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Environmental impacts of farm scenarios according to five assessment methods
Abstract
It is not known to what extent the outcome of studies assessing the environmental impacts of agricultural systems depends on the characteristics of the evaluation method used. The study reported here investigated five well-documented evaluation methods (DIALECTE, Ecological Footprint, Environmental Management for Agriculture, FarmSmart, Life Cycle Assessment) by applying them to a case study of three pig farm scenarios. These methods differ with respect to their global objective (evaluation of impact versus evaluation of adherence to good practice), the number and type of environmental issues they consider, the way they define the system to be analysed, the mode of expression of results (for the farm as a whole, per unit area or per unit product) and the type of indicators used (pressure, state or impact indicators). The pig farm scenarios compared were conventional good agricultural practice (GAP), a quality label scenario called red label (RL) and organic agriculture (OA). We used the methods to rank the three scenarios according to their environmental impacts. The relative ranking of the three scenarios varied considerably depending on characteristics of the evaluation method used and on the mode of expression of results. We recommend the use of evaluation methods that express results both per unit area and per unit product. Environmental evaluation methods should be used with great caution, users should carefully consider which method is most appropriate given their particular needs, taking into consideration the method's characteristics.
... In this line of thinking, using indicators it is possible to assess how close or distant the organization is to sustainability, enabling the measurement of the stage or degree of achievement of goals and objectives (Passel et al. 2007; Van der Werf et al. 2007). In addition, as mention by Rodrigues et al. (2010), indicators can express a measure of the changes brought about by agricultural practices and trends over time, guiding corrective management actions. ...
... Similarly, Van der Werf et al. (2007) investigated the methods: LCA (Life Cycle Assessment), EF (Ecological Footprint), EMA (Environmental Management for Agriculture), FarmSmart and DIALECTE, aiming at assessing the differences of the results obtained by each method and the characteristics involved in the process. As well as, De Olde et al. (2016) compared the RISE (Response Inducing Sustainability Evaluation), SAFA (Sustainability Assessment of Food and Agriculture Systems), PG (Public Goods Tool) and IDEA (Indicators of Sustainability of Farms) to assess sustainability in practice and verify the perception of farmers. ...
... Still, there are researches that use methods that are essentially similar, such as LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) to assess environmental impacts, with a view to sustainable performance (Van der Werf et al. 2007;Ruviaro et al. 2012;Mohammadi et al. 2015;Wang et al. 2016, Mousavi-Avval et al. 2017Khanali et al. 2018). From this perspective, each study may resemble the basis, in the context, and may approach or distance itself as it traverses the intended goal. ...
Sustainability development requires the use of strategies that involve all actors of the socioeconomic system and society in the pursuit of a common goal: to sustain current demands without compromising resources for future generations. These strategies generally address economic, social, and environmental performance, framed and named as the Triple Bottom Line. One of the fundamentals for developing adequate organizational strategies is the development of models to assess sustainability that contemplate the Triple Bottom Line of companies, organizations, processes and economic activities, such as agricultural activities. In this way, the objective of this work is to identify the economic, social and environmental indicators that could be used in sustainability assessment models of small rural properties. For that purpose, it is used the ProKnow-C methodology for literature review and bibliometrics analysis, and after that, it is submitted the developed conceptual model to experts’ review. This work develops a conceptual model, and the obtained results involved the identification of the main adopted sustainability indicators and their respective data sources, contributing to the development of new models for assessing the sustainability performance of small rural properties.
... Lifecycle assessment (LCA) is an internationally regulated approach that aims to quantify multiple potential environmental impacts for a product, taking into account the whole lifecycle of the product from raw material extraction to final disposal [59,60,62,63]. It is frequently used by companies and policy-makers to aid in decision-making [62]. ...
... Next, an LCA study involves an inventory analysis phase, in which the resources consumed and the emissions to the environment are listed [63]. For an LCA of an agricultural production system, this includes both on-farm emissions and emissions related to the delivery of inputs to a farm [63]. ...
... Next, an LCA study involves an inventory analysis phase, in which the resources consumed and the emissions to the environment are listed [63]. For an LCA of an agricultural production system, this includes both on-farm emissions and emissions related to the delivery of inputs to a farm [63]. Data collection for the inventory analysis phase is typically the most time-consuming part of an LCA study [59]. ...
(1) Background: Global agricultural production is projected to increase substantially in the coming decades. Agricultural production provides food and materials crucial to human survival and well-being and is a critical source of livelihood, providing employment opportunities and economic benefits. However, industrialized or intensified agricultural systems, in particular, can have adverse effects on public health, place pressure on natural resources, and reduce environmental sustainability. This review attempts to identify and characterize key environmental health assessment methods for examining a broad array of potential impacts; (2) Methods: Electronic databases Medline, Scopus, Web of Science, and GreenLINE were searched for published literature that presented methods for conducting an environmental health assessment of an agricultural system; (3) Results: Fifty-three sources were included in the review. Eight methods were selected to illustrate the wide range of approaches currently available: health risk assessment methods, health impact assessment, environmental impact assessment methods, environmental burden of disease, lifecycle methods, integrated assessment modeling, trade-off analysis, and economic assessment; (4) Conclusions: This review can provide guidance for selecting an existing method or for designing a new method for assessing the environmental health impacts of an agricultural system.
... However, focusing on the environmental efficiency of a production can increase impacts at the scale of an agricultural region (Salou et al., 2017). Mass FU is indeed a measure of environmental efficiency (impact/product ratio) rather than a measure of the environmental impact of an agricultural system (van der Werf et al., 2007). For example, a certain agricultural region might have nitrate and phosphorus reduction targets in order to decrease eutrophication of surface water. ...
... Using 1 ha of cultivated area as FU allows to quantify the total impacts of an agricultural system and to choose agricultural productions that exert less environmental pressure at the regional level (van der Werf et al., 2007). However, depending on the agricultural context, the transition to low input production systems can require the use of additional land in order to produce an amount of products equivalent to that of high productivity systems, which can generate additional impacts related to land use change (Kirchmann, 2019). ...
Oat is mainly produced in northern latitude countries such as Canada, which is world's second largest producer. Hence it is necessary to study the environmental impacts of alternative farming systems to conventional oat production in order to improve its environmental performance. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted to compare the environmental impacts and potential improvement opportunities of conventional and organic oat grain production using three different functional units (FU); per mass (t⁻¹ of grains), surface area (ha⁻¹) and gross sales income (1000 CAD⁻¹). Most data were collected from a major farm located in Quebec, Canada. Our analysis shows that organic production is globally preferable based on the area and monetary FUs, whereas conventional production has lower impacts for 11 midpoint impact categories per ton of grain produced. In addition, organic production has higher damages on human health and ecosystem quality, both per ton of grain and per hectare. The relevance of each FU is discussed in the article. The hotspots of conventional oat production are the production and use of synthetic fertilizers, while those of organic oat production are the use of organic fertilizers and manure transportation. A sensitivity analysis showed that the choice of the N2O emission factor and phosphorus emission model considerably affects the magnitude of the impacts on climate change and freshwater eutrophication. Also, the implementation of green manure in the rotation system and the reduction of manure transport distances would significantly affect the results. In conclusion, our LCA case study does not support the idea that converting conventional oat grain production to organic agriculture would systematically decrease environmental impacts in eastern Canada. The environmental benefits largely depend on specific farmer practices and regional context.
... Ecological footprint: This idea concentrates on determining a foundation for sustainably embedding a process into the ecosphere, also called the Sustainable Process Index (SPI), which evaluates processes according to environmental capacity [58]. The results of ecological footprint calculations can be interpreted on a per-unit-of-product basis (kg), or equivalent area (ha) [59]. It points to important environmental aspects and provides useful decision support. ...
... Most of the presented tools, which are mentioned in Section 2.3, cover a maximum of one or two aspects of the overall sustainability dimensions. Carbon footprint calculators [60], ecological footprint [59] and the life cycle assessment tool (LCA) [55] are more oriented towards environmental indicators. The social life cycle assessment tool (S-LCA) [56] is socially oriented. ...
Sustainability assessment is a mainstream business activity that demonstrates the link between the organization’s strategy for and commitment to a sustainable global economy, and the prevention of economic crises. Small- and medium-sized businesses/enterprises (SMBs/SMEs) have significant effects on the European economy. However, because of a lot of restriction factors, like business risk, the high expenses of data collection and management, and the lack of resources, sustainability reporting is considered a superfluous and burdensome activity for them. The aim of this research is to propose an automated, comprehensive and simplified system for the sustainability assessment of SMEs. This system is achieved by implementing three main phases. The first phase includes key performance indicators design, which starts with the identification of various key performance indicators for comprehensive sustainability assessment, and ends with proposing an optimal set of KPIs (Key Performance Indicators) that can encompass long-term issues and be applicable to SMEs in the EU. The second phase involves a new comprehensive method of sustainability assessment for all KPIs designed in the first phase. Therefore, a multi-criteria model, which involves four main pillars of sustainability assessment (economic, environmental, social and governance), is proposed. It gives different enterprises the ability to verify and compare their efficiency and sustainability with other companies within the same sector in an almost automated manner. In the final phase, a simple and an automated information system (WEBRIS), which provides a suitable environment for SME sustainability reporting, is developed. Finally, this system is verified in a case study of the Czech breweries sector.
... Cette multiplicité de méthodes constitue une limite à l'évaluation de la durabilité car elles produisent des résultats hétérogènes liés à la diversité des définitions de la durabilité et des objectifs poursuivis (van der Werf et al., 2007 ;Bond et al., 2012). En effet, ces méthodes sont construites selon les cas sur des définitions théoriques, empiriques ou législatives de la durabilité ou à partir des points de vue des parties prenantes spécifiques à chaque contexte (Binder et al., 2010). ...
... However, while these assessment tools are intended to provide support to decision makers to improve the sustainability of their production systems (Bond et al., 2012), there is no clear consensus regarding these hypotheses, and consequently the choice of method (de Olde et al., 2016a). This absence of consensus is resulting in multiple interpretations of the concept of sustainability and producing different results for the same production system (van der Werf et al., 2007) depending on the theoretical, empirical and legal definitions of sustainability and on the perspectives of assessment actors regarding the concept (Binder et al., 2010). Based on an empirical understanding of how farming systems function, IDEA aims to highlight the limits of specialized farming systems. ...
Les modèles d’agriculture basés sur un recours massif aux ressources non renouvelables et l’intensification des systèmes de production montrent, des limites susceptibles de remettre en cause l’objectif commun de développement durable. Pourtant ces modèles agricoles se développent dans la plaine du Saïs, notamment dans les exploitations agricoles familiales. Ils apparaissent par le développement de filières rémunératrices conduites intensivement à travers l’irrigation et un faible accompagnement technique. Cette dynamique a conduit à une surexploitation et une pollution des nappes souterraines et à la fluctuation des prix des produits agricoles. La durabilité des exploitations familiales, se trouve ainsi questionnée, d’autant que la politique agricole de l’Etat marocain encourage les agriculteurs à l’intensification. Ce questionnement général a été décliné en trois sous-questions de recherche, abordant chacune la durabilité des exploitations agricoles familiales sous un angle différent. Ces sous-questions ont été explorées sur un même échantillon de 40 exploitations, choisies pour leur diversité de système de production, en mobilisant différents outils d’analyses. La première sous-question analyse la durabilité des exploitations agricoles sous l’angle de leurs dynamiques d’évolution depuis 60 ans. Sept types de trajectoires d’évolution ont été identifiés en fonction de plusieurs moteurs internes et externes aux exploitations. Ces trajectoires ont débouché sur trois principaux types actuels d’exploitations se différenciant par leurs activités de production. T1 regroupe des exploitations proches du système traditionnel initial, sur des terres n’ayant pas d’accès à l’eau; T2 rassemble des exploitations ayant accès à l’irrigation et maintenant une diversité de productions; T3 rassemble des exploitations spécialisées. La deuxième sous-question cherche à évaluer la durabilité des exploitations agricoles familiales et à en formaliser les déterminants, en mobilisant un regard de chercheur. Cette analyse s’est basée sur une méthode d’évaluation de la durabilité (IDEA), adaptée au contexte du Saïs. La durabilité environnementale dépend de la diversification des activités et de l’autonomie de l’exploitation, la durabilité socio-territoriale est liée au degré d’engagement de l’agriculteur dans les dynamiques territoriales, et la durabilité économique est fonction du système de production et des facteurs structurels de l’exploitation. Cependant, la tendance générale montre un antagonisme entre durabilité environnementale et durabilité économique. La troisième sous-question explore les perceptions qu’ont les agriculteurs du concept de durabilité et la manière dont elles se traduisent dans leurs stratégies de gestion. Un premier groupe d’agriculteurs perçoit la durabilité à travers la combinaison entre rentabilité et maintien des ressources naturelles de l’exploitation. Ils mettent en œuvre une stratégie de sécurisation du revenu à l’aide de pratiques peu intensives. Un deuxième groupe lie la durabilité à la rentabilité et l’adaptation aux changements externes à l’exploitation. Ils appliquent une stratégie de valorisation de la flexibilité de l’exploitation pour saisir les opportunités du milieu. Enfin, un troisième groupe perçoit la durabilité à travers la réalisation d’un modèle agricole moderniste. Ils réalisent une stratégie entrepreneuriale par la maximisation de leur revenu. Cette étude montre à la fois des points de divergence et de convergence sur le concept de durabilité et sa mise en œuvre en agriculture, entre chercheurs et agriculteurs par exemple sur les pratiques de production ou l’accès aux ressources naturelles. Pour combler cet écart de perceptions entre les différentes parties prenantes, des mesures de régulation environnementale, de vulgarisation et d’accompagnement doivent être envisagées collectivement, par les agriculteurs, les autorités et la recherche.
... In recent years, the interest toward the study of agricultural systems has increased the need for tools that enable to accurately characterize agro-environmental systems from an agronomic, economic and ecological viewpoint (Bockstaller and Girardin, 1996;Vazzana et al., 1997). However, most of the studies carried out so far (Bastianoni et al., 2001;Rigby et al., 2001;Thiollet-Scholtus and Bockstaller, 2014;van der Werf et al., 2007), tend to consider sustainability indicators as only related to the environmental impact assessment (Binder and Feola, 2013), without considering the social and economic impact of sustainability performance. Indeed, there is not yet a clear and agreed definition of sustainability in the wine sector, creating difficulties in the univocal identification of sustainability indicators (Santiago-Brown et al., 2015). ...
... In Italy, the movement for sustainability in the wine sector has emerged later with respect to other countries (Unione Italiana Vini, 2015). Nevertheless, Italy has a primary role in Europe for what concerns sustainable viticulture, with roughly 15 programs, aiming to improve sustainability and research in the wine industry with a special emphasis on environmental sustainability indicators, emissions of greenhouse gases and the use of LCA Iannone et al., 2016;Lamastra et al., 2014;Rugani et al., 2013). ...
Increasing awareness for sustainability has led to the proliferation of initiatives in the wine industry. These initiatives mainly aim at managing the environmental aspects related to wine production. In this context, the identification of suitable indicators is crucial to evaluate the industry's progress toward sustainability. Firstly, in the present study, the main environmental impacts of wine production are reviewed, with specific reference to LCA studies. On this baseline, the main programs from the New World, Europe and Italy that address sustainability in the wine sector are examined. Results show that each program has its strengths and weaknesses, but there is still a large margin to merge the best of these programs in one unique protocol internationally recognized. Therefore, the authors have compared the set of indicators employed by two specific wine industries initiatives (the Italian VIVA and Californian CSWA) and the indicators implemented by the wine Italian companies certified with the Environmental Management System (EMS), defined by the European Regulation EMAS. A specific evaluation framework has been developed to assess the comprehensiveness of these indicators in terms of their capacity to address the triple bottom line of sustainability. Findings reveal that while V.I.V.A consider environmental, economic and social aspects, CSWA and EMAS focus only on environmental impacts of wine production. Additionally, only EMAS has an approach to the evaluation of raw materials efficiency and waste management. The outcome of the study integrates existing literature on sustainable wine production, expanding the scope of previous analysis and introducing an evaluation framework that stakeholders of the industry may apply to introduce new sets indicators to assess sustainability performances of wine producers.
... Une grande variété de méthodes d'évaluation environnementale a été développée pour les systèmes de production agricole. Ces méthodes présentent une forte diversité selon leur objectif général (évaluation environnementale stricte ou évaluation de la durabilité), les limites du système étudié, les impacts environnementaux pris en compte et la nature des indicateurs permettant de quantifier ces impacts (van der Werf et Petit, 2002 ;Payraudeau et van der Werf, 2005 ;Halberg et al, 2005 ;van der Werf et al, 2007 ;Galan et al, 2007 ;Rossing et al, 2007 ;Bockstaller et al, 2008 ;Bockstaller et al, 2010). ...
... Notre analyse des méthodes d'évaluation environnementale des productions agricoles (van der Werf et Petit, 2002 ;van der Werf et al, 2007) a conduit à l'élaboration de recommandations : ...
Cet article présente le cadre méthodologique de l’Analyse de Cycle de Vie (ACV) et illustre sa mise en oeuvre en présentant un exemple d’une comparaison de systèmes de production de lait contrastés. L’ACV évalue l’impact environnemental d’un produit, d’un service ou d’un système en relation à une voire plusieurs fonctions et ceci en considérant toutes les étapes de son cycle de vie. La méthode quantifie les émissions de polluants et les utilisations de ressources pour chaque étape du cycle de vie du produit pour établir un inventaire environnemental. Ces données d’inventaire sont agrégées en un nombre limité d’indicateurs d’impact (eutrophisation, changement climatique, utilisation d’énergie, …). L’ACV propose un cadre méthodologique qui permet une évaluation environnementale multicritère des systèmes de production agricoles et des produits et services rendus par ces systèmes. De par son caractère multicritère l’ACV permet de mettre en évidence d’éventuels transferts de pollution,notamment entre impacts régionaux et globaux. La méthode est transparente, normalisée et basée sur un consensus international. Le cadre méthodologique de l’ACV impose une rigueur à son utilisateur, qui est obligé de réfléchir aux fonctions de son système, à ses limites ainsi qu’aux impacts environnementaux qui seront pris en compte. Cet exercice oblige l’utilisateur à porter un nouveau regard sur « son » système, ce s’avère être une expérience souvent salutaire.
... This may be due to the fact that the most common pest control method used in these communities is the chemical pesticide method. According to Taher (1996) and Van der Werf et al. (2007), the exchange of information in smaller communal communities is usually easy, fast, and frequent. This is because members have close relations. ...
The objective of this study is to assess the adoption of alternative pest management methods as a mean to reduce risks among cocoa farmers in the Volta region. Cultural control methods found to be the most practiced alternative pest management, especially in the Ho West district where majority of the farmers were more knowledgeable of alternative pest control methods. There was significant relationship between agrochemical shop services (χ² = 13,028, p < 0.000), farming years of experience (χ² = 16.424, p < 0.002), knowledge in degree of pest infestation (χ² = 8.498, p < 0.000), education (χ² = 10.557, p < 0.014), farmers' community (χ² = 39.275, p < 0.000) and farmers’ knowledge on alternative pest control methods. Farmers who relied on agrochemical shop services for pest control methods were 87% less likely to be knowledgeable on alternative pest control methods while those who considered degree of pest infestation in pest management were (OR = 1.150, p = 0.008) more likely to be knowledgeable on alternative pest control methods. For the socio-cultural factors, Leklebi Kame (OR = 9.53-e 08, P < 0.000), Bla (OR = 0.280, p < 0.027) and Gbledi Chebi (OR = 0.287, p < 0.053) were less likely to be knowledgeable on alternative method of pest control compared to Kpedze. Fellow farmers and extension agents were the major sources of information on alternative pest control methods in the study area. Economic, technical, unavailability of labour, and farm implements were factors hampering adoption of alternative pest control methods in the study area. The most pesticide toxicological symptom reported was skin irritation and was recorded among majority of the farmers in Hohoe and Afadjato South districts where low knowledge and patronage of alternative pests control methods were identified. Awareness creation and capacity building programs should be organized through fellow farmers and extension agents on the need to reduce the use of chemical pesticide in pest management.
... Therefore, appropriate indicators must be selected to determine the sustainability of an agricultural system (Kouchaki et al. 2015). Nowadays, various quantitative and qualitative methods have been proposed to assess the sustainability of agricultural systems and their adverse environmental impacts at the farm level (Van der Werf et al. 2007;Heidarzadeh et al. 2006). One way of measuring sustainability and one of the most important quantitative models is the ecological footprint (EF) known as an accounting metric that assesses humanity's pressure on natural resources and situates consumption levels within the Earth's ecological limits. ...
Potato is an important crop that plays an essential role in providing livelihoods for rural areas in many parts of Western Iran such as Hamedan Province, and its production requires huge amounts of resources such as water, fossil energy, and agro-chemicals whose utilization degrades the environment in different ways. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the environmental sustainability of potato production by ecological footprint analysis. The ecological footprint (EF) is an alternative indicator of the impact of human activity on the environment. This study assesses the environmental sustainability of potato production by ecological footprint analysis in Hamedan as a major potato producer located in the west of Iran. Global hectares (gha) were used to measure the ecological footprint unit. A sample of 150 potato growers was randomly selected. The study was conducted by descriptive-survey research method using a questionnaire. The validity of the questionnaire was checked by face and content validity. The reliability of the instrument was estimated at 0.92. To assess environmental sustainability, consumption-based ecological footprint, yield-based EF, and direct and indirect EF were analyzed. According to the results of the indices used, potato cultivation is environmentally unsustainable. Energy assessments showed that the total energy consumption was more than the ecological capacity of the required land to produce potatoes per hectare (1.26 gha). EFco2\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\mathrm{EF}}_{\mathrm{co}2}$$\end{document} was estimated at 0.57 gha, and the EF based on energy consumption was measured to be 3.06 gha. Accordingly, an area of 0.57 ha and 0.7 ha of productive land would be needed to meet the challenge of bio-capacity reduction, respectively. The EF of seed, diesel, and nitrogen fertilizer in both calculations had the highest impact on environmental sustainability. They were estimated at 30.5, 27.1, and 20.3% of global hectares, respectively. Findings implied that lower use of diesel and nitrogen fertilizer could play a significant role in mitigating the environmental impacts of potato production in Hamedan. Thus, strategies such as the use of combined and advanced machinery to reduce the plowing operations, technical inspection of agricultural machinery for lower and optimal fuel consumption, increase in the use of organic and compost fertilizers, compliance with the permissible limit of fertilizer consumption, and the use of non-chemical methods such as biological pest control are recommended.
... This peach production LCA was separated into the agricultural material input stage (AMS; consisting of fertilizer, paper bag, diesel fuel, and pesticide preparation and transportation) and the orchard management stage (OMS; consisting of weeding, pest management, fertilizer application, bagging, diesel fuel use, and the use of electricity for irrigation). We expressed environmental impacts in terms of both cultivation area (per ha) and peach yield (per metric tonne) because the different function units could lead to different results of impacts, and they are complementary, especially in the agricultural production systems ( Van der Werf et al. 2007). Reliance on the sole impact/unit area ratio may lead to a preference for low input-low output systems, which probably decrease impacts at the regional level, but create a need for additional land use elsewhere, giving rise to additional impacts. ...
While intensive peach production has expanded rapidly in recent years, few studies have explored the environmental impacts associated with specific regional systems or the optimal management strategies to minimize associated environmental risks. Here, data from a survey of 290 native farmers were used to conduct a life cycle assessment to quantify the acidification potential (AP), global warming potential (GWP), eutrophication potential (EP), and reactive nitrogen (Nr) losses in peach production in Pinggu District, Beijing. Total annual Nr losses, and GWP, AP, and EP values for peach production in Pinggu District were respectively 10.7 kg N t⁻¹, 857 kg CO2-eq t⁻¹, 12.9 kg SO2-eq t⁻¹, and 4.1 kg PO4-eq t⁻¹. The principal driving factors were fertilizer production, transportation, and application, which together accounted for 94%, 67%, 75%, and 94% of Nr losses, GWP, AP, and EP, respectively. In the high yield, high nitrogen-use efficiency (HH) group, relative values of Nr losses, GWP, AP, and EP were respectively 33%, 25%, 39%, and 32% lower than the overall averages for 290 orchards. Further analyses indicate that improved farming practices such as decreasing application rates of fertilizers, increasing proportion of base fertilization rate, and proper fertilization frequency in the HH group were the main reasons for these orchards’ better performance in peach yields and partial factor productivity of nitrogen fertilizer, and their reduced environmental impacts. These results highlight the need to optimize nutrient management in peach production in order simultaneously to realize both environmental sustainability and high productivity in the peach production system.
... Par ailleurs, l'évaluation environnementale des scénarios a été succincte puisqu'elle s'est résumée au calcul de la charge animale au pâturage et en bâtiment. Il serait intéressant d'évaluer nos scénarios avec d'autres méthodes environnementales (van der Werf et al., 2007;Gerber et al., 2008;Vayssières et al., 2009;Vigne, 2012). ...
Cette thèse propose une double approche économique et zootechnique de l’élevage allaitant à la Réunion. Malgré de fortes incitations politiques à son développement, ce secteur voit aujourd’hui son rôle dans le développement rural remis en question. Pour répondre à ces controverses, nous avons conduit une étude de la contribution du secteur de la viande bovine à la réduction de la vulnérabilité économique structurelle. Pour ce faire, nous avons montré dans un premier temps que la dépendance alimentaire est un facteur de vulnérabilité important pour les petits espaces insulaires. Nous nous sommes appuyés sur la construction d’un indice composite de vulnérabilité construit grâce à une méthode de pondération endogène pour des questions de robustesse. Dans un second temps, nous avons cherché à identifier les filières agricoles les plus à même de réduire la dépendance alimentaire de la Réunion. La filière bovine allaitante est apparue comme la plus prometteuse du fait de sa forte structuration, de sa capacité à valoriser des ressources locales et de la possibilité de gagner des parts de marché dans une logique de substitution des importations. Nous avons ensuite conduit une étude des déterminants de la dynamique passée du secteur de la viande bovine à la Réunion. Nous avons mis en évidence que cette production répond principalement à des déterminants économiques qui, par l’intermédiaire de décisions des éleveurs, ont entraîné une dégradation des performances zootechniques des animaux. Nous avons également montré comment la réaction de la coopérative face à cette situation a permis de relancer la croissance du cheptel et de la production. Par la suite, nous nous sommes intéressés aux paramètres influençant la productivité du cheptel allaitant réunionnais par la construction et l’analyse d’un modèle démographique. Nos résultats ont montré que les performances de reproduction et de croissance sont les plus importantes pour augmenter la productivité. À partir de ces éléments, nous avons construit des scénarios d’évolution en collaboration étroite avec la coopérative. Ces scénarios ont en particulier intégré des éléments sur l’amélioration des performances des animaux, des changements de pratiques des éleveurs et des changements dans l’organisation de la production au niveau de la coopérative. Nous avons montré que l’amélioration des performances, le rajeunissement du troupeau, l’introduction d’insémination artificielle sexée et l’engraissement à l’herbe sont des moyens de développement de la filière allaitante réunionnaise. Notre thèse donne des arguments pour reconsidérer le rôle de l’agriculture dans la vulnérabilité économique structurelle de la Réunion et démontre l’intérêt du développement de l’élevage allaitant pour réduire cette vulnérabilité. Elle présente également des pistes de réflexion pour les décideurs et les acteurs du terrain dans l’objectif d’augmenter la production de viande bovine à la Réunion. Elle constitue une étude approfondie des raisons et des moyens du développement de la filière bovine allaitante à l’échelle d’un territoire insulaire tropical.
... Functional units. Functional units (FUs) provide the reference to which all data in the system are normalised, which enables the comparison of alternative products and services (ISO-International Organization for Standardization, 14044, 2006) and improves the interpretation of the environmental results (van der Werf et al., 2007). In this study, the cultivation area (1 m 2 ) was adopted as the main functional unit since all inputs (fertilisers, pesticides, etc.) and water per cultivation area, which had different requirements in each cultivation system, were adequately registered. ...
Greenhouse cultivation in the Mediterranean region has undoubtedly enhanced the economic growth and has generated social benefits by making an efficient use of resources. However, these production systems caused undesirable environmental impacts. In order to move towards cleaner production in greenhouse areas, this study has assessed the potential environmental benefits and trade-offs of the integration of an on-farm reverse osmosis system powered by photovoltaic solar energy to recycle the drainage effluents from greenhouses. To that end, we compare the environmental footprint of a greenhouse tomato crop using this technology in a hydroponic system (HS), versus the conventional sanded soil ‘enarenado’ (CS) with free-drainage to soil. Additionally, for comparison, three independent irrigation sources (desalinated seawater with low electrical conductivity and two different mixes of underground and desalinated water, with moderate and high electrical conductivity, respectively) were evaluated. The use of desalinated seawater can help reduce the overexploitation of aquifers, although if the desalination process is not done with clean energy it also comes with a negative impact on the carbon footprint. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was used to analyse and evaluate six environmental impact indicators associated with these production systems and water treatments. In addition, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to explore the potential environmental benefits of increasing the use of renewable energy for desalinated water production, whilst also curbing the common over-fertilisation malpractice reported in the study area.
Based on our findings, the HS with leachate treatment technology showed, compared to the CS system, a significant reduction in the eutrophication (72 %), although it did inevitably increase the depletion of fossil fuels (43 %) global warming (37 %) and acidification (32 %) impacts, due to the need for additional infrastructure and equipment. Among the inputs considered for the cultivation systems, the greenhouse structure, and the production of fertilisers and electricity for fertigation represented the highest environmental burdens. When comparing the three irrigation treatments, it was observed that the partial substitution of desalinated seawater by brackish groundwater substantially mitigated (27 %) the global warming footprint. The sensitivity analysis revealed that a significant reduction in the environmental impact is feasible.
... According to Rodrigues et al. (2003), Hayo et al. (2007) and Van Passel & Meul (2012), the typical restrictions associated with the use of indicators in environmental (or sustainability) analyses result from the lack of detailed information about choices made during the planning process, which is when methods of selection, compilation and data grouping are defined that will form the basis for the subsequent use of indicators. ...
Food markets are increasingly demanding the implementation of good agricultural practices programs (GAP) in the public or private sectors as a way to guarantee the sustainable and responsible production of safe food. Due to the large number of GAP programs being implemented, producers are often required to participate in several of them to comply with the demands coming from diverse buyers in different target markets; as a result, even though the majority of certificate requirements share factors in common, the costs of implementation and evaluation increase. In this context, a tool was created to analyze and manage multidimensional risks in agriculture (4DGAP tool) (evaluation of the GAP in four dimensions), developed through an alliance between Embrapa and IICA proposing methodological bases that would support the preparation and updating of indicators linked to the GAP programs, facilitate interplay between the different certification programs and likewise between programs and the producers, agribusinesses and governmental agencies that use them. In addition, its objective is to contribute to the reorganization of all kinds of rural farms, based on a concept of property planning in keeping with the technical and environmental parameters needed to comply with the principles of sustainable development.
... plastic films), fertilisers, pesticides and diesel fuels, whereas the FS included emissions associated with the application of these materials to soil. To better analyse the global warming potential of maize production, we evaluated the impacts according to two functional units, namely per hectare and per million grams of maize grains (Vander et al. 2007). ...
Maize production is critical in tropical/subtropical regions, especially in developing countries where maize is a staple food. However, its environmental costs remain unclear. Southwest China is a tropical/subtropical region with large-scale maize production in each of its sub-regions. In the present study, we used Southwest China as a case study to evaluate the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and carbon footprint (CF) of maize production during 1996–2015 using life cycle assessment to identify the driving factors behind the GHG emissions and CF and to propose potential mitigation strategies. The mean GHG emissions of maize production per year during 1996–2015 was 4132 kg CO2-eq·ha⁻¹, and the CF during this period was 961 kg CO2-eq·Mg⁻¹. The GHG emissions and CF in Southwest China were 2–4 times higher than those of other major maize-producing regions worldwide. The GHG emissions and CF were both significantly correlated with the N surplus. The N surplus was also linearly correlated with annual precipitation, annual temperature and growing degree days, but not significantly related with soil pH. Scenario testing showed that the CF of maize production in Southwest China could be reduced by 41%, i.e. to 437 kg CO2-eq·Mg⁻¹, by farmers adopting a comprehensive strategy including recommended fertiliser application rates, innovative fertilisers, and crop management to decrease GHG emissions and achieve the yield potential in the region. Integrated soil and crop management is essential for sustainable maize production in tropical/subtropical regions with complex and changeable ecological conditions, especially in developing countries where maize is a staple food.
Graphical abstract
... ex. van der Werf et al., 2007). Ces deux unités fonctionnelles existent également pour les indicateurs de bilan azoté, qui sont généralement exprimés par hectare de SAU (bilan apparent, balance globale azotée) mais peuvent parfois l'être par kilogramme de produit (éco-efficience ; Halberg et al., 2005b). ...
... In this context, over the last three decades various product standards certifying sustainable production and labels communicating sustainability-related information about the production method of food products have been put in place [41]. The standard of organic production has been one of the most widely known to consumers, both in Europe and the rest of the world, with organic food products becoming suitable examples of sustainable food due to their lower environmental impact [42,43]. ...
Consumers are increasingly concerned about the way their food is produced. This is particularly relevant in the case of meat due to the impacts that its production methods can have on greenhouse gas emissions and its role in climate change. In relation to this issue, the purpose of our research is to obtain more information on the consumer decision-making process for beef in order to determine the relative importance of sustainability claims and traditional attributes and identify consumer profiles with similar perceptions and intentions. A choice experiment was used to assess the influence of these attributes on consumers' purchasing decisions. The results reveal that the best purchase choice for the consumer would be organic beef, produced in Spain, with an animal welfare label and eco-labelled. Later on, a cluster analysis was carried out using consumer beliefs and attitudes towards meat consumption as inputs, together with purchasing behaviour variables. A solution was obtained with three well-defined consumer segments showing different preference patterns: Cluster 1 (Male Millennials indifferent towards environment or sustainability), Cluster 2 (Sustainability-concerned mature women) and Cluster 3 (Middle-aged meat eaters with established families). The results of this study are relevant to develop more appropriate strategies that may be adapted to the behaviour and expectations of eco-friendly food consumers.
... The LCA-CP was based on two different functional units for comparative purposes: i) one t of grain produced from either of the two different pulses, ii) one cropped ha of either of the pulses, in both cases starting from preparation of the soil for the crop until harvesting. The use of two different functional units is a common practice in the LCA of agricultural products (Abeliotis et al., 2013) because it improves the interpretation of the environmental results obtained (Van der Werf et al., 2007). The manufacturing process for the rhizobial inoculant is outlined in Fig. 1. ...
Replacing legume fertilisation using mineral nitrogen (N) (conventional technology, CT) with rhizobial/bradyrhizobial inoculation (inoculation technology, IT) is currently encouraged worldwide due to environmental concerns. However, the environmental effect of such inoculants has scarcely been addressed using a systematic methodology like life cycle analysis (LCA). The objective of this work was to assess, in tropical developing countries, the agronomic and environmental performance of rhizobial inoculants. We worked with two contrasting pulses, common bean, which is conventionally grown using an intensive mineral fertilisation strategy, and Pigeon pea, which is subject to a deficit fertilisation strategy. From the agronomic point of view, the replacement of CT by IT improved Pigeon pea yield by 30%, while increasing common bean yield by a not significant 2%. The Global Warming Potential (GWP) and Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) of inoculant production for 1 ha is less than 1% of the GWP and CED corresponding to the production of the mineral N fertiliser used in CT. The high input-high output crop (common bean) caused less environmental damage than the less productive and low input crop (Pigeon pea), indicating that an improvement in the yield would reduce agriculture's overall environmental impact. Considering the five most impacted categories (CML-IA methodology), the substitution of CT by IT in the common bean resulted in an average reduction of environmental burdens by 19% per ha and 21% per t; in Pigeon pea, the average reduction was 12% per ha and 32% per t. However, phytosanitary treatments and irrigation accounted for higher impacts than N. Thus, improvement in environmental performance must include other technologies to optimise plant protection and irrigation and other strategies to increase yield, such as the optimisation of P, K fertilisation.
... The implementation of sustainable agriculture in practice therefore requires sufficient information that should be provided by appropriate tools [49]. This has led to many publications, including reviews on assessing sustainable agriculture, and suggested methods and tools [2,10,[40][41][42][47][48][49]72,[82][83][84][85][86]. In order to distinguish between existing methods, criteria such as the aims, intended scale, complexity, and realization can be used. ...
There are numerous studies and publications about sustainable agriculture. Many papers argue that sustainable agriculture is necessary, and analyze how this goal could be achieved. At the same time, studies question the sustainability of agriculture. Several obstacles, including theoretical, methodological, personal, and practical issues, hinder or slow down implementation, resulting in the so-called implementation gap. This study addresses potential obstacles that limit the implementation of sustainable agriculture in practice. To overcome the obstacles and to improve implementation, different solutions and actions are required. This study aims to illustrate ways of minimizing or removing obstacles and how to overcome the implementation gap. Unfortunately, the diversity of obstacles and their complexity mean there are no quick and easy solutions. A broader approach that addresses different dimensions and stakeholders is required. Areas of action include institutionalization, assessment and system development, education and capacity building, and social and political support. To realize the suggestions and recommendations and to improve implementation, transdisciplinary work and cooperation between many actors are required.
... Functional units (FUs) provide the reference to which all data in the system are normalised, which enables the comparison of alternative products and services (ISO 14044, 2006) and improves the interpretation of the environmental results (van der Werf et al., 2007). Herein, the production of 1 kg of fresh vegetable or fruit (mass-based FU) is used, which is the most commonly used FU for agricultural products (Vinyes et al., 2015;Pergola et al., 2017). ...
The Region of Murcia (south-east Spain) is a world-leading agricultural producer which exports 2.5 million tonnes of fruit and vegetables per year. It holds a leading position in international sales of many fresh products including lettuce, broccoli, lemon, melon and artichoke. However, the sustainability of this highly profitable business is in the spotlight as concerns mount regarding environmental exhaustion caused by intensive farming. To gain a more objective perspective, we present the first quantification of the environmental impacts of the fruit and vegetable production systems in this region using a “cradle-to-gate” life cycle assessment. We provide standard measurable values of resource depletion; acidification and eutrophication hazards; global warming potential; and use of water resources. Once the crops and agricultural stages in critical need of intervention are identified, we propose and evaluate mitigation strategies to curb their impact.
Our results show that in general woody crops have bigger footprints than vegetable crops, as they usually demand higher amounts of energy, pesticides, fertilisers and water, for considerably lower yields. Nonetheless, a turnabout in the carbon footprint was observed when CO2 fixation, which is commonly not included in Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs), was accounted for. This is due to the fact that woody crops, despite having higher emissions, are more efficient carbon sinks. When analysing impacts per agricultural stage, our results add more weight to the growing body of LCA-based evidence that irrigation, field work operations and fertiliser production have the most detrimental impacts. The most promising impact-mitigation action was the replacement of mineral fertiliser with manure, which offered potential footprint reductions of up to 10% and 21% for vegetable and woody crops, respectively. For woody crops, moderate impact reductions (up to 6% without a decline in yield) can also be achieved with deficit irrigation, which can be applied in synergy with mulching or organic fertilising. Finally, we compared our results against previous studies and highlighted comparability limitations, such as the inter-annual productivity fluctuations and the wide variability in agricultural practices.
... In organic poultry production, reduced productivities and low feed conversion ratios considerably reduce environmental efficiencies [9][10][11] . Similarly, organic pig production tends to have lower environmental efficiencies per tonne of product due to lower stocking densities and less output per hectare 12,13 . Even where environmental efficiency per hectare is improved, organic systems require more land per tonne of product as a result of lower yields: Williams et al. 3 found additional land requirements of from 65 to 200%. ...
Agriculture is a major contributor to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and must feature in efforts to reduce emissions. Organic farming might contribute to this through decreased use of farm inputs and increased soil carbon sequestration, but it might also exacerbate emissions through greater food production elsewhere to make up for lower organic yields. To date there has been no rigorous assessment of this potential at national scales. Here we assess the consequences for net GHG emissions of a 100% shift to organic food production in England and Wales using life-cycle assessment. We predict major shortfalls in production of most agricultural products against a conventional baseline. Direct GHG emissions are reduced with organic farming, but when increased overseas land use to compensate for shortfalls in domestic supply are factored in, net emissions are greater. Enhanced soil carbon sequestration could offset only a small part of the higher overseas emissions. The greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential of organic methods is poorly understood. Here, the authors assess the GHG impact of a 100% shift to organic food production in England and Wales and find that direct GHG emissions are reduced with organic farming, but when increased land use abroad to allow for production shortfalls is factored in, GHG emissions are elevated well-above the baseline.
... Nowadays, there are various methods to assess adverse environmental impacts of agricultural systems at farm level. (Payraudeau et al., 2005; Van der Werf et al., 2007). In complex agricultural systems, those indices that could simultaneously reveal multiple aspects of environmental impacts are more useful (Bastianoni et al., 2007). ...
The Ecological Footprint (EF) is used to understand the relationship between human activities and pressure on land and its resources. The present study combined multi-functional ecological footprint with Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) to estimate environmental impacts of inefficient use of resources of silage corn production in the Sarayan County, Iran. In this applied survey research, data were collected using a questionnaire accompanied by face-to-face interviews with 42 farmers (N= 48). Validity of the instrument was approved by a panel of experts; while its reliability was secured via pretest-posttest method. Results showed that mean technical efficiency, pure technical efficiency and scale efficiency were 0.86, 0.93, and 0.80; respectively. The CO 2 footprints were 0.95 and 0.83 gha under current and optimum conditions; respectively, with electricity and manure comprising the highest and lowest shares. The Ecological footprint land-(gha gha-1 farm), yield-(gha ton-1) and revenue-based (gha $-1 1,000) EFs were estimated to be 1.6, 0.84, and 1.4 under current conditions but 1.57, 0.081, and 1.33 under optimum conditions, respectively. When the resources were used efficiently, the EF CO2 and EF improved by 13.42 and 3.35% respectively, in which the highest shares in terms of quantity and percentage belonged to electricity, manure and fertilizer. Findings implied that optimum usage of electricity and fertilizer could play a significant role in mitigating environmental impacts of silage corn production in Sarayan. Local agricultural extension should focus on introduction of innovative irrigation systems to reduce water, electricity and fertilizer consumption. Meanwhile, to improve silage corn efficiency, farm size expansion is recommended based on the DEA findings.
... The limitations arising from using a mass-based functional unit (FU) have been reported by several studies (Milà i Canals et al., 2006;Mouron et al., 2012;van der Werf et al., 2007). In this regard, Cerutti et al. (2014) recommend the use of both mass-based and land-based FU to avoid the overvaluation of the more resource efficient farming system. ...
Wastewater reuse provides valuable solutions to solve the societal challenges of decreasing availability and limiting access to secure water resources. The present study quantifies the environmental performance of nectarine orchards irrigation using treated municipal wastewater (TMW) and surface water using a unique dataset based on field experimental data. Climate change, toxicity (for human and freshwater), eutrophication (marine and freshwater) and acidification impacts were analysed using the impact assessment method suggested by the International Reference Life Cycle Data System (ILCD). The water footprint associated to the life cycles of each system has been estimated using the Available WAter REmaining (AWARE) method. Monte Carlo simulation was used to assess data uncertainty. The irrigation of nectarine orchards using TMW performs better than the irrigation using surface water for eutrophication impact categories. Compared with surface water resources, the potential impacts of TMW reuse in agriculture on climate change and toxicity are affected by the wastewater treatment phase (WWT). Only eutrophication and acidification burdens are generated by in-field substitution of surface water with TMW. Considering human and ecosystem water demand, the irrigation with TMW increases water consumption of 19.12 m³ per kg of nectarine produced. Whereas, it shows a positive contribution to water stress (−0.19 m³) if only human water demand is considered. This study provides important results that allow for a better understanding of the potential environmental consequences of TMW reuse in agriculture. It suggests that embracing the type of WWTs, the replacement of fertilizers, the effects on water scarcity and ecosystem quality might be useful to redefine water reuse regulations and increase public acceptance for the reuse of TMW in agriculture. Moreover, this study reveals the need for developing consensus and standardized guidance for life cycle analysis of water reuse applications.
... This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication. There is considerable debate over the most suitable approach, with some suggesting that a unit of product-based assessment of greenhouse gas performance is the most relevant metric, in view of growing populations, increasing demands for food and limited land areas [29] and others suggesting that a land area-based comparison better reflects a farming system's function as a producer of nonmarket goods (e.g., biodiversity [85]). Comparisons based on the amount of product can also overlook the wide disparity that exists in the nutrient and water content of contrasting foodstuffs such as eggs, milk and meat, and such comparisons can hide the increased impacts and land-use associated with imported feed [86]. ...
... However, while these assessment tools are intended to provide support to decision makers to improve the sustainability of their production systems (Bond, Morrison-Saunders, and Pope 2012), there is no clear consensus regarding these hypotheses, and consequently the choice of method (De Olde et al. 2016). This absence of consensus is resulting in multiple interpretations of the concept of sustainability and producing different results for the same production system (van der Werf et al. 2007) depending on the theoretical, empirical, and legal definitions of sustainability and on the perspectives of assessment actors regarding the concept (Binder, Feola, and Steinberger 2010). Based on an empirical understanding of how farming systems function, IDEA aims to highlight the limits of specialized farming systems. ...
Farms are evolving in a political and social environment concerned with the three dimensions – environmental, social, and economic – of sustainable farming. This study analyses the key factors determining the sustainability of 36 farms reflecting the diverse farming systems found on the Saïs Plain in Morocco, where an intensification dynamic encouraged by the government is combined with increasingly constrained access to irrigation water and fluctuating agricultural commodity prices. The sustainability of each farm was assessed using the Indicateurs de Durabilité des Exploitations Agricoles/Farm Sustainability Indicators method. A multivariate statistical analysis was conducted to analyze and group the case farms and assess the scores of each component of sustainability. Results show that agroecological sustainability of a farm depends on its autonomy in using resources and the extent to which its production system is diversified. Farm structure and the choice of production system affect economic sustainability. The farmers’ preferences and social values influence socio-territorial sustainability. No farm is able to obtain a high total sustainability value (max 55/100), with the economic dimension varying in opposite directions to the agroecological and socio-territorial dimensions. The implications of the choice of the assessment method on the sustainability results are discussed, as are the consequences of agricultural policies on the farms’ sustainability.
... Then the mass-based FU was employed in the main LCA model to analyze the result based on kg dry barley yield. Application of two or more FUs can better clarify environmental performance (Van der Werf et al., 2007). ...
Current intensive grain crops production is often associated with environmental burdens. However, very few studies deal with the environmental performance of both current and alternative systems of barley production. This study was undertaken to evaluate energy consumption and environmental impacts of irrigated and rain-fed barley production. Additionally, three alternative scenarios were examined for irrigated barley fields including conservation tillage and biomass utilization policies. The findings showed that around 25 GJ/ha energy is needed in order to produce 2300 kg/ha irrigated barley and 13 GJ/ha for 1100 kg/ha rain-fed barley. Life cycle assessment (LCA) results indicated that irrigated farms had more environmental impacts than rain-fed farms. Electricity generation and consumption had the highest effect on the abiotic depletion potential, human toxicity potential, freshwater and marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential. However, alternative scenarios revealed that using soil conservation tillage systems and biomass consumption vs. gas for electricity generation at power plants can significantly mitigate environmental impacts of irrigated barley production similar to the rain-fed conditions while higher yield is obtained.
... An overview of available tools was established using the search engine Scopus and the snowball method. The following list of reviews and scientific papers on sustainability assessments were identified through a literature study (Acosta-Alba and Binder et al., 2010;FAO, 2013a;Galan et al., 2007;Halberg et al., 2005;Marchand et al., 2012;Marta-Costa and Silva, 2013;Schader et al., 2014;Van Cauwenbergh et al., 2007;Van Der Werf et al., 2007;Van Passel and Meul, 2012). In addition, several recently developed tools that were presented at scientific conferences were added to the list and the developers were contacted to discuss the characteristics of the tools. ...
Shifting cultivation is pivotal for biodiversity and cultural identity, especially in Nagaland, India. However, shifting cultivation is being criticized for its ecological impact, in spite of its traditional significance. This study aimed to develop a framework for evaluating the sustainability of shifting cultivation in Nagaland. Shifting cultivation is deeply embedded in the ecological, economic, and social fabric of the region; however, traditional agricultural systems have several issues and concerns. Shifting cultivation has long been considered a detrimental process to ecology, and advocates of modern agriculture criticize these practices. However, recent studies offer a counterview, proposing that shifting cultivation is a system that is more sensitive to the local area economy, traditional wisdom in biodiversity preservation, food choices of natives, and, importantly, upholding the kinship of clans and tribes along with cultural practices related to shifting cultivation. This study critically examined several prominent sustainability assessment methods through secondary research on theoretical concepts. The strengths, weaknesses, and possibilities for the adoption of the method were analyzed. A comprehensive framework was developed to evaluate the sustainability of shifting cultivation in Nagaland by critically examining existing sustainability assessment methods using a Systems Thinking Approach and incorporating indicators from the indicateurs de durabilité des exploitations agricoles or farm sustainability indicators (IDEA) method. This study contributes to the understanding of the intertwining of ecological, economic, and social factors in shifting cultivation, offering insights for more balanced and nuanced sustainability assessments. Since many assessment methods have labeled shifting cultivation as having a negative outlook, the related tools did not fully consider how local cultural practices, ecological cycles, and economic factors affect shifting cultivation. The method suggested in this study gives a more effective and comprehensive nuance by equally considering the three components and providing an in-depth rationale for the sustainability of an agricultural system and, in this case, "shifting cultivation." Additionally, this model can be adaptable to agricultural systems that fall outside the parameters set by contemporary input-based cultivation systems.
To discover the influence of agricultural practices on the environment, a tool for global and multi-criteria evaluation of environmental impacts is the method of life cycle analysis. In the field of agriculture, we use pesticides, fertilizers, and machines, which causes the emission of greenhouse gases, and contamination of waterways.The life cycle assessment was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of ISO 14067, 14046, and 14044 respectively, where the functional unit was determined, the inputs and outputs of the agricultural phase of sugar beet, from cradle to grave, from the extraction of raw materials needed to manufacture the product, distribution, use, transport, collection, and disposal until the end of the life cycle. The objective of this work is to analyze, quantify and evaluate the impacts on all environmental loads associated with a sugar beet production system. According to the results studied, it is found that for all systems there are environmental effects of acidification, eutrophication, global warming, and others.
KeywordsLife cycle assessmentAgricultural practicesAcidificationEutrophicationGlobal warmingEnvironmental impactsGreenhouse gases
The present study evaluated the life cycle of microalgae biomass cultivated in effluents as a soil biostimulant and nutrient source for corn (Zea Mays L.) cultivation. Six scenarios were analyzed, where two different soil types (A and B horizons) and two different functional units were investigated (100 kg of plant and 1 ha of planted area). Environmental impacts, including carbon footprint, were evaluated, along with damage assessment. The results showed that biomass harvesting and soil complementary fertilization are the main contributors to the carbon footprint. The carbon footprint can be minimized by 76.33% if chemical coagulation is replaced by gravitational sedimentation to harvest biomass. These actions also minimized impacts in freshwater ecotoxicity (-24,13%), terrestrial ecotoxicity (-25,72%), and terrestrial acidification (-68,62%). Regarding the damage assessment, gravitational sedimentation and subsequent application in soil from A horizon was the least damaging scenario.
Eight scenarios of fresh tomato supply to urban citizens were analysed using a Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) approach. Two of the scenarios corresponded to unheated greenhouses and a long distance transportation to the final consumer; four scenarios corresponded to zero-miles agriculture in a rural environment, including heated greenhouses, unheated greenhouses and open-field production; another two scenarios corresponded to Urban Agriculture (UA). The objective was to compare the environmental impacts of the production and transportation of tomatoes to the final consumer. Zero-miles production in heated greenhouses had the highest environmental impact (e.g. the Global Warming Potential GWP was 0.33 kg CO2 eq per kg of tomato), to such an extent that production in unheated greenhouses far away was comparatively better (GWP was 0.21 kg CO2 eq). Conversely, zero-miles production in the open-field was, environmentally, the best option with a GWP of 0.12 kg CO2 eq. Interestingly, the distance travelled by the product was less important than the efficiency of the transport. Other important environmental burdens were inefficient irrigation, chemical disinfection of the soil and the technological appliances used for micro-agriculture. As a consequence, the best zero-miles agriculture scenario was not the one where tomatoes were grown closest to the consumer's table, but the one that used the most efficient and less contaminating agronomic management and transport strategy. Thus, UA was not environmentally superior to zero-miles agriculture carried out in rural areas; conversely, rural horticulture helps to stabilize the population in regions suffering from depopulation.
In recent years, with the frequent occurrence of global climate problems, China has paid great attention to sustainable development and ecological environment governance. Sichuan Province is a significant grain production and a reserve base in western China, and its sustainable development in agriculture is an important foundation for the healthy development of the regional agricultural economy and food security. In this study, we divided the agricultural production land in Sichuan into cultivated land, water area, grassland, and forest land. We used the ecological footprint method to investigate the ecological footprint and the carrying capacity of agriculture in Sichuan comprehensively. We conclude that 1) generally, the overall agricultural ecosystem in Sichuan has been in a state of ecological surplus for the past 20 y, and the environmental pressure is gradually decreasing. However, the development within the ecosystem is uneven. 2) In terms of subdivision, the cultivated land, forest land, and water area in Sichuan have always been in a state of ecological surplus, but the grassland is in an ecological deficit state. In terms of the trend, the ecological status of cultivated land has declined significantly, while the forest land has gradually improved, and the water area is relatively stable. Yet, the deficit of grassland is still severe. 3) Forest land is considered the most sustainable type and has a high resource utilization rate all the time, followed by water area, cultivated land, and grassland, when measured by ecological indicators. At the same time, in terms of the coordination between economy and ecology, all lands have been improved.
Agroecology has many pyramids on the earth, and has interaction between the
living components. It encompasses the key issues such as food system on the
planet and ecological concepts for greener future. Ecological footprint is a holistic
approach which assesses the issue of sustainability both at macro-scale and
micro-scale. In the present era, it has been observed that reduction in agricultural
inputs helps to reduce the ecological footprints and support to the sustainable
food system. However, this is absent due to intensive agricultural practices and
huge use of agrochemical to feed the booming population of human being. The
values of ecological footprints vary site wise. According to global footprint
network food production contributes ~30% of the ecological footprint of the
human civilization. On the basis of hectares per individual the value is 3 ha per
individual globally for the food system. It is very interesting to note that the value
of the developed nation stands to be higher in comparison to the poor economy or
developing economy based on the status of countries. For example, the ecological
footprints value of North America, Oceania and Europe ranges between 5 and
7 global hectares per individual and, on the other hand, the value of Africa, Asia,
Latin American countries ranges between 0 and 3 global hectares per individual.
In the Indian context, it is again much lesser of about 0.77 ha on individual basis.
It has been observed that with intensive agriculture practices for more production
agroecosystem stability reduces. Technological intervention is required for
greener production, move towards low carbon economy, improving the
biocapacity of the land which would help to reduce ecological footprint of the
ecosystem. Hence, proper accounting of the natural resource is required for
overall sustainability of the agroecosystem. Therefore, this book will support
the government planners, policymakers, researchers, academicians and students
to develop a vision to sustainable food, environmental and an economic system to
fulfil the “Sustainable Development Goals”.
Agriculture, a strategic industry that secures the country and stabilizes society, has invariably been valued by China to feed its 1.4 billion people. However, the long-term extensive development of agriculture has led to a series of water problems such as groundwater overexploitation, water shortages, and water pollution in some areas of China, resulting in great pressure on the ecological environment and social economy. In this paper, we constructed a dynamic optimization simulation model based on the input–output (I–O) approach within the horizon of 2012–2025 to explore the synthetic optimal policies for achieving both socioeconomic development, and water resources and water environment protection in a node city on the middle route of the South-to-North Water Transfer Project, Handan. Six scenarios based on various synthetic policies were adopted. The simulation results show that during the simulation period, the maximum development of the social economy can be achieved under the premise of achieving the specific objectives of water resources and water environment protection in a comprehensive scenario. In addition, the water environment improved: the annual chemical oxygen demand (COD) emissions reduced by 7.5%, 10.3%, 5.0%, and 5.9% in pig farming, cattle farming, chicken farming, and households, respectively. Furthermore, the water supply–demand structure was optimized. The water demand of wheat planting and groundwater extraction decreased at an annual rate of 9.1% and 7.7%, respectively. The supply of reclaimed water increased at an annual rate of 9.2%. The model adapted in the paper can simulate and evaluate the impact of all the feasible synthetic policies on the economy, water resources, and water environment, and provide targeted, scientific recommendations for solving the agricultural water use problems in other regions.
In this chapter, using various techniques such as lifecycle assessment and economic valuation of nonmarket services, the positive and negative consequences of saffron production on the environment and human life are included an economic analysis. The most important environmental impacts and functions of saffron production are included. Saffron is an ecofriendly agricultural product generating considerable economic benefit to farmers. Environmental benefits generated by saffron production are about eight times its environmental costs. Negative environmental impacts of saffron production are dramatically reduced if the use of cow manure is properly managed.
Concepts, méthodes et outils pour l’évaluation multicritère de la durabilité des systèmes agricoles
Cette thèse a pour objectif d’apporter une contribution à l’analyse de la relation entre formes d’organisation et performance environnementale des exploitations agricoles. Elle étudie les liens entre d’une part, la manière dont l’exploitation est organisée et gouvernée et, d’autre part, l’ensemble des pratiques qui fondent son profil environnemental. Elle offre une revue de la littérature économique relative à l’analyse de la performance environnementale des exploitations agricoles et de ses déterminants. Dans le prolongement des propositions théoriques relevant de l’économie néo-institutionnelle et de l’économie évolutionniste, elle propose un cadre analytique de la relation entre formes d’exploitation et profils environnementaux. Ce cadre est appliqué au cas des exploitations agricoles laitières autour de trois chapitres complémentaires, qui combinent à la fois une approche quantitative mobilisant des données du Recensement agricole français de 2010, et une approche qualitative basée sur des monographies d’exploitations réalisées au Brésil. Ainsi, cette thèse contribue à la littérature empirique sur la performance environnementale par son approche systémique et multicritère des exploitations laitières qui permet la construction d’un profil de pratiques agro-environnementales. Dans l’analyse des déterminants de ce profil, elle montre l’importance d’une conception de l’exploitation en tant que système complexe doté d’une structure, d’une gouvernance et d’une capacité d’adaptation propres, et évoluant en interaction avec son environnement externe. La thèse montre enfin qu’il n’existe pas un alignement strict entre formes d’organisation et performance environnementale mais que certaines formes d’exploitation sont plus aptes que d’autres à prendre en compte certaines pratiques agro-environnementales.
Purpose:
The purpose of this paper is to analyze gaps and trends, as well suggest approaches and methodologies that should be addressed by future studies for implementing the lean and green management in the agri-food sector.
Design/methodology/approach:
Based on a sample with 117 papers, this paper presents a systematic review on the integration of lean and green in the agri-food sector.
Findings:
Key findings indicate that research on lean and green topics has increased in recent years, an important gap in the integration of lean and green in the agri-food sector has been identified. Two paths that remain open for further research are detected: the lack of theoretical, prescriptive and quantitative research and the possibility of integrating the two most used tools of lean (i.e. value stream mapping) and green (i.e. life-cycle assessment).
Practical implications:
This study does not only advance the theoretical knowledge of the lean and green field, but it is also beneficial for agri-food companies who aim to effectively deploy lean and green in their processes in order to improve both operational and environmental performances.
Social implications:
No other industry matches in such a complete way the agri-food industry’s challenge of sustainability that is due to the amount of resources it consumes and its interrelatedness with the well-being of humanity.
Originality/value:
There are separate streams of established research on lean and green management in the agri-food sector, yet very few authors have addressed the intersection of these strategic initiatives.
The global impacts of food production
Food is produced and processed by millions of farmers and intermediaries globally, with substantial associated environmental costs. Given the heterogeneity of producers, what is the best way to reduce food's environmental impacts? Poore and Nemecek consolidated data on the multiple environmental impacts of ∼38,000 farms producing 40 different agricultural goods around the world in a meta-analysis comparing various types of food production systems. The environmental cost of producing the same goods can be highly variable. However, this heterogeneity creates opportunities to target the small numbers of producers that have the most impact.
Science , this issue p. 987
This thesis is written in French. Here follows the translation of the first two paragraphs of the introduction.
I like the philosopher Alain, he said: We can prove everything we want, the real difficulty is to know what we want to prove (Chartier, 1920). This HDR memory will first present my motivations, what inspired me, what I wanted to prove during my resaerch. It will show
the evolution of the resaerch questions that I have addressed and thus identify the constants in my concerns. I will then present the results that I was able to obtain. I will end with a reflection on the orientation of my future work: what I want to do now.
This thesis deals mainly with the period 1995-2015, which is that of my research in France at the National Institute for Agronomic Research (INRA), which started with a postdoc in 1995. In this first chapter, however, I wish to present the period 1957-1994, which begins with my birth and continues with my training and my research Netherlands. This in an attempt to describe the whole of my life cycle, since the cradle.
Intensive vegetable production can cause considerable environmental risks, but quantitative evaluation for a regional/crop specific system and further establishment of best management practices to reduce the environmental risks, are still lacking. In this study, based on 160 farmer survey data, we used life cycle assessment to quantify the global warming, eutrophication, acidification and energy depletion potentials for pepper production in southwest China, and further to identify the key measures to reduce the environmental impacts by evaluating the effects of various nutrient management practices among farmers. Results showed that the mean total global warming, eutrophication, acidification, and energy depletion potentials of the 160 farmer fields were 368 kg CO2-eq t⁻¹, 1.52 kg PO4-eq t⁻¹, 7.93 kg SO2-eq t⁻¹, and 184 kg MJ t⁻¹, respectively, being 2.0, 2.3, 5.5 and 0.69 times greater than the corresponding mean values for other vegetable crops in different areas of the world. Based on differences in pepper yield and nitrogen use efficiency, the 160 fields were categorized into 4 groups showing significant differences in various environmental impacts. The global warming, eutrophication, acidification, and energy depletion potentials in the high yield and high nitrogen use efficiency (HH) group were 37.3, 34.4, 33.9, and 35.5%, respectively, lower than the average of all 160 farmers' fields. Further analysis showed that the reduction in environmental risks for the HH group were mainly accounted for by lower application rates of N and P fertilizer by 6.94% and 12.2%, higher application rates of K fertilizer by 11.9%, and higher yield by 34.8%, respectively. This study highlights the importance of optimizing nutrient management in vegetable production based on farmers’ practice, which could achieve more yield with less environmental impacts, and thereby avoid the “trade-off” effect between productivity and environmental sustainability.
La fertilité des sols de l’Afrique de l’Ouest est soumise à de fortes pressions anthropiques, avec l’augmentation démographique, l’extension des surfaces cultivées et l’abandon de la pratique de la jachère. En mobilisant une démarche de recherche action en partenariat, le projet Fertipartenaires a proposé de coconcevoir des innovations sur l’usage de la fumure organique, selon trois étapes : augmenter la capacité de production de fumure organique en construisant des fosses, améliorer la qualité de la production et raisonner son application au champ. Comment évaluer un processus innovant composé de plusieurs phases, inscrit à des échelles spatiales et temporelles différentes ? Comment insérer cette évaluation dans une démarche participative ? Une méthode participative d’évaluation en trois étapes a été proposée : (1) évaluation de l’effet direct de l’innovation (bilan partiel), (2) analyse des conséquences indirectes économiques, sociologiques et écologiques de l’innovation, et (3) analyse de la dynamique de l’innovation (adoption, diffusion et redéfinition). Deux modèles de production de fumure organique ont été testés : une fosse fumière installée à la concession et une fosse à compost en bord-champ. L’analyse des effets directs montre que l’usage de compost est économiquement plus avantageux que celui du fumier aux coûts d’opportunités plus élevés. Cependant, les deux modèles de production restent complémentaires et présentent tous deux un solde monétaire positif. La méthode utilisée permet de reconnaitre les effets directs de l’innovation sur l’économie de production de fumure organique. Elle permet de lancer un dialogue avec les acteurs autour de l’illustration simplifiée des effets directs de l’innovation. Elle doit cependant être complétée par l’analyse des conséquences indirectes et de la dynamique de l’innovation pour considérer les dimensions non prise en compte par les bilans partiels.
This chapter focuses on the issue of environmental sustainability of traditional crop varieties through a review of scientific studies and technical reports on the topic. From the review, two main arguments emerge in support of traditional crop varieties because of their environmental outreaches: (a) the increase of biodiversity achieved by growing different germplasm for the same crop decreases the quantity of pesticides dramatically and (b) traditional crop varieties allow the use of low-input agricultural practices and so lead to products with relatively minor indirect environmental impacts. Expressing resource consumption or environmental impacts per unit of land used allows evaluation of the impacts of cultivating a certain area. This parameter is also called the impact intensity of a farm. The chapter conducts an extensive literature search of publications focusing on environmental outreaches of the use of ancient varieties in order to better frame the importance of traditional cultivars for their environmental properties.
Europe has been successful in reducing the emissions of several nitrogenous pollutants over recent decades. This is reflected in concentrations and deposition rates that have decreased for several components. Emissions of nitrogen containing gases are estimated to have decreased in Europe by 10%, 21% and 14% for N(2)O, NO(x) and NH(3), respectively, between 1990 and 1998. The main reductions are the result of a decrease in industrial and agricultural activities in the east of Europe. The reductions are a result of the economic situation, measures in the transport sector, industry, and the agricultural sector, with only a small part of the reduction due to specific measures designed to reduce emissions. The reduction is significant but far from the end goal for large areas in Europe, in relation to different environmental problems. The Gothenburg Protocol will lead to reductions of 50% and 12% in 2010 relative to 1990 for NO(x) and NH(3), respectively. The N(2)O emissions are expected to grow by 9% between 1998 and 2010. Further reductions are necessary to reach critical limits for ecosystem protection, air quality standards, and climate change. Emissions of nitrogen compounds result from an overload of reactive nitrogen that is produced by combustion processes, by synthesis of ammonia, or by import from other areas as concentrated animal feeds. Some improvements can be made in the efficiency of combustion processes and agricultural systems. However, measures to reduce emissions substantially need to focus on decreasing the production or import of reactive N. Reactive N ceilings for regions, based on critical limits for all N-related effects, can help to focus such measures. An integrated approach might have advantages over the pollutant-specific approach, to combat nitrogen pollution. This could provide the future direction for European policy to reduce the impacts of excess nitrogen.
Climate Change 1995--The Science of Climate Change is the most
comprehensive assessment available of current scientific understanding
of human influences on past, present and future climate. Prepared under
the auspices of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
each chapter is written by teams of lead authors and contributors
recognized internationally as leading experts in their field. Climate
Change 1995 is the first full sequel to the original 1990 IPCC
scientific assessment, bringing us completely up to date on the full
range of scientific aspects of climate change. This assessment forms the
standard scientific reference for all those concerned with climate
change and its consequences, including policy makers in governments and
industry worldwide, and researchers and senior-level students in
environmental science, meteorology, climatology, biology, ecology and
atmospheric chemistry.
Input Output Accounting systems (IOAs) can be used to identify farming practices which are not ‘environmentally neutral’ and thus unlikely to be sustainable in the long term. In an EU sponsored project, European countries were surveyed and over 50 farm level IOAs identified. The subjects covered by the IOAs included nutrients, pesticides, energy, soil/habitat, conservation, wastes (e.g. packaging and tyres) and other items such as veterinary products. Nearly half the IOAs covered more than one subject and nutrient budgets were the most commonly included (91% of the IOAs studied). Looking at the 30 single subject systems, most (26) were nutrients with only three pesticide and one energy based system. In total 50 systems covered nutrients. Overall, where specified, nutrient budgets covered nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) in 13 cases, N and P in 12 cases, N only in nine and P only in four cases. The most common indicators for nutrient budgets were calculation of a balance followed by nitrate leached. The method by which indicators were evaluated and presented to farmers varied. Farming sectors were not equally represented with systems for the arable, dairy and pig sectors the most common. Farmers received a detailed interpretation of their results in two thirds of the systems, most commonly related to official limits or targets. Most of the systems were developed to reduce adverse environmental impacts and 65% of the systems were considered by the respondents to have had a positive environmental impact by reducing surpluses or improving waste disposal. Use of five of the systems could lead to a marketing advantage via certified produce with a recognised quality label. Where factual evidence as to effectiveness was available, the benefits varied between subject types (nutrients, energy and pesticides) and between sectors. Farmers’ responses to the systems were generally positive and they appear to be a useful way of raising awareness of environmental problems. However, economic issues need to be considered, if the costs to the farmer outweigh the benefits, uptake will not be sustained. The type and nature of the interpretation is also important as the most successful IOAs in terms of continued use and interest appeared to be those where there was regular technical input from an adviser. Overall IOAs could offer a useful tool for voluntary improvement in agri-environmental performance on topics that are not already strongly regulated. But more studies are needed to ensure that farmers in reality change their behaviour and to develop the use of reference values.
Development of an emissions inventory is frequently incorporated into many techniques and methodologies used in determining environmental impact, for example life-cycle assessment and as part of the review procedures essential to the implementation of an environmental management system. A software package has been developed for use by farmers and advisers, which seeks to encourage environmentally sound agriculture. The software acts as an informal environmental management system. An estimate of the emissions generated on-farm, coupled with performance indicators known as eco-ratings, are used to enable the setting of objectives and targets, the monitoring of progress and the success of improvement programmes. This paper seeks to describe the techniques adopted for estimating farm emissions. The development, piloting and validation of the eco-ratings have been described elsewhere. The approach used is necessarily simplistic as it relies on readily available farm data and heuristics to derive broad estimates of emissions including losses of nitrate via leaching, pesticides and gaseous losses of ammonia and methane from livestock. It is not the aim of the system to provide accurate measures of these emissions but, rather, to provide the farmer with data to identify trends which vary with farm techniques showing that as practices improve emission levels also improve. The inventory, together with the eco-ratings and text reports provided by the software give the user a variety of techniques for managing and monitoring environmental impact and improvement programmes. This paper also discusses the techniques commonly used within industry and the problems in transferring these techniques to the farm.
In recent years the concept of 'sustainability indicators' has become important within agricultural policy development. However, as policy tools, many indicators are highly technical in nature and often appear relevant only at national level. Consequently, the key messages underpinning the indicators can easily become lost at farm level.
In order to drive progress towards sustainability it is important to define indicators at a level that is meaningful to the target audience and that encapsulates the spatial and temporal diversity of the farm environment.
In support of policy objectives the pilot national set of indicators of agricultural sustainability has been re-cast into indicators that can be collected, interpreted and compared at a farm level. A software package that prioritizes the indicators according to farm type and that links trends with farm management decisions and practices, identifying steps for improvements, is used as the main means of knowledge transfer. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.
The magnitude of current nutrient losses from agriculture to ground and surface water calls for effective environmental policy, including the use of regulation. Nutrient loss is experienced in many countries despite differences in the organisation and intensity of agricultural production. However, at present there is no internationally agreed practice to assess the effectiveness of different kinds of regulatory practice and compliance level, or to make effective comparisons. There is a wide variety of indicators available for this purpose, ranging from livestock density and input–ouput balances to nutrient concentrations in soil and water. This paper explores the effectiveness and efficiency of the different indicators, both in terms of achieving a single objective and a comprehensive set of objectives and evaluates how responsive and attributable these indicators are to changes in farm management.Each indicator appears to have its own pros and cons. Unfortunately, there does not seem to be a single indicator that is effective, comprehensive, efficient, responsive and attributable at the same time. Scientifically, there are valid reasons to develop indicators that account for specific regional conditions and to accept the use of varying threshold values within them. Administratively complex indicators and/or strict threshold values appear inevitable wherever intensive production is the dominant form of land use amidst vulnerable local environments. However, at both a national and international level this differentiation of indicators and thresholds may conflict with the desire to treat individual farmers equally and to minimise their administrative burden. The paper concludes with a review of the issues raised in international harmonisation of nutrient loss indicators and threshold values.
In order to achieve environmentally sound agriculture as well as a remuneration of ecological achievements on the farm level, practicable instruments for accurate measurement have to be developed. Whereas there are suitable indicators to assess agricultural impacts on abiotic resources, there is a lack of indicators for the assessment of biotic resources on the farm level. Proposals for and attempts at as well as first-hand experience in assessment methods of agricultural impacts on biotic resources exist in various European countries. A few of these methods require intensive measurements with a lot of indicators, but a sufficient assessment and evaluation of the biotic as well as the aesthetic resources (landscape structure/image) on the farm level has not yet been carried out.Biotic resource indicators of seven assessment methods (Ecopoints Lower Austria, Solagro, Halberg, Nature Balance Scheme, KUL, Frieben, Biodiversity Yardstick) from five European countries are compared with each other. Some of the methods register biotic resources only marginally by indirect measurements (indicators), respectively, or action-oriented indicators such as time of cutting/mowing, frequency of cutting/mowing, age of grassland, percentage of unsprayed area. Other methods are very complex, so that their implementation on a wide scale does not seem possible.There is a need to further develop and improve practicable and efficient tools in order to assess the agricultural impact on bio-resources on farm level and consequently in order to promote an environmentally sound agriculture.
The long-term effects of nitrogen (N) fertiliser and slurry management practices in agricultural systems has been simulated using event driven physically based models. The Swedish soil water model SOIL and its associated nitrogen cycle model SOILN has been used to simulate the long-term impacts (over 12 years) of 360 management scenarios; three slurry applications with 10 spreading dates (involving single and split applications) for surface spreading and injection of slurry, and three fertiliser applications with two spreading dates. The effects of the N management scenarios on NO3–N drainage flows, total gaseous N losses and crop yields for grass, winter and spring cereals is investigated. Furthermore, seven soils with varying degrees of drainage efficiency and three climatic conditions (East and West coast Scotland and Southern Ireland) are studied.
This paper discusses a practical, computerised eco-management system for agriculture which has been developed at the University of Hertfordshire, UK for use by farmers and their advisers to encourage more sustainable practices. The research and software development has been funded by the UK's Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food and the Milk Development Council. The computerised system helps to measure environmental performance by evaluating an eco-rating that compares actual farm practices and site-specific details with what is perceived to be the best practice for that site using an expert system together with scoring and ranking techniques. The eco-ratings system utilises a positive-negative scale to aid transparency and interpretation. In practical terms this means that undesirable and unsustainable activities will lead to negative eco-ratings. Activities which adhere to the principles of best practice and sustainable agriculture will lead to positive eco-ratings. The zero position may then be interpreted as representing an environmentally benign activity. In support of the assessment, the system incorporates modules to explore “What-If” scenarios and a hypertext information system. This paper describes the approaches and methodologies used to develop the eco-ratings and outlines the software which utilises these indices within a comprehensive decision-support framework.
Green accounts or input–output accounting systems (IOA) have been developed in countries with intensive agricultural production to facilitate voluntary improvements in farm environmental performance. There is a need for an overview of indicators used and a review of results and experiences reported. Ten IOA systems covering the topics of the farm’s use of nutrients, pesticides and energy were selected from a survey of 55 systems and compared in this paper. The approaches and indicators used vary from systems based on good agricultural practices (GAP) to accounts based systems that use physical input–output units. Many IOA systems use farm gate nutrient balances, pesticide use per hectare and energy use per kilogram product. These indicators are easy to calculate but the resulting value needs separate interpretation for the farmer. Other systems include modeled emissions and rate the yearly farm results using closed scales, which allows for easy interpretation but builds on implicit normative assumptions of best practices. Participating farmers were most often reported to be motivated for the use of IOA but empirical evidence of improved environmental farm performance was scarce. IOA systems should be linked with production planning tools used by the advisory services. Farmers and advisors needs better reference values to evaluate the indicator levels (environmental performance) on the individual farm possibly based on analysis of a larger number of farms. The statistical properties of IOA indicators need to be researched regarding: (1) the relation between changed management practice and changes in indicator values on a given farm over a period of time; (2) the relative importance of systematic versus coincidental differences in environmental performance of a set of farms. It is concluded that IOA systems could become effective tools for agri-environmental improvement of European farms given further development and standardization.
The objective of concepts to assess and implement sustainability in agriculture is to consolidate the complex and diverse principles of the theoretical paradigm and to transform them into recommendations for agricultural practice. Since only goal-oriented concepts show a high adaptation to different conditions and target groups, their fundamental strategy was highlighted and their suitability for successful operationalisation was worked out. Seven goal-oriented concepts, representing the main current methods of sustainability assessment, were evaluated regarding potential and drawbacks for a successful transfer of the theoretical paradigm into practice.
Current intensive pig production is often associated with environmental burdens. However, very few studies deal with the environmental performance of both current and alternative systems of pig production. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the environmental impacts of three contrasting pig production systems using the life cycle assessment method and to identify hot spots for each system. The scenarios compared were conventional good agricultural practice (GAP) according to French production rules, a French quality label scenario called red label (RL) and a French organic scenario called organic agriculture (OA). For each of the three scenarios a “favourable” and an “unfavourable” variant was defined; these variants were used as indicators of uncertainty with respect to key parameters for technical performance and emissions of pollutants. The environmental categories assessed were: eutrophication, climate change, acidification, terrestrial toxicity, energy use, land use and pesticide use. Two functional units (FU) were used to express impacts: 1 kg of pig produced and 1 ha of land surface used. The scenarios were examined with particular emphasis on their contribution to eutrophication and acidification. Given this perspective, the RL scenario can be an interesting alternative to GAP on the condition that its emission of greenhouse gases can be reduced. The results for OA were very dependent on the choice of the FU. Per kg of pig, eutrophication and acidification were similar for OA and GAP, while OA had less eutrophication and acidification than GAP when expressed per ha. For the three scenarios, environmental hot spots and important margins of improvement were identified. Finally, the uncertainty analysis indicated that efforts should be made to produce more reliable estimations of emission factors for NO3, NH3 and N2O in the field.
An increasing variety of evaluation methods is being proposed to address the question of the environmental impacts of agriculture. This paper compares and analyses 12 indicator-based approaches to assessing environmental impact at the farm level, in order to propose a set of guidelines for the evaluation or development of such methods. These methods take into account a number of environmental objectives (e.g. soil erosion, water quality). A set of indicators is used to quantify the degree to which these objectives are attained. A total of 26 objectives were taken into account by one or several of the methods. A great diversity in breadth of analysis exists: the number of objectives considered per method varies from 2 to 13. Indicator-based methods for environmental evaluation at the farm level should take into account a range of objectives covering both local and global effects. Indicators based on the environmental effects of farmer practices are preferable to indicators based on farmer practices as the link with the objective is direct and the choice of means is left to the farmer. Indicators based on farmer practices cost less in data collection but do not allow an actual evaluation of environmental impact. Indicators allowing expression of impacts both per unit surface and per unit product are preferable. Indicators producing output in the form of values are preferred to indicators producing scores. If possible, science-based threshold values should be defined for indicators. The method should be validated with respect to (a) the appropriateness of its set of objectives relative to its purpose and (b) its indicators.
This paper reviews the existing literature on environmental performance indicators as they relate to private sector organisations, followed by a basic classification of ways in which environmental data are being standardised for use in indicators. It was found that the majority of standardisation schemes for environmental information fall into one of five categories, namely standardised using economic criteria, physical impact categories (such as global warming potential), linear programming methods (such as productive efficiency), economic valuation methods or as part of business management review processes. The paper concludes that environmental data, once normalised, should be used in a diversity of indicators that are tailored to the information needs of the data users and that, as long as normalisation of data is kept separate from aggregation and standardisation, many different indicators can be developed based on a comparatively small dataset.
Quantification of nitrogen (N) flows creates awareness among farmers, can help them to re-evaluate N management and may reduce nitrate loss to groundwater. Hence, whole-farm balances play a crucial role in legislation on N management in Netherlands. This paper reviews the strengths and weaknesses of whole-farm balances for assessment of the environmental impact of agriculture. The usefulness and reliability of a balance strongly depends on its completeness. The surplus per unit area indicates the environmental impact, provided that all relevant terms are included. However, the surplus per unit area, the surplus per unit output and the output per unit input, as derived from the balance, may not represent accurate indicators of the operational management skills of a farmer, as these estimates not only depend on the conversion of N within the farm, but also on the extent to which the farm relies on animal feed produced outside the farm and the extent to which processing of crops takes place outside the farm. Without additional information on the processes underlying the whole-farm level and N fluxes at spatial scales above the level of an individual farm, whole-farm balances do not reveal the nature and magnitude of losses, nor do they provide sufficient clues how to improve the efficiency of N use.
Differences in soil, climate and socioeconomic conditions cause animal production to vary widely between European regions, notably in animal density and percentage landless farming. They have in common that animal products result from the cycling and redistribution of nutrients through soil, air, plants, animals and manure, with energy from photosynthesis or from the input of fossil energy as driving force. Nature of nutrients and rates of their conversion vary between and within cycle components, and consequently imbalances occur, causing undesired nutrient losses to or extractions from soil, water and air. Nutrients causing environmental concern are those containing excessive phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and nitrate (NO3−), contaminating soil and water and those losing the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) into the air. Successful and feasible interventions are to extensify, to reduce external inputs and to optimise. Maximum stocking density should not exceed 2.0 livestock units (LU)/ha. Reductions in external inputs of N, P and K are possible through reduction in fertiliser inputs and by reducing or applying compositional changes of dietary inputs. Optimisation at farm level includes implementing the nutritive measures mentioned above combined with an increased reproductive efficiency by lowering the number of parent animals. Animal manure should be treated as a commodity rather as a waste, with a tailor made composition to be achieved by nutrition or by fractionation. The recommended measures require legal and mental interventions, the success of which will largely depend on the quality of legislation and the acceptability of its implementation.
Sustainability embraces socio-economic and bio-ecological dimensions or attributes. This paper presents a conceptual framework for quantifying sustainability on the basis of efficiency theory commonly used in economics. The conceptual model is implemented using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). Sustainability is measured for a sample of Dutch sugar beet growers. The average technical efficiency was only 50%. A positive correlation was found between technical efficiency and sustainable efficiency. Differences in efficiency among farmers were persistent within and between years. We conclude that there is considerable scope for improving the sustainability of arable farming by better management.
The current industrial pig production model is in crisis, due to its association with environmental pollution, doubtful product quality and lack of animal well-being. In Bretagne (France), a region of intensive pig production, a survey of seven stakeholder groups concerned with pig production was conducted, as part of a research programme dedicated to the assessment of the environmental impact of different modes of pig production. A very large majority of pig producers (93%) and their suppliers (100%) considers pig farms as an asset for the region, whereas a majority of scientists (58%), activists (78%) and consumers (54%) sees it as a handicap. Differences among stakeholder groups are minor with respect to the perceived importance of environmental and social issues. Stakeholders agree on the relative level of responsibility of pig farms with respect to specific problems. For all groups unpleasant odours and water quality come first with respect to responsibility, for most groups soil quality comes second, followed by product safety and air quality. For a future improved mode of pig production, 76% of pig producers and their suppliers prefer to adapt the current model, for all other groups the majority prefers an alternative model. While pig producers and their suppliers prefer a slurry-based housing system, all other groups prefer a straw-based system. Pig producers see the slurry-based system as technically superior and associate the straw-based system with poor working conditions, whereas consumers associate the slurry-based system in the first place with poor water quality and associate the straw-based system with less pollution. These results will be of use in the research programme on the environmental impact of modes of pig production, as they indicate the environmental impacts to be considered and their relative importance. The results will also help in deciding which options should be assessed. It is concluded that the poor image of the current pig production model and its production practices with consumers does not seem compatible with a sustainable demand for pork products.
This paper examines conceptual and methodological barriers to using sustainability as a criterion for guiding change in agriculture and proposes elements necessary for approaches to characterizing sustainability to be generally useful. Two broad interpretations of agricultural sustainability have emerged with different underlying goals: sustainability interpreted as an approach to agriculture developed in response to concerns about impacts of agriculture, with motivating adherence to sustainable ideologies and practices as its goal; and sustainability interpreted as a property of agriculture developed in response to concerns about threats to agriculture, with the goal of using it as a criterion for guiding agriculture as it responds to change. Interpreting sustainability as an approach has been useful for motivating change. However, usefulness of this interpretation as a criterion for guiding change is hindered by a lack of generality of prescribed approaches, a distorted view of conventional agriculture and circular logic. Although interpreting sustainability as a system property is logically more consistent, conceptual and practical problems with its characterization have limited its usefulness as a criterion for guiding change. In order for sustainability to be a useful criterion for guiding change in agriculture, its characterization should be literal, system-oriented, quantiative, predictive, stochastic and diagnostic.
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