emerging, which, in its explicit facet, calls for the introduction of a language test for citizenship as a practical way of diminishing social differentiation. However, drawing upon Bourdieu's notion of rites of institution, it is shown that such a test would actually contribute to, rather than challenge, the reproduction of social differentiation, thereby legitimizing the exclusion of certain groups from both the civic and symbolic domains of Sweden as a nation-state. a
ABSTRACT The use of native speaker paraprofessionals may be one way of helping today's foreign language teacher overcome the difficulties inherent in being many things to many students. Proceeding from an identification of the problems that teachers face in trying to provide a more comprehensive approach to foreign language teaching, an experiment was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the native paraprofessional. The project proposed a closer working relationship between the native speaker and the classroom teacher. The results of the experiment appeared to indicate significant improvements in speaking, reading, and listening skills and a more positive attitude toward the target culture. Although the native paraprofessional may be a partial answer for today's teacher, increased involvement of students and the native speaker is essential at all stages of planning to insure accountability.
When refugee claimants enter the Belgian asylum procedure, they have to motivate their application during one or more interviews with public officials. This paper examines the lim-itations of the procedural imposition of a monolingual standard code for a clear understand-ing of narrative accounts. Drawing on the case of a West African asylum seeker, it is shown how the applicant is forced to assimilate to English and how the imposition of this code acts as: (a) a catalyst to widen the gap between intended meanings and interactional uptake and (b) a filter on the subsequent entextualisation of the case.
L’édition spéciale que le lecteur tient entre ses mains est la toute première édition de la Revue Internationale de Sémiotique Juridique en langue française. Elle lui propose un éventail d’analyses représentatives des différentes conceptions de la linguistique
juridique ou jurilinguistique comme la dénomme nos collègues canadiens. Elle est dédiée au Doyen Cornu, qui fut, comme l’indique le Professeur Beauchard
dans son hommage, une des personnalités juridiques les plus reconnues en France pour ses travaux dans le domaine de la langue
et du droit. Les articles sélectionnés dégagent l’essentiel de la linguistique juridique: ils soulignent certains aspects
de recherches déjà avancées (Gémar, Goltzeberg) et d’autres débats encore peu explorés (Mattila, Lenoble-Pinson), permettant
ainsi au lecteur de situer les enjeux actuels de la linguistique juridique tout en lui révélant les perspectives à venir.
Investigation on human speaker identification enables us to know the indexical cues to speakers, and it may consequently lead to the effective acoustical parameters that can be used for forensic speaker recognition. It is known that speaker individuality interacts with the phonological or linguistic information contained in speech signals. As proof, the accuracy of perceptual speaker identification (PSI) performances depends on what types of sounds are presented to the listeners. In a series of our previous experiments, we have been investigating the effective sounds for PSI, and the stimuli containing a nasal were found to be the ones. In this present study, we conducted another PSI experiment in order to examine the reproducibility of the nasal effectiveness, and to see the effects of the following vowels. Coronal nasals were shown to be effective despite the different speaker set or the following vowels, and the stimuli containing a nasal were significantly better than those without it. In the second part of this paper, we introduce the results of the acoustical analysis of the stimuli. The contours of the energy transitions showed variations in shape among speakers for all three types of the analysis targets; nasals, stops, and fricatives, although the inter-speaker difference in the energy slopes for the consonant articulation was significant especially in nasal sounds. We also examined the effects of the sampling frequencies and the speech codecs, and found that the speaker-dependent shapes of these energy contours were maintained as long as the speech materials were uncompressed. The contours of the nasals appeared to be stable within a speaker, compared to other types of sounds.
This paper deals with the question of inference of identity of source in forensic science and focuses on the individualisation process of human beings from biometric data. Its goal is to explicitly describe the logical mechanisms that underpin the inference of identity of source in forensic science and to propose a concrete methodology for the forensic individualisation from biometric data. It also analyses the limits of several biometric modalities (fingerprint, face, voice) used for forensic individualisation. Firstly, the concept of identity and its application in forensic science is described. Secondly, the confusion between numerical and qualitative identity is addressed. Thirdly, the hypothetica-deductive method is described as a logical approach for forensic individualisation and the likelihood ratio approach premised on the Bayes Theorem is proposed as a concrete methodology to infer identity of human beings from biometric data in forensic science. Finally a concrete framework is proposed, which includes hypotheses definition, sources and databases selection, analysis and comparison of biometric data and their interpretation.
- Wolton
« Language analysis : how to include both linguistic expertise and native competence, and why ». Workshop on Language Analysis in the determination of national origin of refugees
- T Cambier-Langeveld
- A Samson
« Identifying Dialect Speakers : The Case of Irish English
- R Hickey
« Native Speaker, Proficient Speaker and Norms
- S S Mufwene
The Native Speaker. Multilingual Perspectives
- R Singh
La science contre l’opinion ? Histoire d’un divorce
- B Bensaude-Vincent
« Language Tests To Uncover Bogus Iraqi Asylum Seekers », The Guardian
- A Travis