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Effect of Perspective Taking on the Cognitive Representation of Persons: A Merging of Self and Other
Abstract
Two experiments examined the possibility that perspective taking leads observers to create cognitive representation of others that substantially overlap with the observers' own self-representations. In Experiment 1 observers receiving role-taking instructions were more likely to ascribe traits to a novel target that they (observers) had earlier indicated were self-descriptive. This pattern was most pronounced, however for positively valenced traits. In Experiment 2 some participants received role-taking instructions but were also given a distracting memory task. In the absence of this task, role taking again produced greater overlap--primarily for positive traits--between self- and target representations. In the presence of the memory task, the degree of self-target overlap was significantly reduced for all traits, regardless of valence. Possible explanations for these findings are discussed.
... Perspective-Taking and the Egocentric Self Perspective-taking has been shown to lead to a merging of the self and the other, in which the perspective-taker's thoughts toward the target become more "selflike" (Davis, Conklin, Smith, & Luce, 1996). After perspective-taking, there is a greater self-target overlap, such that a greater percentage of self-descriptive traits are ascribed to the target. ...
... The representation of the target constructed by the perspective-taker comes to resemble the perspective-taker's own self-representation. Davis et al. (1996) found that ascription of self-descriptive traits to the target was not due to increased liking for the target but rather to the cognitive accessibility of the self-concept. Although perspective-takers felt the target was more similar to themselves than control participants and they liked the target more, these effects did not mediate the amount of self-target overlap. ...
... The activation and application of the self-concept, like other knowledge structures (see Bargh, 1997, for a review), occurs implicitly (at a nonconscious level). Further evidence for the nonconscious effect of perspectivetaking manipulations on self-concept activation comes from the fact that self-target overlap is unaffected by dividing the attention of participants (Davis et al., 1996). Cognitive load interfered with the effortful act of perspective-taking (the general ascription of traits) but left the more automatic process (the ascription of selfrelevant traits) intact. ...
Using 3 experiments, the authors explored the role of perspective-taking in debiasing social thought. In the 1st 2 experiments, perspective-taking was contrasted with stereotype suppression as a possible strategy for achieving stereotype control. In Experiment 1, perspective-taking decreased stereotypic biases on both a conscious and a nonconscious task. In Experiment 2, perspective-taking led to both decreased stereotyping and increased overlap between representations of the self and representations of the elderly, suggesting activation and application of the self-concept in judgments of the elderly. In Experiment 3, perspective-taking reduced evidence of in-group bias in the minimal group paradigm by increasing evaluations of the out-group. The role of self–other overlap in producing prosocial outcomes and the separation of the conscious, explicit effects from the nonconscious, implicit effects of perspective-taking are discussed.
... Aron's focus has been on close relationships, not empathy. However, Davis, Conklin, Smith, and Luce (1996) have spelled out the implications of Aron's ideas for empathy in some detail: ...
... Aron (Aron & Fraley, 1996) has endorsed this move. Davis et al. (1996) claimed empirical support for empathybased merging, reporting two studies in which, compared with those in a low-empathy condition, participants in high-empathy conditions (created by perspective taking) were more likely to ascribe traits to the target of empathy that they had earlier indicated were self-descriptive. But this effect was found only for positively valanced traits, leaving it unclear whether self-other merging had occurred or whether high-empathy participants viewed the target more positively, producing more overlap with their positive self-perception. ...
... In their research on close relationships, Aron and his colleagues (Aronetal., 1991;Aron, Aron, & Smollan, 1992) used several measures, including (a) reaction time latency when answering whether an attribute on which a close other and the self differ is true of oneself and (b) a single-item Inclusion of Other in Self (IOS) scale, which presents seven pictures of two circles-one representing the self and one representing the other-in different degrees of overlap and asks respondents to select the picture that best describes their relationship to the other. Davis et al. (1996) used trait lists and checklists to compare overlap between traits attributed to the self and traits attributed to the other. Cialdini et al. (1997) used Aron's IOS scale, plus ratings of the extent to which the term we described one's relationship to the person in need. ...
Two experiments tested the idea that empathy-induced helping is due to self–other merging. To manipulate empathy, half of the participants in each experiment received instructions to remain objective while hearing about a young woman in need (low-empathy condition), and half received instructions to imagine her feelings (high-empathy condition). To check generality of the empathy–helping relationship, half in each empathy condition learned that the young woman was a student at their university (shared group membership), and half learned that she was a student at a rival university (unshared group membership). Self-reported empathy for and willingness to help the young woman were assessed, and 3 measures of self–other merging were taken. In each experiment, an empathy–helping relationship was found, unqualified by group membership, that could not be accounted for by any of the merging measures.
... For example, participants who visualized an older family member prior to reading an article on premarital sex reported more conservative self-views toward sex when primed to perspective take than those not primed to perspective take (Skorinko et al., 2012). Perspective taking can also prompt individuals to see more overlap between themselves and another person (i.e., self-other overlap), even if this person is an outgroup member (Davis et al., 1996;Galinsky et al., 2005;Goldstein and Cialdini, 2007;Hodges et al., 2011;Laurent and Myers, 2011;Skorinko et al., 2012). The self-other overlap with a target mediates changes in perspective takers' self-concepts and endorsement of other's beliefs (Laurent and Myers, 2011). ...
... We set out in Experiment 1a to pilot a conceptual replication of previous social tuning research (Sinclair et al., 2005a) to see if perspective taking leads to social tuning. Since perspective taking can lead to changes in self-views and self-other overlap (Davis et al., 1996;Goldstein and Cialdini, 2007;Galinsky et al., 2008;Laurent and Myers, 2011), Experiment 1a investigates if perspective takers will social tune by self-stereotyping more than non-perspective takers. Conceptually replicating Sinclair et al. (2005a), female participants believed they would be interacting with a partner on a task for 5 min to induce low affiliative motivation. ...
... The amount of overlap an individual sees between themselves and another person may be heightened during perspective taking (Davis et al., 1996;Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000;Goldstein and Cialdini, 2007;Laurent and Myers, 2011). Thus, we measured the self-other overlap the participants felt with their partner. ...
The current research aims to investigate whether perspective taking influences social tuning, or the alignment of one’s self-views, explicit attitudes, and/or implicit attitudes with those of an interaction partner. In six different experiments, participants believed they would interact with a partner to complete a task. Prior to this ostensible interaction, participants were given a perspective taking mindset prime, or not, and information about their ostensible interaction partners views. Participants then completed attitude measures related to the partner’s perceived views. Experiments 1a, 1b, and 2 examined whether perspective taking with an ostensible interaction partner who endorses gender traditional (or non-traditional) views align their self-views with this partner, including implicit self-views (Experiment 2). Experiments 3–5 investigated whether perspective taking leads to social tuning for egalitarian racial attitudes, including when the partner’s expectations of how others will be and when the participant learns their ostensible IAT score at the beginning of the session. We predicted perspective takers would be more likely to social tune their explicit and implicit attitudes to the attitudes of their interaction partner than non-perspective takers. Across all experiments, perspective takers were more likely to social tune their self-views and explicit attitudes than non-perspective takers. However, social tuning never occurred for implicit attitudes. Thus, future research is needed to understand why perspective taking does not influence the tuning of implicit attitudes, but other motivations, like affiliative and epistemic, do.
... To ensure that the need for safety would be experienced with or without emotions, we relied on a perspective taking procedure (Batson et al., 1997;Davis et al., 1996). During perspective taking, the observer (i.e., the participant) attempts to envision her or his self in the place of the actor, therefore having vicarious experiences. ...
... Critically, depending on the instructions, participants can engage in perspective taking in a way that either focuses more on the cognitive or affective aspects of the experience. This method has been verified in prior research (Batson et al., 1997;Davis et al., 1996). ...
Stressors (e.g., a dangerous environment) that create a need (e.g., a need for safety) can also elicit negative emotions (e.g., fear, distress, and sadness) and different strategies for coping with them. Subsequently, the types of coping strategies a person can employ either address (1) the source of the negative emotions (i.e., the need) or (2) the consequences of the negative emotions (i.e., the negative affective state). We hypothesized that the temporal efficacy of need-based actions determines when each type of coping strategy is pursued. Negative emotions encourage a person to address the need when the available need-based actions are efficacious (i.e., they meet the need) in the present (i.e., they meet the need soon after acquisition or usage). Negative emotions encourage a person to prioritize the negative affective state when the available need-based actions are efficacious in the future or have delayed availability.
... According to research, perspective-taking influences attributional thinking and perceptions of others. For example, those who with a higher perspectivetaking tendency made the same attributions to the target as they would have had they been in the same situation [31]. As giving negative feedback, disagreeing and confronting are related to the perception of others (e.g., whether they perceive it as futile or harmful to their relationship), we also examine whether perspective-taking has an association with the perception of the persuasiveness of the proposed interfaces. ...
... We found that users who have a greater tendency to consider events from the viewpoints, feelings, and reactions of others [77] find these stickers more persuasive than the standard comment box. As perspective-taking is related to make the same attributions to the target [31] , it could be argued that participants are more likely to accept these stickers if they receive them as a response. Openness to experience negatively predicted both "predefined question stickers" and "thinking face reaction," such that users with higher levels of openness to experience did not feel that these two interfaces were more persuasive than the standard comment box. ...
Persuasive design techniques have often been presented where the desired behaviour is primarily within personal boundaries, e.g., one's own health and learning. Limited research has been conducted on behaviours that require exposure to others, including correcting, confronting mistakes and wrongdoing. Challenging misinformation in others’ posts online is an example of such social behaviour. This study draws on the main persuasive system design models and principles to create interfaces on social media to motivate users to challenge misinformation. We conducted a questionnaire (with 250 participants from the UK) to test the influence of these interfaces on willingness to challenge and how age, gender, personality traits, perspective-taking and empathy affected their perception of the persuasiveness of the interfaces. Our proposed interfaces exemplify seven persuasive strategies: reduction, suggestion, self-monitoring, recognition, normative influence, tunneling and liking. Most participants thought existing social media did not provide enough techniques and tools to challenge misinformation. While predefined question stickers (suggestion), private commenting (reduction), and thinking face reactions (liking) were seen as effective ways to motivate users to challenge misinformation, sentence openers (tunneling) was seen as the least influential. Increasing age and perspective taking were associated with increased likelihood of perceived persuasiveness and increasing openness to experience was associated with a reduction in the likelihood of perceived persuasiveness for “predefined question stickers”. Increasing openness to experience was associated with increased likelihood of perceived persuasiveness for “thinking face reaction”, while increasing age was associated with a reduction in the likelihood of perceived persuasiveness for “private commenting”.KeywordsPersuasive systemmisinformationfake newsonline social behavioursocial media design
... First, we distinguish MYB from proactive personality (Crant, 2000), perspective taking (Davis et al., 1996), self-monitoring (Snyder, 1979), upward influence (Yukl & Falbe, 1990) and impression management tactics (Bolino et al., 2008). These constructs constitute the closest nomological network for MYB and share conceptual overlap with, and are either its proximal correlates or antecedents. ...
... Therefore, we expect it to be theoretically related to other-focused psychological constructs such as perspective taking (Davis et al., 1996). Individuals who are predisposed to take others' perspectives should also be more naturally inclined to take their managers' perspective at work, suggesting a positive association of perspective taking with MYB. ...
Employees can be proactive in establishing good working relationships with their managers to enhance their own effectiveness. We propose that an important way that they can do so is by engaging in behaviors we refer to as “Managing Your Boss” (MYB) that involve employees taking the initiative to understand their managers’ goals, needs, and working styles and adapt their job priorities and actions accordingly. We integrate theories on proactivity and followership to lay the conceptual foundation for the study of MYB. We underscore the conceptual distinctiveness of MYB from related constructs. Moreover, we propose that MYB can help employees improve their performance by enabling them to develop high quality leader‐member exchanges (LMX) and argue that these effects are amplified in unstructured work environments where jobs are not standardized or when managers fail to provide adequate task structure. Using 1313 working adults across a set of four studies and seven samples, we develop a validated measure of MYB, establish its nomological network, and demonstrate support for key elements of our theoretical model. We discuss the implications of our findings for research and practice.
... One answer to this question centers on the degree to which they perceive similarity between themselves and others. Perceiving similarity between oneself and others can lead one to take others' perspectives (e.g., Cialdini, Brown, Lewis, Luce, & Neuberg, 1997;Davis, Conklin, Smith, & Luce, 1996;Regan & Totten, 1975), prompting experiences of empathic emotions (e.g., Cialdini et al., 1997;Davis et al., 1996;Eisenberg & Miller, 1987), which, in turn, increase one's likelihood of helping others when they need it (e.g., Batson, Polycarpou, et al., 1997;Cialdini et al., 1997;Schroeder, Penner, Dovidio, & Piliavin, 1995;Staub, 1978). ...
... One answer to this question centers on the degree to which they perceive similarity between themselves and others. Perceiving similarity between oneself and others can lead one to take others' perspectives (e.g., Cialdini, Brown, Lewis, Luce, & Neuberg, 1997;Davis, Conklin, Smith, & Luce, 1996;Regan & Totten, 1975), prompting experiences of empathic emotions (e.g., Cialdini et al., 1997;Davis et al., 1996;Eisenberg & Miller, 1987), which, in turn, increase one's likelihood of helping others when they need it (e.g., Batson, Polycarpou, et al., 1997;Cialdini et al., 1997;Schroeder, Penner, Dovidio, & Piliavin, 1995;Staub, 1978). ...
... One of the social and emotional competencies that plays a crucial role in maintaining positive relationships with others (Boele et al., 2019), classroom climate (Ruiz et al., 2009;Zorza et al., 2015) as well as in aggression prevention, is empathy (Kozina et al., 2020;Tampke et al., 2020). Empathy enables us to perceive similarities between ourselves and others (Davis et al., 1996) and allows us to understand others and feel connected to them (Eisenberg et al., 1996). It consists of two dimensions: the emotional and the cognitive. ...
... Students that report higher perspective-taking competence, also report more positive and less negative relationships with their teachers. These findings emphasise the important role that the ability to see the situation from the point of view of others has in forming and maintaining positive relationships with others, both students and teachers (Davis et al., 1996). Similarly, in Croatia, the positive effect of Empathic concern is reflected not only in lower levels of aggression but also in the relationships with teachers (Ruiz et al., 2009). ...
Numerous interventions in the school environment focus on supporting empathy to prevent aggressive behaviour. But when planning interventions inside classrooms one needs to consider the context of each specific classroom, e.g., relationships between students and teachers. Based on the Developmental System Theory and Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Model, this study examines the mediating effect of the positive and negative student-teacher relationships on the relationship between empathy (cognitive and emotional components) and aggression. We use a randomised sample of 539 students from two countries (Slovenia: N = 271, M = 12.91 years, 56.3% female; Croatia: N = 268, M = 13.60 years, 47.4% female). We measure empathy with the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, aggression with the AG-UD Aggression Scale and student-teacher-relationships with the Perceived Quality of Student-Teacher Relations measures. The findings show that empathy plays an important role in aggression, but interestingly, the component is different in the two countries. In Slovenia, there is a significant negative direct path from the cognitive component of empathy, Perspective taking, to aggression, while in Croatia, there is a similar path, but starting from the emotional component of empathy, Empathic concern. In both countries, Negative student-teacher relationships mediated the relationship between mentioned components of empathy and aggression, thus showing the importance of classroom context, e.g., the relationships with teachers, when addressing empathy and aggression of students in the school context. The practical implication based on our findings is the prevention of negative student-teacher relationships and the promotion of empathy among students (as well as teachers).
... Psychology research defines perspective-taking as an intentional process of stimulating a person's thought into considering and accepting the specific aspects of another's point of view (Davis 1983a). It allows individuals to adopt the other person's strategies beyond their typical perspective during their decision-making processes (Davis, Conklin, Smith, and Luce 1996). ...
... There are several key findings from the Chui et al. (2022) study. Psychologists find that individuals who adopt the perspective of others are likely to develop a mental representation (understanding and interpretation of a task) similar to the representation developed by those from the adopted perspective (Davis et al. 1996). 3 Developing a mental picture of the task is an indispensable component of individuals' judgment and decision-making processes (Greeno 1977). ...
Chui, Curtis, and Pike (2022) find that auditors encouraged to take a forensic specialist’s perspective provide a more effective and efficient risk response in varying fraud risk environments than with their traditional mindset. The study provides evidence that auditors can adopt the forensic perspective, which focuses on fraud detection, while maintaining their typical audit roles and responsibilities. We summarize their key findings and discuss practical implications and actionable suggestions for audit practitioners. These insights suggest a potential low-cost mechanism to improve auditors’ fraud risk assessments and subsequent risk responses.
... In a team-based design study conducted by the same group, high team empathy was found to positively relate to the teams' generation and selection of unique ideas (Alzayed Alsager, Miller, Menold, et al., 2020). In addition to the impact of empathy on design outcomes, Surma- Furthermore, prior work suggests that individuals' empathy manifests along two paths: (1) imagining how others feel in a particular situation and (2) imagining how the individual themselves would feel in a situation (Batson et al., 1997;Davis et al., 1996Davis et al., , 2004. Of the two paths, the latter has particularly been shown to trigger an individual's personal distress, i.e., one's tendency to act upon their feelings of empathy (Batson et al., 1997;Davis et al., 1996Davis et al., , 2004. ...
... In addition to the impact of empathy on design outcomes, Surma- Furthermore, prior work suggests that individuals' empathy manifests along two paths: (1) imagining how others feel in a particular situation and (2) imagining how the individual themselves would feel in a situation (Batson et al., 1997;Davis et al., 1996Davis et al., , 2004. Of the two paths, the latter has particularly been shown to trigger an individual's personal distress, i.e., one's tendency to act upon their feelings of empathy (Batson et al., 1997;Davis et al., 1996Davis et al., , 2004. Therefore, designers' tendency to act on issues related to sustainability could be influenced by their perception of and distance from these issues. ...
Designers’ empathy plays an important role in supporting socially conscious design. Although widely studied in engineering design, a majority of the research on empathy focuses on designers’ ability to empathize with primary users; little attention is given to empathizing with those affected in a secondary or tertiary capacity – an important consideration when evaluating the broader impacts of design decisions in the context of environmental sustainability. Moreover, little research has investigated the influence of designers’ internal traits (e.g., beliefs, attitudes, and intentions) on their emphasis on environmental sustainability. Such an investigation could reveal the role of developing internal and interpersonal traits in sustainable design education. In this paper, we explore this gap by introducing student designers to a hands-on sustainable design workshop. We compared changes in their trait empathy and their beliefs, attitudes, and intentions toward sustainability from before to after the workshop. We also compared the relationship between these individual differences and participants’ self-evaluated sustainability of their solutions. We see that participants reported an increase in their beliefs and intentions towards sustainability and a decrease in personal distress from before to after the workshop. Furthermore, participants who received the sustainable design lecture reported that their solutions were more sustainable in terms of disposal, salvaging, and recycling. Finally, trait empathy significantly predicted the self-evaluated sustainability of solutions on the following dimensions of sustainable design: disposal, recycling, and finding wholesome alternatives. These findings call for future work into the influence of designers’ individual differences on their approach to sustainable design.
... In cases of imagine-self perspective taking, a metacognitive component may also prove to be important for uncovering common ground. On the one hand, imagineself perspective taking can promote an increased sense of similarity and ''self-other overlap'' with respect to shared attributes between empathizer and target, in turn promoting feelings of closeness and liking on the part of both the empathizer and the target (Davis et al., 1996;Galinsky & Ku, 2004;Goldstein et al., 2014). Yet, perceived similarity is not actual similarity. ...
... Second, as described above, finding common ground may blur (or make less salient) group boundaries of the sort that fuel bias toward outgroup members and bad epistemic practices associated with this, such as dismissing outgroup opponents' views at the outset or ignoring their testimony. That is, the increased sense of similarity and liking that certain empathic exercises can yield-especially imagine-self perspective taking (Davis et al., 1996;Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000;Gehlbach et al., 2015), discussed above-may blur harmful group divides that prevent listening to and learning from certain others. ...
Affective polarization is characterized by deep antagonism between political opponents and is an issue of growing concern. Some philosophers have recently suggested empathy as a possible remedy. In particular, it has been suggested that empathy might mitigate the harm resulting from affective polarization by helping us find common ground across our differences. While these discussions provide a helpful starting point, important questions regarding the conditions under which empathizing and finding common ground are morally appropriate and likely to be useful, given the many risks associated with taking this approach, remain unaddressed. In this paper, I therefore give an account of the risks that we must reckon with if empathy and common ground are to help remedy affective polarization and repair damaged relations between political opponents. Far from suggesting that empathy is morally unimportant or intrinsically harmful, my goal is thus to extend and amplify previous discussion to promote a more nuanced understanding of empathy's role in this important aspect of the moral life and to ensure that our efforts to empathize are appropriate and fruitful.
... Therefore, when we recognise how our actions affect these species, an empathic concern can produce altruistic motivation (Batson et al., 1995;Batson et al. 2015;Berenguer, 2010;Littledyke 2008;Schultz, 2000;Sevillano et al. 2007). Several authors (Ahn et al., 2016;Ames, Jenkins, Banaji, & Mitchell, 2008;Berenguer, 2010;Davis, Conklin, Smith, & Luce, 1996;Littledyke, 2008;Pekrun, 1992;Schultz, 2000;Young, Khalil, & Wharton, 2018) indicated that the conjunction of previously mentioned concepts improves the overall intention to help. Although several authors have linked the empathy-promoting exercises with improvement of attitudes towards objects or groups and environmentalism (Batson et al. 2015;Berenguer, 2010;Littledyke, 2008;Sevillano et al., 2007;Schultz, 2000), no relevant study was found applying it in correlation with the compliance of specific environmental norms or regulations. ...
... The study's methodological framework was based on the empathy-promoting strategies ( Figure 3), which generated a perspective of community and sustainability towards dolphinwatching activities (Berenguer, 2010;Davis et al., 1996;Schultz, 2000). ...
Cetacean watching is an increasingly popular economic activity in Ecuador for tourism operators. Despite government regulations, cetacean watching can have a negative impact on observed animal populations. To enhance good dolphin-watching practices, a course was carried out in Puerto El Morro, Ecuador about sensitisation activities promoting empathy towards and knowledge about bottlenose dolphins, local avifauna and mangrove ecosystems. The course provided tourism operator staff with theoretical and practical knowledge on dolphin physiology and ecology, with a focus on empathy towards the species and on regulations to be respected during the watching tours. The course included interactive workshops, didactic materials, advice, video screening and structured conversations. Two innovative questionnaires were implemented on the boat during 68 dolphin-watching tours to evaluate whether the training course had improved the regulation compliance and on-tour guiding quality of the tour guides and boat drivers. The results showed a statistically significant improvement in dolphin-watching practices in compliance with the “Regulations for the Whale and Dolphin Watching of Ecuador” (p = .0002) and in guidance quality (p = .0004) after the training course. Boat drivers were identified as influential actors in compliance with regulations and should also be included in the environmental awareness training courses. The study showed that empathy-based sensitisation and knowledge reinforcement positively affect policy compliance and can generate new sustainable approaches for future dolphin-watching activities.
... The process of Froukje Sleeswijk Visser, Jeroen van Erp Let's step into each other's worlds: designing for local transformation process Linköping University Electronic Press perspective transformation could be addressed by promoting empathy with members of the other group. Empathy is about understanding another person's situation through perspective-taking, or imagining the world from another person's point of view (Davis et al, 1996). Techniques, such as role playing, gamification or other immersive activities can promote active perspective taking. ...
In our densely-populated cities, fostering harmony between differing communities is an increasingly difficult art, and one in which design can provide positive contributions. This paper describes a design project which aimed to decrease tensions between youth and residents in a city neighbourhood through an empathy-building process. Individuals from both groups were guided through the process of stepping into each others’ worlds (through Virtual Reality) and developing solutions together to address points of tension. Their individual transformative processes were tracked in order to make the implicit outcomes of such design processes explicit. Throughout this process new dynamics and connections emerged, revealing grounds for structurally decreasing tensions and promoting participatory approaches for local transformation processes. This paper describes the project and presents our learnings regarding (1) the transformative impact on the involved individuals from the neighbourhood and (2) reflections on the contributing roles of the designers in social innovation projects.
... 403). Previous research (Davis, Conklin, Smith, & Luce, 1996) has shown that a perspective taking manipulation increases the perceived interconnectedness between the self and others. Schultz found support for his hypothesis when he encouraged college students to adopt the perspective of an animal that was shown as being harmed by environmental degradation (oil spills, litter, etc.), thus presumably increasing the perceived relatedness between the student and the animal. ...
The often impassioned nature of environmental conflicts can be attributed to the fact that they are bound up with our sense of personal and social identity. Environmental identity—how we orient ourselves to the natural world—leads us to personalize abstract global issues and take action (or not) according to our sense of who we are. We may know about the greenhouse effect—but can we give up our SUV for a more fuel-efficient car? Understanding this psychological connection can lead to more effective pro-environmental policymaking.
Identity and the Natural Environment examines the ways in which our sense of who we are affects our relationship with nature, and vice versa. This book brings together cutting-edge work on the topic of identity and the environment, sampling the variety and energy of this emerging field but also placing it within a descriptive framework. These theory-based, empirical studies locate environmental identity on a continuum of social influence, and the book is divided into three sections reflecting minimal, moderate, or strong social influence. Throughout, the contributors focus on the interplay between social and environmental forces; as one local activist says, "We don't know if we're organizing communities to plant trees, or planting trees to organize communities."
... Although some evidence suggests that certain components of empathy may be innate, such as the capacity to identify emotions in others, other aspects such as compassionate behaviour and perspective-taking may be more adaptable and receptive to training (Eisenberg & Miller, 1987;de Waal, 2008). Studies have demonstrated that programs designed to enhance empathy can be successful in improving different dimensions of empathy, including identifying emotions, adopting different perspectives, and expressing compassionate behaviour (Chen et al., 2011;Davis et al., 1996;Hoffman, 2000). Nevertheless, the efficacy of these programs might rely on different factors, such as the length and content of the training, the trainee's age and personality, and the context of the training (Decety & Cowell, 2014). ...
This qualitative research advocates for prioritizing Critical and Creative Thinking in professional design over empathy. The study involved 74 undergraduate Product Design and Engineering students from Brazil, Portugal, and India to explore the relationship between these thinking skills and sustainability. The students’ Critical and Creative Thinking levels were evaluated using rubrics developed by Shively et al. (2018) and a multi-level framework developed by Ceschin & Gaziulusoy (2019) was applied to identify sustainable innovation levels. The research highlights the need to enhance tertiary students’ skills in addressing wicked problems, a concern recognized by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development for the 21st-century workplace. This research contributes to the ongoing debate on the significance of Critical and Creative Thinking in professional design practice and emphasizes the importance of integrating sustainability considerations into design education.
... Perspective-taking was assessed using four items adapted from the research conducted by Grant et al. [55] and derived from the perspective-taking measure developed by Davis et al. [56]. The selected items for measurement were: "I look at things from the perspective of others", "I imagine how my actions will affect things that are important to others", "I understand why particular issues hold emotional significance for others", and "I look at matters in terms of other people's personal concerns". ...
Emotional eating has emerged as a significant disordered eating and public health concern among adolescents. Despite the widespread prevalence of social networking site (SNS) use among this population, research investigating the influence of SNS use on adolescent eating behaviors remains limited. This study is to examine the impact of SNS use on emotional eating among Chinese adolescents, with a specific focus on exploring the mediating role of negative social comparisons and the moderating effect of perspective-taking. Data were obtained through an online survey involving 778 middle school students in China. The findings indicate that SNS use exerts a positive influence on adolescents’ engagement in emotional eating, with this association being mediated by the presence of negative social comparisons. Perspective-taking demonstrated a protective role in the context of adolescents’ utilization of social media platforms. For individuals characterized by high levels of perspective-taking, the effects of SNS use on negative social comparisons are mitigated, subsequently reducing its impact on emotional eating.
... This will likely extend teachers' understanding of the constraints and difficult problems that students face. Putting oneself in another person's shoes and being able to see things from their perspective increases liking (Davis et al., 1996), helping (Batson, 1991) and prosocial behavior-behaviors that promote the welfare of individuals (Brief & Motowidlo, 1986). It enhances teachers' understanding of students' needs. ...
Prior research has adopted a job-crafting perspective to explain why employees attempt to craft their roles meaningfully (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). We explore this theoretical lens in a new context that is particularly challenging for workers and where it would seem unlikely to apply: poverty. More specifically, we study female teachers in slums in India. We use a mixed- methods approach—first qualitative research, then quantitative research—to contextualize job- crafting theorizing by identifying, conceptualizing, and testing situational challenges and enablers in regard to meaningful work in this context. More specifically, we develop and corroborate new theory suggesting that poverty- and gender-related stressors deplete teachers’ energy and resources, limiting relational job crafting, but that teachers’ identification with the community helps to counteract this challenge, ultimately increasing their social impact. More fundamentally, we show how job-crafting theorizing, contextualized in a poverty setting, helps to understand how social organizations, through their fieldworkers (e.g., female teachers), create social impact.
... Similarly, perspective-taking has been found to influence several different attitudes and behaviors of targets based on these perspectivetaking manipulations. Davis et al. (1996) found perspective-taking increased liking and psychological closeness of targets. After engaging in a perspective-taking exercise, participants were found to report more liking and feelings of closeness with a target. ...
... As for the intension of empathy, based on the previous studies, it does not have just single but multiple dimensions (Dziobek et al., 2011;Schwenck et al., 2012;Zaki & Ochsner, 2012). Specifically, empathy is commonly divided into two types: cognitive empathy and affective empathy (Strayer, 1990;Davis et al., 1996;Hoffman, 2001;Singer, 2006;Shen, 2010). ...
Virtual Reality (VR), as a modern technology, can embody perspective-taking, making people see the world through the eyes of others. Many research has found that VR can be an effective medium to facilitate empathy; besides, some studies have investigated the underlying mechanism of empathy facilitation through VR devices. The current research examines whether the difference in visual perspective, which are represented as the first or third-person point of view, would affect the empathy facilitation of VR users.We invited forty people, separated into two groups as the first-person perspective group (1PP) and the third-person perspective group (3PP). The subjects were asked to watch the video through VR devices with same contents but from different points of view. The results indicated that there was no significant difference in empathy facilitation between the two groups. However, after dividing empathy into two dimensions, affective and cognitive empathy, the former showed a significant difference. Experiencing from the third-person perspective, the subjects aroused more emotions, such as guilty and compassion, thereby cultivating empathy toward the character of the video. Furthermore, for the feelings of the VR experience, the subjects of 1PP and 3PP displayed great disparity as well. Most of the subjects of 3PP subjectively considered the experience good, while the others felt neutral.
... By actively trying to understand the perspective of a member of an outgroup, an observer can more accurately assess how best to communicate with varying individuals [3]. In addition to creating more effective communications, perspective-taking can reduce an observer's biased thinking [4,5] or positively change his/her opinion about an individual belonging to another group [3], usually one that is commonly stereotyped, as well as the group as a whole [6]. ...
... Perspective taking, which involves adopting the viewpoints of others to understand their needs, thoughts, and feelings (Parker & Axtell, 2001), has long been studied in interpersonal relationships (Davis et al., 1996;Goldstein et al., 2014;Parker & Axtell, 2001). Perspective taking makes sense of others' well-being, intensifies sympathy and compassion toward the targets, and stimulates individuals to prioritize oth-ers' needs (Goldstein et al., 2014;Parker & Axtell, 2001;Škerlavaj et al., 2018). ...
Although the positive effects of structural holes on creativity have been well explored, little research has explored why structural holes damage creativity. Based on social network theory and impression management theory, we propose that the influence of structural holes of knowledge hiders in trust networks vary by dimensions (i.e., evasive hiding, playing dumb, and rationalized hiding) of knowledge hiding, and structural holes have various indirect effects on creativity via knowledge hiding. Following a two-wave survey of 217 R&D employees, our results show that trust structural holes positively affect all the dimensions of knowledge hiding, and their effect on rationalized hiding is stronger than that on evasive hiding and playing dumb. Furthermore, we prove that evasive hiding has a positive mediating effect on the creativity of brokers, whereas playing dumb and rationalized hiding have adverse effects. Thus, trust structural holes have positive indirect effects on creativity via evasive hiding, while the indirect effects on creativity via playing dumb and rationalized hiding are negative. Moreover, we reveal that perspective taking mitigates the positive effect of structural holes on evasive hiding and playing dumb.
... Then, participants were asked to complete a five-minute writing task about a specific experience from their life in which they had a conflict or disagreement with someone else, and participants were instructed to either describe the conflict/disagreement from their own perspective (low perspective taking) or from the perspective of the other person(s) involved (high perspective taking). This manipulation was proven effective in inducing perspective taking in previous studies (e.g., Davis et al., 1996). To ensure that participants were sufficiently engaged in the writing tasks, this section of the survey was timed, such that participants could not move on to the next part of the study until they had been writing for a minimum of five minutes. ...
Narcissism is commonly associated with aggressiveness, but the underlying mechanisms of this relationship are still not yet fully understood. Based on previous research showing that narcissists are suspicious, the present research investigated whether hostile attribution of intent could explain the relationship between narcissism and aggression. In Study 1, participants (N=347) completed a self-report measure of grandiose narcissism (Narcissistic Personality Inventory) and a measure of hostile attribution bias (Social Information Processing-Attribution Emotion Questionnaire). Analyses revealed that narcissism was a strong predictor of hostile attribution bias, angry feelings, and aggressive reactions. Moreover, hostile attribution bias appeared to mediate the relation between narcissism and aggressive reactions. Study 2 (N = 130) replicated the findings of Study 1 using a measure of vulnerable narcissism (Hypersensitive narcissism scale). In addition, perspective taking was manipulated in Study 2 and the results showed that participants in the high perspective taking condition (vs. low perspective taking) were less likely to make hostile attributions. These findings suggest that hostile attribution of intent is particularly relevant to understand narcissistic aggression.
... Perspective-taking is a difficult skill that requires attention and sufficient cognitive resources. Cognitive load hinders both emotion recognition [28,30] and perspective-taking [31]. Moreover, neuroscientists have shown that the more difficult it is to predict another person's intentions, the more active the brain areas involved in cognitive empathy become. ...
Virtual reality (VR) has been described as the ultimate empathy machine; but does it deserve this reputation? Thanks to its features of embodied technology, VR can let users virtually walk in someone else's shoes. In addition, multi-sensory VR experiences can present evocative and heart-wrenching stimuli. For these reasons, VR seems to be a likely candidate to foster empathy. However, the published literature indicates that the impact of VR on empathy is complex and depends both on the type of VR and also the type of empathy being evaluated. The present chapter compares two meta-analyses which suggest that VR can elicit empathy, but the theoretical factors on which the technology has more efficacies are in contrast. In this chapter, these discordant meta-analyses are discussed, and the reasons why they find different results are theorized. We attempt to answer when and how VR could be an empathy machine. We conclude that low-tech but evocative storytelling is most likely to yield emotional empathy, and embodied experiences that encourage perspective-taking will improve cognitive empathy. Although we attempt to present the latest empirical evidence about empathy and VR, we are aware that the scientific consensus around this topic is likely to evolve in the future.
... Peoples' ability to empathize is crucial to the establishment of positive mutual interactions and reduction of hostility and hate. Thus, the ability to look at the situation from the view point of other people changes the basic egocentric perceptiona change which can improve interpersonal relationships (Davis et al., 1996). Specifically, the empathy a person feels towards an out-group member was found to reduce his/her prejudice and stereotypes against the out-group, to increase motivation to help them, and improve the relationship between them (Dovidio et al., 2010;Eisenberg et al., 2010;Shih et al., 2009). ...
Arab society in Israel is a traditional patriarchal culture holding collectivistic, interdependent values. Arabs in Israel receive basic human rights and privileges, but the Israeli society treats them as a separate minority group. The basic premise of the current study was that improving the emotional intelligence and the empathy abilities of adolescent Arabs in general – through a uni-national group program – would result in stronger empathy towards Jews in Israel – a change that would improve the Arab participant's attitudes and behaviors towards the Jews in Israel. The research accompanying the implementation of the program was quasi-experimental. The main goals of the current intervention were to improve the intra-personal, interpersonal and inter-group skills and functioning, to strengthen awareness and skills in identifying and understanding emotions in themselves and other people – their causes and effects, to improve emotion regulation and ability to manage other people's emotions, to improve empathy towards members of the in-group (Arabs) and the out-group (Jews), to reduce stereotypes against minority groups, and to improve Jewish-Arab relations. The sample included 172 Arab 10th and 11th grade adolescents in northern Israel. The main research hypotheses were: 1) The participants' emotional intelligence and empathy towards Arabs will be higher at the end of the program than at its beginning; 2) The participants' empathy towards Jews will be higher at the end of the program than at its beginning.
... But this insufficient perspective taking is not without boundaries. There are times when people are highly capable of seeing their overlap with others: they can be trained to notice their shared thoughts (Prentice & Miller, 1993), and perspective taking can help to increase how readily people see their own traits in others (Davis et al., 1996). This past research suggests that encouraging decision makers to perspective-take might also lead them to recognize that others have the same motivations as they themselves have. ...
People need to take others’ perspectives into account in order to successfully coordinate their actions and optimally allocate limited resources like time, attention, or space. And yet, people often face frequent, but avoidable, coordination failures in the form of wait times, crowding, and unavailability of desirable options. Such poor coordination suggests that the necessary perspective taking (i.e., considering the likely motivations and behavior of others) may be either inadequate or incorrect. The current research suggests that coordination in such situations is frequently unsuccessful, not because people try to take others’ perspectives and are mistaken, but because they neglect to consider those perspectives sufficiently in the first place. Six experiments across a range of limited-resource contexts (e.g., choosing when to visit a store, stream on a limited bandwidth service, go to a popular vacation location, etc.) find that encouraging decision makers to consider what others might do and why they might do it can ameliorate such coordination problems. We further demonstrate a boundary condition: in situations where people’s motivations are inherently obvious, decision makers are naturally able to coordinate without an explicit nudge to perspective take. This research sheds light on a unique class of coordination problems in which people must consider others’ motivations without directly communicating with them, and provides theoretical and practical contributions with the potential to ameliorate common coordination failures.
... The cognitive outcomes produced by these processes include 'interpersonal accuracy' , the effective appraisal of another individual's feelings, motivations, and interests (e.g., Dymond, 1950;Ickes, 1993). Further, perspective-taking has been tied to changes in the cognitive representations that observers form of the observed (Davis et al., 1996;Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000). ...
Humanitarian access—people’s ability to reach aid and aid's ability to reach people—is widely understood to be a central challenge in humanitarian action. One of the most important ways in which humanitarian access is practically secured in conflict settings is through frontline humanitarian negotiations. In this type of negotiation, humanitarians engage in face-to-face interactions with conflict parties to secure safe access to, and protection of, civilian populations in situations of armed conflict. An underdeveloped aspect of such negotiations that is ripe for further exploration is the role of empathy. The purpose of this article is thus to draw on the insights of the empathy literature to explore how empathy shapes humanitarian protection work in the specific domain of frontline humanitarian negotiations. Part one conceptualizes empathy, drawing on the interdisciplinary field of scientific research. Part two introduces the practice of frontline humanitarian negotiation and explains why empathy is critical, particularly in the increasingly fragmented environments that negotiators must operate. Adopting a relational approach, Part three advances a framework for analyzing empathy in frontline humanitarian negotiations. We theorize empathy's salience across four different axes of negotiation, drawing insights gleaned from scholarship and a systematic review of the grey literature on humanitarian negotiation, including field manuals, training materials, and operational guidance. We do not ultimately argue for ‘more empathy’ in this type of work, but rather a more thoughtful approach to empathy—one that entails the cultivation of core empathy-related skill areas, including: emotion regulation, perspective-taking, social awareness, and strategic conveyance of empathy. We contend that this approach could help to alleviate numerous problems in the humanitarian sector, including aid worker burnout.
... Understanding the perspectives of others in turn leads to the appreciation of alternative and competing viewpoints, which is third point (Boix Mansilla & Jackson, 2011;Tiwald, 2011). In this regard, researchers have underlined the importance of perspective-taking for empathy, sympathy, altruism, ethics and inter-faith dialogue (Batson, Early & Salvarani, 1997;Davis et al., 1996;Friedman & Jack, 2018;Galinsky, Ku & Wang, 2005;Ku, Wang & Galinsky, 2015;Odin, 2016;Tiwald, 2011;Underwood & Moore,1982;Wu & Keysar, 2007). Perspectivetaking is instrumental in addressing cultural stereotypes and prejudice. ...
Offering a Daoist interpretation of perspective-taking, this article expounds the philosophical thought of Zhuangzi on this topic. Zhuangzi’s views can be consolidated into two broad areas: the challenge of perspective-taking and recommendations to foster perspective-taking. A primary hindrance, according to Zhuangzi, is limited human perspective that results in narrow-mindedness, dogmatism, self-serving moral standard and disharmony among humans. To advance perspective-taking, Zhuangzi introduces three essential Daoist concepts: ‘having no fixed identity’, ‘following the Heavenly and attaining dao’ and ‘matching of dao (Course or Way)’. Zhuangzi cautions against embracing a rigid perspective by being inflexible, dogmatic and judgemental in one’s thinking, actions and relationships. Humans should instead (re)turn to their natural disposition and harmonise their perspectives with those of others. A key implication of Zhuangzi’s philosophical thought sketched in this essay is a formulation of perspective-taking that emphasises self-transformation and social harmony.
... A pluralistic orientation is tied to students' thinking and social interaction capacities, which are closely linked with cognitive developmental theory (belenky, Clinchy, goldberger, & Tarule, 1986;Perry, 1968), socio-cognitive skills that involve perspective-taking (bennett, 1993;davis, 1983davis, : davis, Conklin, smith, & luce, 1996, as well as new developmental models of intercultural competence or maturity (king & Baxter Magolda, 2005). From a theoretical standpoint, it incorporates higher levels of complex thinking that enable students to engage in cooperative behaviors, manage controversial issues, and develop a high regard for others' perspectives, beliefs, and backgrounds. ...
... While participants did not observe any emotions directly, they may have used perspective taking to imagine the potential happiness or suffering of charities and strangers when first learning for whom they will be earning funds. The extent to which individuals initially took the perspective of charities and strangers may have increased the extent to which their representation of that target overlapped with their own self representation 38,58,59 . When actually deciding to invest effort or not, participants had only 5 s to integrate information about the target, the value of the reward, and the level of effort required. ...
Effort is aversive and often avoided, even when earning benefits for oneself. Yet, people sometimes work hard for others. How do people decide who is worth their effort? Prior work shows people avoid physical effort for strangers relative to themselves, but invest more physical effort for charity. Here, we find that people avoid cognitive effort for others relative to themselves, even when the cause is a personally meaningful charity. In two studies, participants repeatedly decided whether to invest cognitive effort to gain financial rewards for themselves and others. In Study 1, participants (N = 51; 150 choices) were less willing to invest cognitive effort for a charity than themselves. In Study 2, participants (N = 47; 225 choices) were more willing to work cognitively for a charity than an intragroup stranger, but again preferred cognitive exertion that benefited themselves. Computational modeling suggests that, unlike prior physical effort findings, cognitive effort discounted the subjective value of rewards linearly. Exploratory machine learning analyses suggest that people who represented others more similarly to themselves were more willing to invest effort on their behalf, opening up new avenues for future research.
... However, little research has explored this relationship. This direction of work is particularly important as several researchers (e.g., see work by Batson et al. (1997) and Davis et al. (1996Davis et al. ( , 2004) have argued that individuals' empathy emerges along two distinct pathways: (1) perceiving situations through someone else's lens (i.e., imagine-target) and ...
As global resources deplete, there has emerged a need for designers to emphasize sustainability in engineering design. Several researchers have proposed design tools to support sustainable design; however, designers must be sufficiently motivated to actively adopt a sustainable design mindset and utilize these design tools. Prior research has identified the need for interpersonal skills (e.g., empathy, pro-environmental attitudes, and intentions) among individuals to encourage an active sustainable mindset. While researchers have demonstrated the relationship between designers’ empathy and their identification of problem requirements in design, little research has explored this relationship in the context of sustainable design. Moreover, little research has investigated this relationship with a focus on novice designers. Our aim in this paper is to explore this research gap through an experimental study with 40 undergraduate engineering students. Specifically, we investigated the relationship between novice designers’ trait empathy, their beliefs, attitudes, and intentions towards environmental sustainability, and their identification of problem requirements. From the results, we see that participants’ empathic concern – a component of trait empathy – correlated positively with their attitudes and intentions towards sustainability. Additionally, participants’ beliefs, attitudes, and intentions towards sustainability significantly predicted their identification of environment-focused problem requirements, with their intentions towards sustainable action demonstrating the strongest positive relationship. Finally, we see that although components of participants’ trait empathy did not significantly predict their identification of problem requirements, participants’ score on fantasy demonstrated the strongest positive relationship with the number of environment-focused requirements identified by them, a novel finding in this work. Taken together, these findings provide an important first step towards understanding the relationship between novice designers’ individual differences and their adoption of environment-focused sustainability in engineering design.
... To be clear, this study is not longitudinal nor does it include measures of actual parole officer behavior or parolee success. However, research suggests that self-expansion can influence not only cognition but also behavior (Aron et al., 1991;Aron and Aron, 1996;Davis et al., 1996;Cialdini et al., 1997). Moreover, implicit social cognitions predict behavioral actions, often having greater explanatory power in behavioral outcomes than explicit social cognitions (Greenwald et al., 2009;Charlesworth and Banaji, in press). ...
Background
Parole officers are one of many actors in the legal system charged with interpreting and enforcing the law. Officers not only assure that parolees under their supervision comply with the terms of their release, but also monitor and control parolees’ criminal behavior. They conduct their jobs through their understanding of their official mandate and make considered and deliberate choices while executing that mandate. However, their experiences as legal actors may impact their implicit cognitions about parolees. This experiment is the first of its kind to examine implicit (i.e., automatic) associations between the self and parolees among actors of the legal system.
Objective
The present study examines the implicit cognitive consequences of the quality of the parole officer-parolee relationship from the perspective of the parole officer; specifically, whether parole officers who are reminded of positive experiences with parolees implicitly associate more with the group parolees than those reminded of a negative experience. In addition, we explore the moderating effects of parole officers’ subjective professional orientation and identification.
Method
Eighty-four New Jersey parole officers participated in the study. First, an experimental manipulation of either a past positive or negative experience was administered via a writing task. Participants then completed an Implicit Association Test (IAT) to measure associations between the self-concept of parole officers with parolees who are part of the group criminal, followed by measures of professional orientation and identification.
Results
Participants who were reminded of a positive experience with a parolee exhibited stronger associations between self and the group parolee when compared to those who were reminded of a negative experience. Neither professional orientation nor parole officer group identification were related to implicit associations and did not moderate the effect of the past experience reminder on implicit associations.
Conclusion and Implications
Implicit cognitions of parole officers may influence their behaviors and interactions with those whom they supervise. Positive reminders affect implicit self-associations with parolees presumably via empathy, which is known to affect the quality of therapeutic and supervision relationships; thus, theoretically, leading to improved outcomes for both officers and parolees.
... The perception of similarity between the self and others might facilitate one to take others' perspectives (Cialdini, Brown, Lewis, Luce & Neuberg, 1997), to create experiences of empathic emotions (Cialdini et aI., 1997;Davis, Conklin, Smith & Luce, 1996), and as a consequence, to increase the likelihood that the individual will provide help when one is in need (Batson, Fultz & Schoenrade, 1987). Other empirical evidence suggests that similarity among relationship partners in many domains results in greater relationship cohesion and stability (Acitelli, Kenny & Weiner, 2001;Burleson & Denton, 1992). ...
p>Children’s AD/HD often elicits a negative parental response but little is known about the impact of parental AD/HD on parenting. In this thesis, I examined the impact of child and parent AD/HD and their interaction on parenting. In Study 1, these effects were examined using questionnaire-based measures of parenting provided by 95 mothers of school children. In Study 2, these self reports were replaced by direct observations of mother-child interactions and Expressed Emotion (EE) in 192 mothers of preschoolers. In Study 3, they were extended further by adding measures of empathy and by examining both mothers’ (N= 277) and fathers’ (N-86) parenting. The results demonstrated that child AD/HD symptoms were associated with negative parenting and hostile EE. Maternal AD/HD symptoms were positively associated with hostile EE, and negatively with empathy and positive parenting. Interestingly, mothers with high AD/HD symptoms had more positive and less negative parenting and personal distress for the children with high AD/HD symptoms. In contrast, fathers with high AD/HD symptoms had more negative parenting for the children with high AD/HD symptoms. These findings raised the question of whether the effects of child-parental similarity in AD/HD generalise to emotional/depressive characteristics. An analysis revealed that child-mother similarity in emotional/depressive characteristics decreased Negative Expressed Emotion (NEE). Indeed, mothers with high depressive characteristics displayed the same levels of NEE regardless of the severity of child emotional symptoms. The results of the thesis highlight the importance of taking account of maternal (and paternal) AD/HD when assessing the parenting of children with AD/HD. The findings may be especially significant in planning new clinical services and treatments for AD/HD.</p
... Mead (1934) ve Piaget (1932 bir başkasının perspektifini alma yeteneğine sahip olmanın ve kullanmanın, insanın sosyal becerilerinden biri olduğunu savunmuştur. Bu fikre göre, iyi gelişmiş perspektif alma yetenekleri, olağan benmerkezciliğimizin üstesinden gelmemize, davranışlarımızı başkalarının beklentilerine göre şekillendirmemize ve böylece tatmin edici bireylerarası ilişkileri mümkün kılmasına olanak sağlar (Aktaran Davis, Conklin, Smith ve Luce, 1996). Endocatt ve Brooks (2013, s. 46) tarihsel empatinin bir bileşeni olarak perspektif almayı "bir kişinin ele alınan durum hakkında nasıl düşünmüş olabileceğini anlamak için o kişinin yaşanmış deneyimlerini, ilkelerini, içinde bulunduğu durumu, tutumlarını ve inançlarını anlamak" şeklinde tanımlamıştır. ...
The present study aimed to examine the historical empathy experiences of students working on various historical evidence involving cognitive (historical context, perspective taking) and effective connections within the framework of a historical empathy model (historical context, perspective taking and affective connection). Educational case study design, one of the qualitative research methods, was adopted for the research. The study group of the research consists of 6th-grade students attending to a public secondary school in the 2019-2020 academic year. The study group was determined by the convenient sampling method, which is one of the non-random sampling techniques. The data of the research consists of written documents obtained from diary and story writing activities and participant observer notes. Documents were analysed in accordance with the stages of descriptive analysis method by making use of the historical empathy model of Endacott and Brooks. Results based on the historical empathy activity results that the level of perspective-taking skills of the students working on sources involving perspective taking and aeffective connections did not increase, they had difficulty in comprehending the historical context, and they were mostly inadequate for making effective connections in their narrative. As for those students who worked on sources involving historical context information and effective connections, their levels of perspective-taking skill as reflected by their diaries did not increase but their levels of comprehending historical context and making effective connections increased at a strong and acceptable level depending on the story activity. It was concluded that when historical context information involved in the respective historical evidence is decreased, this results in a decrease in students' written statements of taking historical perspective and making effective connections in their historical empathy activities, which also leads to an increase in descriptions containing presentism and anachronic narrative mistakes.
... Results showed that participant's real income bored no impact on expensiveness perception of prescription. One should expect that participants were judging cost as if it was chiefly referring to themselves, based on perspective-taking research findings, whose experimental settings usually generate reflexive responses (Butler et al., 1999;Davis et al., 1996;Ligneau-Hervé & Mullet, 2005). One possible account of this result would be that the fictitious patient's monthly income and medical prescription amounts became more salient than the participant's income reference. ...
Primary nonadherence to medical prescription is a notorious phenomenon among the elderly. The perceived cost of medication and supplementary diagnostic tests is a major factor driving prescription adherence decisions. To explore the way such a factor impinges on the perception of prescription cost, two independent samples of elderly volunteers (medication, N=59; supplementary diagnostic tests, N=58) rated on a visual analogue scale specific amounts of money matching three proportions of income reduction of a fictitious patient. Both medication and supplementary diagnostic tests modalities of prescription showed participants' perception of cost to notoriously vary in the 3% and the 30% proportions of prescription values to the fictitious patient's income, but not in the 15%. Further, different patterns of perceived cost response suggest that an element of intertemporal choice influenced cost perception. Participants' income had had no impact on their perception of cost, contrary to the pattern of self-referent responses that "perspective-taking" approaches would suggest. Further, research would benefit from broadening these experimental settings to include other known factors impacting nonadherence along with cost.
... Diese Ausweitung trug zur Reduzierung von Vorurteilen und Diskriminierung bei. (Davis, 1983;Davis, Conklin, Smith, & Luce, 1996;Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000). Der Selbstwert scheint nun die Fähigkeit zur Perspektivübernahme zu moderieren. ...
Neff (2003a) beschreibt Self-Compassion als Fähigkeit, sich selbst auch in schwierigen Lebenssituationen mitfühlend und in positiver Grundeinstellung zu begegnen. Ethnozentrismus ist die Wahrnehmung der Eigengruppe als Zentrum. Alles andere wird an ihr gemessen und bewertet, wobei Fremdgruppen meist abgewertet werden (Sumner, 1906; Neuliep & McCroskey, 1997). Das Konstrukt Autoritarismus, das Konservatismus und Unterordnung beschreibt, wurde in den 1950er
Jahren durch Adorno, Frenkel-Brenswik, Levinson, & Sanford eingeführt und wird bis heute verwendet, um Vorurteile und Diskriminierung zu erklären (Bierlein, Asbrock, Kauff, & Schmidt, 2014). In der Autoritarismusforschung von Decker, Yendell & Brähler (2018) gilt die fehlende Wahrnehmung von Anerkennung als eine Ursache für autoritäre und ethnozentrische Verhaltensweisen. Daneben soll auch ein niedriger Selbstwert Ethnozentrismus und Autoritarismus vorhersagen können (Kehoe, 1982; Oesterreich, 2005). Es wird angenommen, dass Personen mit weniger Self-Compassion stärkere anti-demokratische Einstellungen zeigen. In einer Onlinebefragung, an der 153 Versuchspersonen teilnahmen, wurden Self-Compassion, Ethnozentrismus,
Autoritarismus, Anerkennung und der Selbstwert erhoben. In den Korrelations-, Regressions-, und Mediationsanalysen konnte kein Zusammenhang zwischen Self-Compassion und anti-demokratischen
Einstellungen festgestellt werden. In den Post-hoc-Analysen wurden allerdings Hinweise auf einen verstärkenden Einfluss von Self-Compassion gefunden, insbesondere in Form eines Moderationseffektes. Je weniger Self-Compassion eine Person zeigte, desto stärker war der Zusammenhang zwischen Ethnozentrismus und Autoritarismus. Die Ergebnisse wurden diskutiert und in den gesellschaftlichen sowie wissenschaftlichen Diskurs eingebettet.
... Psychologists who study perspective taking have documented how it can reduce prejudice, including racial bias (Finlay and Stephan, 2000;Todd et al., 2011;Vescio et al., 2003), age bias (Galinsky and Moskowitz, 2000) biases toward individuals with a disease (Batson et al., 1997), and biases toward the homeless (Batson et al., 1997). Researchers have postulated that the success of perspective-taking in reducing bias is due to an expansion of one's sense of self whereby an individual comes to regard an outgroup as more self-like (Davis et al., 1996). Galinsky and Moskowitz (2000) note that 'Perspective-taking has been shown to lead to a merging of the self and the other, in which the perspective-taker's thoughts toward the target become more 'selflike' ' (p. ...
Although the literature on critical thinking and transformative learning has remained relatively distinct, they have both emphasized the importance of working through and resolving states of doubt. There has been less focus, however, on how we can bring ourselves from a confirmed belief to a position of doubt. This is a foundational skill. Without it, the possibility for intellectual and personal growth is limited. In part one, I focus on critical thinking to investigate what ability and/or disposition can help thinkers arouse a state of doubt. I first consider traditional dispositions of critical thinking, specifically reflection and open-mindedness, and argue that they are largely ineffective as they do not confront the problem of cognitive bias. I then propose perspective-taking as an essential tool to bring about a position of doubt. In part two, I examine leading theorists in transformative experience, transformative education, and transformative learning, who have also largely neglected perspective-taking. I illustrate that perspective-taking can initiate some instances of transformative learning and thereby provides a connecting point to critical thinking. Nevertheless, when engaging with perspective-taking exercises, I argue that instructors ought to prioritize the development of students’ critical thinking skills. In part three, I focus my discussion on incorporating nonfiction perspective-taking readings into university course syllabi as a way to develop students’ critical thinking while creating the conditions for transformative learning.
... One promising method of encouraging empathy is through perspective-taking. According to the psychological theory of perspective-taking, encouraging a subject to adopt the perspective of an individual out-group member can encourage more positive views toward the out-group overall (Batson et al. 1997), either by encouraging the overlap of cognitive representations of the self and the out-group (Davis et al. 1996) so that positive self-evaluations transfer to out-group members (Todd and Galinsky 2014) or by increasing the salience of non-dispositional factors when explaining out-group behavior (Vescio, Sechrist, and Paolucci 2003). ...
This paper develops Engagement, Perspective-Taking, and Recalibration (EPR), a theory of prejudice reduction and support for racial policies. I argue that interventions using engagement to encourage perspective-taking reduce prejudice and recalibrate the subject's emotional orientation toward an out-group. Using EPR, I develop an intervention to reduce prejudice toward African Americans and increase support for racial equity policies. The intervention encourages individuals to adopt the perspective of a Black man who experiences prejudice and make choices how to respond. Using an experiment in which 1,261 adults completed either the treatment or a placebo task, I find that the intervention significantly reduces prejudice, with the largest effects among those with the highest baseline animus. Reducing prejudice increases support for policies aimed at helping Black people. These results provide insight into the nature of prejudice and its impact on racial policies, and offers a low-cost intervention to increase tolerance.
... Perspective-taking interventions are thought to work by increasing empathy towards an individual member of an out-group which in turn increases the concern for and value placed on the outgroup (Batson et al. 1997), which reduces prejudice. These interventions may also work by encouraging the overlap of cognitive representations of the self and the out-group, a phenomenon called "self-out-group merging" (Davis et al. 1996). Since most people have positive self-evaluations, an associative transfer process then occurs whereby positive self-evaluations transfer to members of the out-group (Todd and Galinsky 2014). ...
This dissertation develops and tests Engagement, Perspective-Taking, and Re-calibration (EPR), a theory of how to reduce prejudice and its consequences on political attitudes. I theorize that an intervention that uses engagement to encourage perspective-taking reduces prejudice and re-calibrates the subject’s attribution of blame for America’s racial problems. This last step, “re-calibration,” shifts the target of blame from out-group members to the forces of racism and discrimination which alters political attitudes rooted in prejudice. I employ my theory of EPR to develop interventions to reduce anti-Black prejudice among U.S. citizens using online perspective-taking tasks. The interventions encourage participants to adopt the perspective of an African American individual who experiences racial prejudice and make choices regarding how to respond to the bias they encounter. Interventions designed according to EPR theory were evaluated in three randomized experiments in which participants completed either the perspective-taking treatment or a placebo task. I find that participation in the perspective-taking task significantly reduces multiple forms of racial prejudice including racial resentment, negative affect, and belief in anti-Black stereotypes. The largest effects were among those with the highest levels of baseline prejudice. These studies also show that reducing prejudice increases support for policies that would help African Americans, including government assistance to Blacks, additional changes to ensure racial equality, affirmative action, and reparations for slavery. Similarly, reducing prejudice increases support for the belief that Blacks are not treated fairly in American society, increases support for policing reforms, and increases support for the Black Lives Matter protests against police violence. My results demonstrate that a substantial amount of opposition to racial policies is rooted in racial animus. But neither animus nor opposition to racial policies are immutable, reducing prejudice through my technique increases support for policies to redress racial inequities. This dissertation offers two empirically evaluated interventions that may be used as low-cost bias reduction trainings to combat the rising hate-related incidents in the United States. More broadly, my results provide insight into the nature of racial prejudice and its impact on political attitudes.
p>The overestimating effect of one's tendency and contribution to pro-environmental practices, and underestimating the pro-environmental behavior of others has been noted recently in cross-country studies. The present work is devoted to a detailed post-hoc analysis of the available empirical data on this effect on the Russian sample (N = 109, M<sub>age</sub> = 28.3, SD<sub>age</sub> = 10.4, 39% men) and identification of the role of socio-demographic variables (gender, age, income, employment, size of city) as its predictors. The analysis showed that the nature of the contribution of the variables under consideration to the respondents' self-estimation and estimation of others with respect to pro-environmental behavior is non-consistent, which is in line with recent studies. On average for all models and statistically significant determinants, the standardized coefficient ???? does not exceed ∓0.25, which formally corresponds to a small effect size. However, given the empirical distribution of effect size typical of social psychology, it is more likely to be medium effects. The prediction power of linear models based on individual socio-demographic characteristics also turns out to be low, the coefficient of determination varies from 0.02 to 0.11. Therefore, it is acceptable to speak about the considered variables as predictors except in relation to resource saving and eco-mobility. The conclusion is made that along with socio-demographic determinants it is necessary to include other predictors in the design of experiments and investigate them more deeply.</p
Contact experiences with women in senior leadership roles are important for creating acceptance of women in organizations dominated by men, such as the military, as leadership roles are considered demanding, requiring numerous agentic qualities that are often ascribed to men. The military lacks women in leadership levels within its organization. We wished to determine whether quality and quantity contact with women in leadership positions reduces intergroup anxiety, increases empathy and perspective-taking, and subsequently creates more favorable attitudes toward women in the military. This was examined in three studies, one with a military sample consisting of men (n = 95), another with a civilian sample of men (n = 367), and a third study with a civilian sample of women (n = 374). Our findings revealed that quality contact was related to attitudes toward women in the military for all three samples. Results from the indirect effects tests conducted for the civilian male and female samples revealed that for civilian men, intergroup anxiety demonstrated a significant indirect effect between quantity contact and attitudes toward women in the military, while both intergroup anxiety and perspective-taking demonstrated significant indirect effects between quality contact and attitudes toward women in the military. Furthermore, both quantity and quality contact demonstrated significant direct effects. On the other hand, results revealed that for civilian women the only significant relation was the direct effect between quality contact and attitudes toward women in the military. Intergroup anxiety, perspective-taking, and empathy did not demonstrate any indirect effects for the civilian women sample. Thus, given that interactions with women in leadership positions are related to views of women in the military, research should further explore the role of contact for women in non-traditional work roles.
Objective
When people attempt to suppress stereotypes, they often end up making stereotypical judgments. The adverse effects of this form of suppression are called “paradoxical effects.” This study examined the effect of perspective-taking as a strategy to reduce the paradoxical effects related to stereotype suppression. Specifically, this study addressed stereotypes within the context of women’s mathematical abilities, with Japanese university students as participants. It was predicted that when participants suppressed the stereotype of a woman, those who engaged in perspective-taking toward that woman would make less stereotypical judgments of other women, compared with those who did not. Moreover, as this study focuses on gender stereotypes, an exploratory analysis was conducted to investigate whether the effects of engaging in perspective-taking about women vary depending on the participants’ gender.
Results
Although no significant effect was observed and the hypothesis was not supported, and while the results of this study were statistically inadequate, they suggest that among the female participants, those who did not engage in perspective-taking showed the paradoxical effects of stereotype suppression. However, those paradoxical effects were not observed among those who performed perspective-taking.
Attributing mental states to others, such as feelings, beliefs, goals, desires, and attitudes, is an important interpersonal ability, necessary for adaptive relationships, which underlies the ability to mentalize. To evaluate the attribution of mental and sensory states, a new 23-item measure, the Attribution of Mental States Questionnaire (AMS-Q), has been developed. The present study aimed to investigate the dimensionality of the AMS-Q and its psychometric proprieties in two studies. Study 1 focused on the development of the questionnaire and its factorial structure in a sample of Italian adults (N = 378). Study 2 aimed to confirm the findings in a new sample (N = 271). Besides the AMS-Q, Study 2 included assessments of Theory of Mind (ToM), mentalization, and alexithymia. A Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and a Parallel Analysis (PA) of the data from Study 1 yielded three factors assessing mental states with positive or neutral valence (AMS-NP), mental states with negative valence (AMS-N), and sensory states (AMS-S). These showed satisfactory reliability indexes. AMS-Q’s whole-scale internal consistency was excellent. Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) further confirmed the three-factor structure. The AMS-Q subscales also showed a consistent pattern of correlation with associated constructs in the theoretically predicted ways, relating positively to ToM and mentalization and negatively to alexithymia. Thus, the questionnaire is considered suitable to be easily administered and sensitive for assessing the attribution of mental and sensory states to humans. The AMS-Q can also be administered with stimuli of nonhuman agents (e.g., animals, inanimate things, and even God); this allows the level of mental anthropomorphization of other agents to be assessed using the human as a term of comparison, providing important hints in the perception of nonhuman entities as more or less mentalistic compared to human beings, and identifying what factors are required for the attribution of human mental traits to nonhuman agents, further helping to delineate the perception of others’ minds.
Objective:
This study investigated whether education about gene-by-environment interaction (G × E) concepts could improve G × E knowledge and positively affect empathy and weight stigma.
Design:
We conducted a randomized trial using a 2 × 2 between-subjects design.
Setting:
Online.
Participants:
Five hundred eighty-two American participants from the Prolific platform.
Intervention:
Participants were randomly assigned to watch an educational or a control video. Participants then watched a set of vignette scenarios that depicted what it is like to have a predisposition toward obesogenic eating behaviors from either a first-person or third-person perspective.
Main outcome measure(s):
Participants completed questionnaires measuring G × E knowledge, causal attributions, weight stigma, and empathy postintervention.
Analysis:
Two-by-two between-subjects ANOVAs and exploratory mediation analyses were conducted.
Results:
Participants who watched the educational video demonstrated greater G × E knowledge, reported higher empathy toward the characters in the vignette scenarios and held fewer stigmatizing attitudes (notably blame) toward individuals with higher weight. Exploratory mediation analyses indicated that the educational video led to these positive downstream effects by increasing the extent to which participants attributed genetic causes to eating behaviors.
Conclusions and implications:
Education about G × E causes of eating behaviors can have beneficial downstream effects on attitudes toward people with higher weight.
Although the negative impact of responsible leadership on employees’ unethical pro-organizational behavior has been documented in the literature, little is known about its underlying processes and boundaries. Drawing on social information processing theory and social learning theory, we built a moderated mediation model to explain why and when unethical pro-organizational behavior could be inhibited by responsible leadership. We conducted a two-phase questionnaire survey to collect data. The empirical results based on the sample of 557 Chinese salespeople showed that customer-oriented perspective taking partially mediated the negative link between responsible leadership and unethical pro-organizational behavior and that leader competence strengthened the direct effects of responsible leadership on customer-oriented perspective taking and unethical pro-organizational behavior as well as the indirect effect of responsible leadership on unethical pro-organizational behavior via customer-oriented perspective taking. These findings enrich the current understanding of how responsible leadership relates to unethical pro-organizational behavior, extend the limited literature on customer-oriented perspective taking, and offer some suggestions that managers can follow to inhibit unethical pro-organizational behavior. Limitations and future research directions are also discussed.
Family supportive supervisor behaviors (FSSB) have emerged as a powerful resource of informal support for the well‐being and development of employees. However, research to date offers limited insight into the antecedents and underlying processes that may trigger FSSBs. We investigate the association between family motivation of supervisors and FSSBs, and how the latter mediates the association between supervisors’ family motivation and subordinates’ work performance. Furthermore, we examine the role of supervisors’ satisfaction with their work–family balance as a contextual variable influencing our proposed associations. We draw on FSSB and perspective taking theory as over‐arching frameworks for our hypotheses. Using matched and multisource supervisor‐subordinate data collected from an organization in Chile (196 subordinates and 75 supervisors), our findings revealed that FSSBs are mechanisms linking supervisors’ family motivation to subordinates’ work performance. Interestingly, this positive association is moderated by supervisors’ satisfaction with their work–family balance, such that the mediation of FSSBs is stronger for supervisors who are not satisfied with their work–family balance.
Ez az írás a Visszatérés Epipóba című dokumentumfilmet veszi górcső alá, amely 2020 októberében debütált Oláh Judit rendezésében. Saját gyermekkori élményeinek feldolgozását, s annak történetét mondja el a jelen és a múlt idősíkjai között. Számtalan kérdés fogalmazódik meg, melyek központjában leginkább az a "miért" áll, amely a történtek jelenlegi perspektívából szemlélt irrelevanciáját erősíti a befogadóban. A tanulmányban egyúttal úgy reflektálok a különböző információkra, hogy különválasztom az oral historyt a narratív élettörténeti részek felidézésétől. A perspektivikus szemléletmód, a személypercepció, illetve a csoportidentitás kérdéskörein keresztül vizsgálom a táborban eltöltött időre való visszaemlékezéseket. Írásomban arra vállalkozok, hogy az Epipó-jelenséget mint a társas érintkezés egy formáját értelmezzem a rendező szemüvegén keresztül, mely folytonos feltételes módra szólít fel. Ennek oka a módszertani sajátosságok figyelembevétele, melyek a narratíva értelmezési kereteit megszabják. Az írás központi kérdése, hogy a visszaemlékezés szerint a csoporton belüliséggel milyen identitásképző folyamatok mentek végbe, melyeket a személypercepciós elméletek, illetve a szociális identitással kapcsolatos feltevések mentén vizsgálok meg.
This work is about a documentary entitled Return to Epipo, which made its debut in October 2020, and was directed by Judit Oláh. It shows the processing of her own childhood experiences weaving through the stories of the past and present. There are several questions centred on "why", because in the focus there are happenings reinforcing the irrelevance of what happened from the current perspective of the citizens of Epipo. At the same time, I reflect on different information by separating oral history and recalling parts of narrative life history. I examine the recollections of the time spent in the camp through the lens of perspective, personal perception and group identity. I interpret the Epipo phenomenon as a form of social contact from the director's point of view, which calls for a continuous conditional mode. The reason for this is to consider the methodological peculiarities that determine the interpretive framework of the narrative. The central question of the paper is the identity-forming processes which took place within the group. I examine these along the theories of personal perception and assumptions related to social identity.
Háttér és célkitűzések
A serdülők társas készségeinek fejlesztése és társadalmi tudatosságának növelése hozzásegítheti a diákokat ahhoz, hogy közösségük aktív és felelős tagjává váljanak. A Megtartó Közösségek Program kétnapos, intenzív tréning, mely a nem formális tanulás és az élménypedagógia eszközei segítségével kívánja támogatni a diákok szociális fejlődését. Célterületei közé tartozik a perspektívaváltás, az inkluzív szociális identifikáció, az énhatékonyság támogatása, az előítéletek csökkentése és a kollektív cselekvési szándék facilitálása. Jelen tanulmány a program hatékonyságvizsgálatát mutatja be.
Módszer
Az adatgyűjtés 2019 és 2021 zajlott 14–18 éves Baranya megyei diákok bevonásával ( N = 296). Ismételt méréses vizsgálati és kontrollcsoportos elrendezésben a résztvevők 2–4 hét különbséggel töltötték ki a program célterületeire fókuszáló kérdőívcsomagot.
Eredmények
A vizsgálat eredményei alapján a Megtartó Közösségek Program eredményesen növeli a serdülők perspektívaváltási képességét, észlelt társas énhatékonyságát, a roma emberek elfogadását és a hátrányos megkülönböztetés csökkentésére irányuló kollektív cselekvési hajlandóságát.
Következtetések
Eredményeink rámutatnak arra, hogy a program alkalmas a társas-társadalmi készségek célzott fejlesztésére. A mérsékelt hatáserősségek mentén megfogalmazható, hogy a jelentős intervenciós hatás eléréséhez komplex, hosszabb időtartamú beavatkozások szükségesek.
Efforts to mitigate environmental threats are often inversely related to the magnitude of casualty, human or otherwise. This “compassion fade” can be explained, in part, by differential processing of large- versus small-scale threats: it is difficult to form empathic connections with unfamiliar masses versus singular victims. Despite robust findings, little is known about how non-human casualty is processed, and what strategies override this bias. Across four experiments, we show how embodying threatened megafauna-Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta Caretta)-using virtual reality can offset and reverse compassion fade. After observing compassion fade during exposure to non-human casualty in virtual reality (Study 1; N = 60), we then tested a custom virtual reality simulation designed to facilitate body transfer with a threatened Loggerhead sea turtle (Study 2; N = 98). Afterwards, a field experiment (Study 3; N = 90) testing the simulation with varied number of victims showed body transfer offset compassion fade. Lastly, a fourth study (N = 25) found that charitable giving among users embodying threatened wildlife was highest when exposed to one versus several victims, though this effect was reversed if victims were of a different species. The findings demonstrate how animal embodiment in virtual reality alters processing of environmental threats and non-human casualty, thereby influencing conservation outcomes.
The application of mindfulness in management practice and education has recognized notable growth in recent years. The development of mindfulness has shown positive effects in several domains such as stress management, work engagement, well-being and cognitive flexibility. However, the effect of mindfulness training in the domain of interpersonal relationships is still a rather unexplored area. Furthermore, little evidence has so far explored the domain of relational mindfulness that focuses on the development of awareness of one and other’s condition in a social context. In order to address the lack of evidence, the goal of this thesis is to develop and validate an 8- week mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) named Relational Mindfulness Training (RMT). Research was conducted in the pilot (N = 66) and main study (N = 128) that included students of the University of Economics in Prague. Results showed a significant effect of participation in RMT on mindfulness, self-compassion, authentic leadership, compassion, perceived stress and subjective happiness. Results from the main study further confirmed significant effects of RMT participation on mindfulness, self-compassion and perceived stress in the long run, and indicated that individuals who maintained the individual practice after the end of intervention showed notably better results than individuals who did not. However, the individual practice did not affect the level of compassion. It suggests that an increase of compassion was not affected by an individual practice but by a relational practice of RMT. Two studies described in this thesis are the first ones that validate the effects of a relational-based mindfulness program in management education and the first ones to validate the effects of MBI in the Czech Republic. They also suggest that training in relational mindfulness has a potential to become a beneficial part of management education curriculum as it may help future leaders to handle their challenges in more aware and caring way.
Prior research has shown that people are more willing to help a single beneficiary than multiple beneficiaries. The present research provides a strategy for charities to collect as many donations for multiple beneficiaries as for a single beneficiary, namely, prompting potential donors to engage in perspective‐taking of a single victim prior to requesting donations for similarly situated multiple beneficiaries. This prior‐perspective‐taking intervention significantly increases donations for multiple beneficiaries. Although people do not tend to naturally take the perspectives of multiple beneficiaries, an intervention requesting individuals to do so was effective. This prior perspective‐taking intervention resulted in greater self‐other overlap, that is, potential donors had the psychological sense of increased merged identity with the multiple beneficiaries, and in turn led to greater donations for those multiple beneficiaries. The present research proposes that charities use prior‐perspective‐taking interventions on campaigns where a single beneficiary cannot be identified (e.g., clear water projects). In each of the two experimental studies (total N = 800), two factors (the number of beneficiaries and prior perspective‐taking) were manipulated and a mediator (self‐other overlap or the degree of perspective‐taking) was measured.
A wide range of cognitive, affective, and behavioral phenomena are discussed in the light of an elaborate positive-negative asymmetry concept. It involves a propensity to expect positive life outcomes (positivity bias) combined with high reactivity to negative stimuli.
In this article, the integration of an attribution approach and an empathy approach to helping behavior is pursued, and causal relationships among variables independently studied in these two areas are investigated. The data from two experiments (on judgments of help-giving and actual help offered, respectively) strongly suggest that causal attributions and empathy induced by manipulating the subjects' perspective in approaching a helping scenario additively determine helping behavior. The proposed mediating role of perceived controllability of attributions and empathic emotions was supported. In addition, the perspective of a potential helper (empathic vs. objective) was found to influence the perception of controllability of the causal attribution for a victim's need. A structural equations model was developed and tested, integrating causal attributions, induced empathy, and empathic emotions as determinants of helping behavior.
[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 103(1) of
Psychological Bulletin (see record
2008-10686-001). The block quotation on page 73 should be attributed to Crocker (1981). The two sentences immediately preceding this quotation should read: 'Friendship groups typically exhibit a high degree of internal similarity with respect to members' beliefs, attitudes, values, and interests. Crocker (1981) reported the following:".] Ten years of research on the false-consensus effect (Ross, Greene, & House, 1977) and related biases in social perception (e.g., assumed similarity and overestimation of consensus) are examined in the light of four general theoretical perspectives: (a) selective exposure and cognitive availability, (b) salience and focus of attention, (c) logical information processing, and (d) motivational processes. The findings indicate that these biases are influenced by a host of variables and that no single explanation can account for the range of data. Instead, each theoretical perspective appears to have its own domain of application, albeit with some degree of overlap into other domains. The data further suggest that two or more specific mechanisms may operate simultaneously or in concert to produce assumed similarity and false-consensus effects. Discussion focuses on identifying the process or sets of processes operating in specific situations. We identify several gaps in the knowledge of mediating relationships and suggest directions for future research. We also discuss issues related to definition and measurement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The accessibility of a category in memory has been shown to influence the selection and interpretation of social information. The present experiment examined the possibility that information relevant to a trait category (hostility) presented outside of conscious awareness can temporarily increase that category's accessibility. 108 male undergraduates initially performed a vigilance task in which they were exposed unknowingly to single words. Either 0, 20, or 80% of those words were semantically related to hostility. In an unrelated 2nd task, 20 Ss read a behavioral description of a stimulus person (SP) that was ambiguous regarding hostility and then rated the SP on several trait dimensions. The amount of processing Ss gave to the hostile information and the negativity of their ratings of the SP both were reliably and positively related to the proportion of hostile words to which they were exposed. Several control conditions confirmed that the words were not consciously perceived. It is concluded that social stimuli of which people are not consciously aware can influence conscious judgments. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The cognitive significance of being in a close relationship is described in terms of including other in the self (in K. Lewin's [1948] sense of overlapping regions of the life space and in W. James [1890/1948] sense of the self as resources, perspectives, and characteristics). Exp 1 (with 24 college students), adapting W. B. Liebrand's (see record
1985-20117-001) decomposed-game procedures, found less self/other difference in allocations of money to a friend than to a stranger, regardless of whether Ss expected other to know their allocations. Exp 2 (with 20 female undergraduates), adapting C. G. Lord's (see record
1988-00331-001) procedures, found that Ss recalled fewer nouns previously imaged with self or mother than nouns imaged with a nonclose other, suggesting that mother was processed more like self than a stranger. Exp 3 (with 17 married graduate students), adapting self-schema, reaction-time (RT) procedures (e.g., H. Markus; see record
1977-27587-001) found longer latencies when making "me/not me" decisions for traits that were different between self and spouse versus traits that were similar for both, suggesting a self/other confusion with spouse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Social interaction imposes a variety of attentional demands on those who attempt it. Such cognitively busy persons often fail to use contextual information to correct the impressions they form of others. The 4 experiments reported here examined the corrigibility of this effect. Although formerly busy perceivers were able to correct their mistaken impressions retroactively (Experiment 1), such retroactive correction was not inevitable (Experiment 2). In addition, when perceivers were able to correct their original impressions retroactively, they were still unable to correct subsequent inferences that had been biased by those original impressions (Experiments 3 and 4). As such, perceivers were occasionally able to overcome the primary, but not the subsidiary, effects of cognitive busyness. The results are discussed in terms of the metastasis of false knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Person perception includes three sequential processes: categorization (what is the actor doing?), characterization (what trait does the action imply?), and correction (what situational constraints may have caused the action?). We argue that correction is less automatic (i.e., more easily disrupted) than either categorization or characterization. In Experiment 1, subjects observed a target behave anxiously in an anxiety-provoking situation. In Experiment 2, subjects listened to a target read a political speech that he had been constrained to write. In both experiments, control subjects used information about situational constraints when drawing inferences about the target, but cognitively busy subjects (who performed an additional cognitive task during encoding) did not. The results (a) suggest that person perception is a combination of lower and higher order processes that differ in their susceptibility to disruption and (b) highlight the fundamental differences between active and passive perceivers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies with 182 White female college students investigated the effects of cognitive busyness on the activation and application of stereotypes. In Exp 1, not-busy Ss who were exposed to an Asian target showed evidence of stereotype activation, but busy Ss (who rehearsed an 8-digit number during their exposure) did not. In Exp 2, cognitive busyness once again inhibited the activation of stereotypes about Asians. However, when stereotype activation was allowed to occur, busy Ss (who performed a visual search task during their exposure) were more likely to apply these activated stereotypes than were not-busy Ss. Together, these findings suggest that cognitive busyness may decrease the likelihood that a particular stereotype will be activated but increase the likelihood that an activated stereotype will be applied. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In 3 experiments the likelihood that a behavior is interpreted in terms of a particular trait category was postulated to be a function of the relative accessibility of that category in memory. 256 undergraduates performed a task designed to activate concepts associated with a particular trait category. Ss then read a description of behaviors that were ambiguous with respect to the primed trait and rated the target person along a variety of trait-related dimensions. When Ss experienced a delay between activation of trait category and acquisition of stimulus information, their ratings of the target with respect to this trait increased with the number of times the category had been activated but decreased with length of delay. When Ss experienced a delay between acquiring information and making judgments, their ratings of the target increased with both number of prior activations and length of delay. None of these effects occurred when the trait category was activated after the information had been interpreted and encoded into memory. Thus, the way in which information is initially encoded into memory often has a profound effect on subsequent judgments of the person to whom the information is relevant. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In the 1st session of each of 2 studies, 48 undergraduates' accessible traits were elicited by asking them to list the characteristics of different people, with accessibility defined as frequency of output (Study 1) or primacy of output (Study 2). In the 2nd session, held 1 or 2 wks later, Ss read an essay describing the behaviors of a target person. The essay contained both accessible and inaccessible trait-related information for each S, with different traits being accessible or inaccessible for different Ss. Both studies found that Ss deleted significantly more inaccessible than accessible trait-related information in their impressions and reproductions of the target information. This effect on impressions and reproductions was evident 2 wks after exposure to the target information. Implications of this approach for personality differences, interpersonal conflict and attraction, similarity of self and other judgments, and therapeutic intervention are discussed. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested the suggestion of R. B. Cialdini et al (see record
1987-21901-001) that the motivation to help associated with empathic emotion is directed toward the egoistic goal of negative-state relief, not toward the altruistic goal of relieving the victim's distress. To test this suggestion, we led empathically aroused Ss to anticipate an imminent mood-enhancing experience. We reasoned that if the motivation to help associated with empathy were directed toward the goal of negative-state relief, then empathically aroused individuals who anticipate mood-enhancement should help less than those who do not. Study 1 verified the effectiveness of our anticipated mood-enhancement manipulation; results indicated that this manipulation could serve as an effective source of negative-state relief. Results of Studies 2 and 3, in which empathy was either measured or manipulated, indicated that the rate of helping among high-empathy Ss was no lower when they anticipated mood enhancement than when they did not. Regardless of anticipated mood enhancement, high-empathy Ss helped more than low-empathy Ss. Results support the empathy–altruism hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
the concepts of empathy, sympathy, and role taking frequently are embedded in theories and models of moral development / however, these various terms frequently have not been adequately differentiated
consider definitions of the aforementioned terms, review empirical research on relations among the constructs of interest, and hypothesize about possible links among vicariously induced emotional reactions and cognitive processing / the cognitive processes considered are conditioning/direct association, labeling, elaborated networking, and role taking; the various vicarious emotional processes are empathy, sympathy, and personal distress / alternative tentative causal models are presented and discussed / the possible sequencing of these various processes is addressed / issues concerning the elicitation and maintenance of vicariously induced emotional responses and related cognitive processes are viewed of importance to an understanding of pro- and antisocial behavior (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Presents a spreading-activation theory of human semantic processing,
which can be applied to a wide range of recent experimental results.
The theory is based on M. R. Quillian's (1967) theory of semantic
memory search and semantic preparation, or priming. In conjunction
with this, several misconceptions concerning Quillian's theory are
discussed. A number of additional assumptions are proposed for his
theory to apply it to recent experiments. The present paper shows
how the extended theory can account for results of several production
experiments by E. F. Loftus, J. F. Juola and R. C. Atkinson's (1971)
multiple-category experiment, C. Conrad's (1972) sentence-verification
experiments, and several categorization experiments on the effect
of semantic relatedness and typicality by K. J. Holyoak and A. L.
Glass (1975), L. J. Rips et al (1973), and E. Rosch (1973). The paper
also provides a critique of the Rips et al model for categorization
judgments.
A laboratory experiment was conducted to test Jones and Nisbett's information-processing explanation of the often-observed tendency for individuals (actors) to provide relatively more situational and less dispositional causal attributions for their behavior than those provided by observers of the same behavior. According to this explanation, aspects of the situation are phenomenologically more salient for actors, whereas characteristics of the actor and his behavior are more salient for observers. To test this explanation, the phenomenological perspective of observers are altered without making available any additional information. Subjects watched a videotape of a get-acquainted conversation after instructions either to observe a target conversant or to empathize with her. As predicted, taking the perspective of the target through empathy resulted in attributions that were relatively more situational and less dispositional than attributions provided by standard observers. The results support Jones and Nisbett's information-processing explanation of actor-observer attributional differences, and shed additional light on the process of empathy.
In a prior review involving a meta-analysis (Underwood & Moore, 1982), no relation between affective empathy and prosocial behavior was found. In this article, the literature relevant to this issue is reexamined. The studies were organized according to the method used to assess empathy. When appropriate, meta-analyses were computed. In contrast to the earlier review, low to moderate positive relations generally were found between empathy and both prosocial behavior and cooperative/socially competent behavior. The method of assessing empathy did influence the strength of the relations; picture/story measures of empathy were not associated with prosocial behavior, whereas nearly all other measures were. Several possible explanations for the pattern of findings are discussed, as are the implications of the findings.
A model of how the human cognitive system operates in its natural social context is presented. The model focuses on both input and output variables that have been ignored in the development of most other cognitive theories. On the input end, the model emphasizes the role of prior knowledge and the goal-directed nature of social information processing. On the output end, the model emphasizes various types of social judgments and affective reactions, as well as memory and behavioral decision making. The model is designed to provide a general conceptual framework for integrating much of contemporary social cognition research. As such, it is consistent with, and occasionally subsumes, more molecular theories of specific social phenomena. Unique predictions of the model and the empirical evidence bearing on them are discussed, and several directions for future research are presented.
It "was hypothesized that (a) a stranger who is known to have attitudes similar to those of the subject is better liked than a stranger with attitudes dissimilar to those of the subject, (b) is judged to be more intelligent, better informed, more moral, and better adjusted and (c) is evaluated more positively on four [other] variables." The first 2 hypotheses were confirmed. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4GE13B.
Social interaction imposes a variety of attentional demands on those who attempt it. Such cognitively busy persons often fail to use contextual information to correct the impressions they form of others. The 4 experiments reported here examined the corrigibility of this effect. Although formerly busy perceivers were able to correct their mistaken impressions retroactively (Experiment 1), such retroactive correction was not inevitable (Experiment 2). In addition, when perceivers were able to correct their original impressions retroactively, they were still unable to correct subsequent inferences that had been biased by those original impressions (Experiments 3 and 4). As such, perceivers were occasionally able to overcome the primary, but not the subsidiary, effects of cognitive busyness. The results are discussed in terms of the metastasis of false knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study investigated the effects of mild depression on the processing of personal information about oneself and others. Specifically, mildly depressed and normal subjects rated the applicability of positive and negative personality adjectives to themselves (“Describes you?”), a well-known other (“Describes him or her?”), and their concept of the average person (“Describes others?”). Rating times (RTs) were monitored for each judgment, with all ratings followed immediately by an incidental recall period for the adjectives. In accord with a content-specific self-schema model, normals recalled significantly more positive information about themselves than negative information, and also displayed quicker RTs for schema-consistent positive material. Conversely, mild depressives recalled equal amounts of positive and negative self-referent material. In combination with their longer RTs for both types of judgments, these findings point to a view of self in mild depressives that incorporates both positive and negative personal content, but at the expense of efficient processing for either. For the other-referent judgments, nondepressives displayed a clear negative information bias, suggesting a contrast-effect interpretation whereby normals may promote their own self-enhancement via a degradation of the personality attributes possessed by others. Mild depressives, on the other hand, evidenced only a limited contrast effect when compared to normals. Overall, these findings are discussed in terms of a self-schema model for depression. Central to this model is the notion that depth of depression exerts a strong impact on the exact nature of personal and social information processing.
The present study investigated the nature of self-referent information processing in individuals cognitively vulnerable for depression, but currently nondepressed. These vulnerable nondepressed individuals, as well as nonvulnerable nondepressed and vulnerable depressed controls, were required to make two types of ratings on depressed- and nondepressed-content personal adjectives. Halt of the adjectives in each content category were rated for a semantic attribute, whereas half were rated for degree of self-reference. These ratings were then followed by an incidental-recall period, in which subjects recalled as many of the adjectives as possible. Consistent with predictions generated from a content-specific self-schema model, nonvulnerable nondepressives exhibited the greatest incidental recall for nondepressed-content adjectives receiving a prior self-referent judgment. Also consistent with this model, vulnerable depressives showed enhanced self-referent recall for both types of content. This pattern sugge...
The studies presented in this paper examined empathy, especially perspective taking, as a potential inhibitor of interpersonal aggression. The theoretical rationale for these investigations derived from Zillmann's [(1988): Aggressive Behavior 14: 51–64] cognitive excitation model. Study 1 revealed that dispositional empathy correlates negatively with self-reported aggression and with conflict responses that reflect little concern for the needs of the other party. Empathy also was positively related to constructive responses to interpersonal conflict (i. e., those that do involve concern for the needs of the other party). In Study 2, perspective taking was manipulated with instructions to subjects prior to participation in a reaction-time task designed to measure aggression. When threat was relatively low, subjects who were instructed to take the perspective of the target responded less aggressively than did those who had been instructed to focus on the task. Study 3 examined the effect of dispositional perspective taking on verbal aggression. Threat was manipulated in terms of the combination of provocation and gender of the interactants. As predicted, perspective taking related to aggression inhibition under conditions of moderate threat–for males under low provocation and females under high provocation. These effects were predicted and explained in the context of the cognitive-excitation model. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
This book reports on a study of 850 pairs of twins who were tested to determine the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in personality, academic ability, and interests. It presents the background, research design, and procedure of the study, tabulations of the test results, and extensive analyses of the findings. Subjects of the study were chosen from participants in the National Merit Scholarship Qualifying Test of 1962 and were mailed a battery of personality and interest questionnaires. Additionally, parents of the twins were sent questionnaires requesting information about the twins' early experiences. A similar sample of "nontwin" students who had taken the same examination provided the comparison group. Questions investigated included: how twins are similar to or different from nontwins; how identical twins are similar to or different from fraternal twins; how the personalities and interests of twins reflect genetic factors; how the personalities and interests of twins reflect early environmental factors; and what implications these questions have for the general issue of how heredity and environment influence the development of psychological characteristics. (Author)
[This book examines] empathy from the standpoint of contemporary social/personality psychology—emphasizing these disciplines' traditional subject matter (e.g., emotion, cognition, helping, aggression) and its research techniques (survey research, laboratory experiments).
[The author's] goal was to provide a thorough, readable . . . summary of contemporary empathy research [primarily for advanced undergraduate and graduate students]. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reviews research and discusses issues related to the childhood development or promotion of prosocial behavior and empathy/sympathy. Issues discussed include whether prosocial behavior/altruism and empathy/sympathy are positive characteristics. Issues in the developmental stability of prosocial behavior and empathy/sympathy include linkages to adult positive functioning, the role of biology and genetics, temperament, sociocognitive functioning, socialization, parent disciplinary practices, modeling and the communication of values, opportunities for prosocial activities, socialization in the school context, and age and sex differences. Although there is considerable evidence that empathy-related and prosocial responding are related not only to each other, but also to other positive aspects of human functioning, there is little longitudinal research examining either the long-term stability of these aspects or their correlates in adulthood. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent research indicates that an affective state termed empathic emotion, and characterized by feelings of sympathy and compassion for another, is associated with altruistic responding. That is, persons experiencing high levels of empathic emotion offer help to another even when escape from the situation is easy. Persons experiencing high levels of another emotional state—personal distress—help much less when escape from the situation is easy. A study was conducted to test two related hypotheses. The first was that individual differences in empathy can influence empathic emotion and personal distress, above and beyond the influence of situational factors. The second hypothesis was that this effect of individual differences is due to variation in emotional and not cognitive empathy. The results provide support for both hypotheses. Regarding hypothesis 1, a significantly greater proportion of the variance in emotional reactions was accounted for when individual difference factors were included as predictors. Hypothesis 2 was also supported: It was found that a dispositional measure of emotional empathy was clearly related, and a dispositional measure of cognitive empathy was clearly unrelated, to these emotional reactions. The results provide support for a multidimensional view of empathy.
Three hypotheses as to the motivation of empathic helping were tested against each other. The Empathy-Altruism hypothesis suggests that empathy motivates helping that is truly altruistic; the Empathy-Specific Punishment hypothesis suggests that the motive is based on the desire to avoid empathy-specific self-sanctions; and the Negative State Relief hypothesis suggests that empathy leads to a depressed mood which in turn leads to a motivation to alleviate the sadness through helping. Subjects who took either an empathic or nonempathic orientation toward the plight of a needy other were led to expect that one of three events would follow the opportunity to help the victim: exposure to neutral information, exposure to humorous, mood-enhancing information, or the chance to help a different individual. Each of the three hypotheses predicts a different pattern of helping responses within the design. The results showed that empathic subjects demonstrated enhanced helping, except when they anticipated the onset of an alternative event that was likely to restore their mood, a pattern consistent with the predictions of the Negative State Relief hypothesis.
False consensus refers to an egocentric bias that occurs when people estimate consensus for their own behaviors. Specifically, the false consensus hypothesis holds that people who engage in a given behavior will estimate that behavior to be more common than it is estimated to be by people who engage in alternative behaviors. A meta-analysis was conducted upon 115 tests of this hypothesis. The combined effects of the tests of the false consensus hypothesis were highly statistically significant and of moderate magnitude. Further, the 115 tests of false consensus appear to be relatively heterogeneous in terms of significance levels and effect sizes. Correlational analyses and focused comparisons indicate that the false consensus effect does not appear to be influenced by the generality of the reference population, nor by the difference between alternative choices in actual consensus. However, the significance and magnitude of the false consensus effect was significantly predicted by the number of behavioral choices/estimates subjects had to make, and the sequence of measurement of choices and estimates. These patterns of results are interpreted as being inconsistent with the self-presentational, motivational explanation for the false consensus effect.
After being instructed either to “empathize with the actor” or to “picture the events clearly,” two groups of observers read a story describing an actor's behavior, and then gave free-response explanations of that behavior, and rated the importance of personal and situational causal factors. The hypothesis that causal attributions of empathizing observers would be less personal and more situational than those of nonempathizing observers received strong support, both from subjects' free responses and from their scale ratings. These findings provide evidence for an information-processing explanation of actor/observer attributional differences. Some practical applications of increasing the situationality of observers' causal attributions are discussed. The results also suggest a novel operational definition of “empathy”; and are interpreted as evidence for the effectiveness of “interpersonal simulations”.
The present research investigated the extent to which mild depressives and normals differed in their self-referent processing of personal information. In Experiment 1, these subjects made two types of ratings on depressed (e.g., bleak, dismal) and nondepressed (e.g., loyal, organized) content personal adjectives. Half of the adjectives in each content category were rated for a semantic attribute (Does this word have a specific meaning or relate to a specific situation?), whereas half were rated for degree of self-reference (Does this word describe you?). These ratings were followed immediately by an incidental recall task, in which subjects recalled as many of the adjectives as possible. Consistent with predictions generated from a content-specific self-schema model, normals displayed superior recall for self-referenced nondepressed content adjectives, when compared to recall for self-referenced depressed content adjectives and recall for semantic ratings (both depressed and nondepressed content). In contrast, mild depressives exhibited enhanced self-referent recall for both types of content, when compared to their recall for semantic adjectives. This finding suggested that mild depressives utilize a self-schema which incorporates both depressed and nondepressed content. Experiment 2 explored this suggestion further by substituting an other-referent rating task (Does this word describe Pierre Trudeau?) for the semantic judgment used in Experiment 1. Again, consistent with a content-specific self-schema model, normals displayed superior recall only for self-referenced nondepressed adjectives. Mild depressives, however, showed enhanced self-referent recall, relative to other-referent recall, only for depressed content adjectives. For nondepressed content, mild depressives did not distinguish between the self- and other-referent conditions. This finding hinted that the nondepressed component of the mild depressive's self-schema may operate at a somewhat reduced effectiveness, but only when required to differentiate between self and others.
An attribution-empathy model of helping behavior: Behavioral intentions and judgments of help-giving
- H Betancourt
Betancourt, H. (1990). An attribution-empathy model of helping behavior: Behavioral intentions and judgments of help-giving. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 573-591.
Positive-negative assymetry in evaluations: The distinction between affective and informational negativity effects
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