No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between TV viewing and girls' body mass index, overweight status, and percentage of body fat
Abstract
To assess cross-sectional and longitudinal relations between television (TV) viewing and girls' body mass index (BMI), weight status, and percentage of body fat.
Participants included 169 girls who were measured at ages 7, 9, and 11 years. Height and weight were measured and used to calculate girls' BMI and to classify their weight status. Girls' percentage of body fat was assessed with the use of dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Mothers reported the hours per day that girls watched TV on a typical day.
No significant cross-sectional associations were identified. Results from longitudinal analyses showed that in comparison to girls who never exceeded the American Academy of Pediatrics TV viewing recommendations (ie, watched </= 2 hours of TV per day), girls who exceeded recommendations at ages 7, 9, and 11 years were 13.2 times more likely be overweight at age 11, were 4.7 times more likely to become overweight between ages 7 and 11, had significantly higher BMI and percentage body fat at age 11, and exhibited significantly greater increases in BMI between ages 7 and 11.
Interventions that target reductions in TV viewing among 7- to 11-year-old girls may help to reduce their risk of weight gain during late childhood.
... The researcher measured the variable of children at different ages, and the results come in the following table: (3) shows variations among the age groups in type of electronic watching. Results show that children between (8-10) spend more time in watching T.V then comes children between (10)(11)(12) and at last the children between (6-8).As for watching of electronic digital videos (DVD/Blu-ray) children between (10-12) come first followed by those at ages between (8-10). ...
... The researcher measured the variation in children physical activity during T.V watching, and the results come in the following table: (14) shows variation in physical activity during watching among age of (6-8), (8-10) and (10)(11)(12). Children between (10-12) suffer obesity for not practicing physical activity. ...
... 9. Asking schools, children care society's private sports gatherings to secure data about healthy food s and make healthy foods and make healthy ones available. 10. ...
Obesity of newly born children and adolescents increase all over the world. Although ratios are stable in some contexts, the number of children who suffer overweight and obesity in countries of low and medium income increases, compared with the number in advanced countries of high income.
The current study aims to investigate the practices of TV viewing and video games in a sample of children in the age group (6-12) from the point of view of their mothers, also examine the relationship of practices of watching TV and playing video games to increase the rate of childhood obesity.
The study sample consisted of (332) mothers of obese children in the age between (6-12) years to know their feedback on the role of TV viewing and playing video games in the incidence of childhood obesity.
A questionnaire was designed to collect information from mothers of children about TV viewing and playing video games related to child obesity by interviewing mothers of children. The results of the study showed that the percentage of watching TV and playing video games is 72% and the proportion of non-watching TV and video games is 28%, also we found that the mothers of children with obesity sits a large period of time in front of TV with their children, so the more hours of watching will lead to children obesity, because the viewer is always a negative recipient.
It shows that the children aptitude to have increases, with watching T.V. drama and food advertisements and also with video games. Focusing on watching makes them unconscious of what they eat and makes them greedy. The researcher, accordingly sees that it is important to give parents guides about supplying food during watching which has fatal tragic effects.
... Sedentary behaviors (SB), e.g., screen-based SB (television viewing and computer games), might contribute to this trend. To date, observational studies on this issue among Western children [3][4][5][6][7][8] yield controversial conclusions: one cross-sectional study [3] and one prospective study [4] showed that time spent on self-reported television viewing was directly associated with body fat mass in U.S. children aged 5-11 years [4] and in British children ...
... Sedentary behaviors (SB), e.g., screen-based SB (television viewing and computer games), might contribute to this trend. To date, observational studies on this issue among Western children [3][4][5][6][7][8] yield controversial conclusions: one cross-sectional study [3] and one prospective study [4] showed that time spent on self-reported television viewing was directly associated with body fat mass in U.S. children aged 5-11 years [4] and in British children ...
... Sedentary behaviors (SB), e.g., screen-based SB (television viewing and computer games), might contribute to this trend. To date, observational studies on this issue among Western children [3][4][5][6][7][8] yield controversial conclusions: one cross-sectional study [3] and one prospective study [4] showed that time spent on self-reported television viewing was directly associated with body fat mass in U.S. children aged 5-11 years [4] and in British children ...
We aim to explore the independent associations of sedentary behaviors (SB) with body mass distribution among Chinese children. Data on the screen-based sedentary time (television viewing and computer use) and doing homework, physical activities and dietary intake of 1586 Chinese children (50.3% girls) aged 7–15 years were obtained through validated questionnaires. Skin-fold thickness, body height, and weight were measured to calculate percent body fat (%BF), fat mass index (FMI), and fat-free mass index (FFMI). Parental characteristics were collected by questionnaires. Among girls, time of SB (screen time or doing homework) was positively related to %BF, FMI, and FFMI (p < 0.03) after adjusting for maternal overweight, the average annual income of family, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity energy expenditure, and energy intake: Girls in the highest tertile of screen time/homework had 16.7%/23.3% higher relative FMI and 2.9%/2.9% higher relative FFMI than girls in the lowest tertile. Among boys, screen time was positively associated with FFMI (p < 0.003), but not related to %BF and FMI (p > 0.09), while time of doing homework was positively related to %BF and FMI (p = 0.03). Sedentary behaviors might be positively and independently related to fat mass among Chinese children, and were more pronounced in girls.
... For example, Hancox, Milne, and Poulton (2004) found that TV viewing between the ages of 5 and 15 was associated with increased BMI at age 26. One meta-analysis comparing primarily crosssectional studies found associations between TV viewing and body fat to be weak (Marshall, Biddle, Gorely, Cameron, & Murdey, 2004); however, more recent prospective studies argue that there is a time-lagged effect of TV viewing that may be less visible from an examination of cross-sectional data alone (Davison, Marshall, & Birch, 2006). ...
... There have been relatively few prospective studies of television viewing and BMI or body fat in children and youth (see Davison et al., 2006;Hancox et al., 2004;Viner & Cole, 2005). Drawing on prior research, these studies posit mechanisms that might account for the association between duration of viewing and BMI, such as increased consumption of energy-dense foods and decreased physical activity. ...
... Previous research has identified several lifestyle behaviors associated with childhood obesity. Evidence pointing to the role of television viewing is the strongest with several prospective studies reporting that longer hours of television viewing predict children's increased weight (Brown, Broom, Nicholson, & Bittman, 2010;Davison et al., 2006;Dietz & Gortmaker, 1985;Jago, Baranowski, Baranowski, Thompson, & Greaves, 2005;Morgenstern, Sargent, & Hanewinkel, 2009;Proctor et al., 2003;Reilly et al., 2005;Viner & Cole, 2005). ...
Few studies of media use and adiposity explore the influence of parenting on children's lifestyle behaviors. Screen media access, bedroom television, lack of physical activity, and snacking on energy-dense foods have long been implicated in child overweight. This research used data from the first three waves of the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children to investigate, prospectively, the associations between parental practices in early to middle childhood and children's behaviors and weight in late childhood. A path model was used to investigate whether consistent parenting predicted setting of boundaries for access to and use of media, and was indirectly associated with children's lifestyle behaviors that increase the likelihood of healthy weight maintenance. The findings demonstrated that children's lifestyles pertinent to weight maintenance and media use cluster together and involve both old and newer screen media, but are also predicted by parenting practices and the family environment.
... However, use of electronic devices did not differ significantly according to students" age groups, nationality or grade. (14) shows that students" use of electronic devices did not differ significantly according to their care takers" personal characteristics. (15) shows that students" use of electronic devices did not differ significantly according to their family characteristics. ...
... There has been a negative association between health status of adolescents and their spent time watching TV (14). Therefore, preventive health campaigns among early adolescents should focus on reducing any unhealthy behavior, (e.g., prolonged television viewing, and videogame playing) (15). ...
... Given that physical activity is regarded as one of the most flexible components of energy expenditure, it is likely to take a step toward the improvement of other dietary behaviors by modifying it. Results of most studies illustrate effects of regular physical exercise on balancing the energy intake (11). It is also said that when adolescents do physical exercise, they consume fruit, vegetables, and protein more; hence, it is possible to establish good dietary habits through appropriate physical activities (12). ...
... Lack of knowledge about outcomes of a sedentary lifestyle and the regular intake of fast food and ready-made food not only affects the food basket negatively but also forms distorted perceived benefits and barriers in adolescents' mind. In contrast to once a week, eating out twice a week increases the risk for overweight by 86% (11). It is much easier to change life style including physical activity habit and nutrition behavior in adolescence period than in adulthood (14). ...
Background Obesity causes depression and undermines mental health in adolescents. It is also related to adulthood diseases and mortality. The current study drew upon an educational intervention to modify some Health Belief Model constructs to preventing overweight and obesity among adolescents. Materials and Methods: In this quasi-experimental study 100 boy students recruited from selected boys junior high schools in Isfahan. They were randomly assigned to intervention (n=50) and control (n=50) groups. In 4 training sessions, a nutritionist introduced different types of healthy foods and explained how to consume them. A sports coach also taught how to do physical exercises well in 4 sessions (each one 90 minutes in terms of nutrition and physical activity). Data of pretest and posttest gathered from demographic and a valid questionnaire were fed into the SPSS software, version 20.0 and analyzed using relevant statistical tests. Results: The independent t-test revealed that, before the intervention, there was no significant difference between the two groups in the mean scores of knowledge, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, physical activity, and nutrition behavior (P > 0.05); but, after the intervention, this difference between the two groups was significant (P < 0.05). The multiple linear regression analysis indicated that, from among the scores of knowledge, perceived benefits, and perceived barriers, the score of knowledge (r= 0.643, P < 0.001) was the best predictor of the behavior scores of physical activity and nutrition (P < 0.05). Conclusion Considering the positive effect of model base education to improve obesity related life style in adolescents, it seems that planning and implementing these kinds of interventions in schools will be useful to promote healthy life style in students.
... The adolescent obesity epidemic is a global issue; it is evident that a wide range of factors can contribute to obesity among children, but of growing concern is the potential contribution made by children's media use in the present context [2,3]. Numerous studies have established the relationship between obesity and television viewing in children and adolescents [4][5][6][7][8]. Now, it is also known that high sedentary behavior can be an independent risk factor for obesity even among the people who are sufficiently physically active [9]. ...
... Similarly, screen exposure had an indirect effect on poor school performance through increased sensation-seeking among U.S. adolescents [21]. Most of the previous studies of screen-based media use focused on viewers' eating behaviors [10][11][12]22], obesity [4,8,23], physical inactivity [14,24], and academic performance especially among children [25]. However, few studies have been conducted to test whether television viewing is independently associated with self-rated health (SRH), academic performance, and other screen-based sedentary behaviors among adolescents. ...
This study aimed to examine whether being bullied, fighting, and injury, regarded in terms of frequency and nature, were significantly associated with psychological distress and suicidal behavior, independent of substance abuse and parental support in adolescents. Secondary analysis of data from the Global School-based Student Health Survey from Kiribati, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu was conducted. Binomial logistic regression analysis was used to examine the association of being bullied, fighting and injury with psychological health outcomes (loneliness, insomnia, suicidal ideation and suicide attempt) at a 5% level of significance. A total of 4122 students were included; 45.5% were male, and 52.0% were 14 years of age or younger. Of the total, 9.3% felt lonely and 9.5% had insomnia most of the time over the last 12 months; 27.6% had suicidal ideation, and 30.9% reported at least one suicide attempt in the last 12 months. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that being bullied, fighting and injury were significantly associated with psychological health outcomes; adjusted odds ratios (AORs) of loneliness, insomnia, suicidal ideation and suicide attempt increased with increased exposure to bullying, fighting, and injury compared to non-exposed group. Among the types of bullying victimization, the highest AORs of insomnia and suicide attempt were among students who were left out of activities, compared to the non-bullied. Among the causes of injury, adolescents injured due to a physical attack were the most likely to report the highest AORs of loneliness, insomnia and suicidal ideation compared to those not injured. Preventing violence and injury among adolescents might contribute to better mental health and reduction of suicidal behavior.
... The adolescent obesity epidemic is a global issue; it is evident that a wide range of factors can contribute to obesity among children, but of growing concern is the potential contribution made by children's media use in the present context [2,3]. Numerous studies have established the relationship between obesity and television viewing in children and adolescents [4][5][6][7][8]. Now, it is also known that high sedentary behavior can be an independent risk factor for obesity even among the people who are sufficiently physically active [9]. ...
... Similarly, screen exposure had an indirect effect on poor school performance through increased sensation-seeking among U.S. adolescents [21]. Most of the previous studies of screen-based media use focused on viewers' eating behaviors [10][11][12]22], obesity [4,8,23], physical inactivity [14,24], and academic performance especially among children [25]. However, few studies have been conducted to test whether television viewing is independently associated with self-rated health (SRH), academic performance, and other screen-based sedentary behaviors among adolescents. ...
The study assessed television viewing >2 h a day and its association with sedentary behaviors, self-rated health, and academic performance among secondary school adolescents. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among randomly selected students in Lima in 2015. We measured self-reported responses of students using a standard questionnaire, and conducted in-depth interviews with 10 parents and 10 teachers. Chi-square test, correlation and multivariate logistic regression analysis were performed among 1234 students, and thematic analysis technique was used for qualitative information. A total of 23.1% adolescents reported watching television >2 h a day. Qualitative findings also show that adolescents spend most of their leisure time watching television, playing video games or using the Internet. Television viewing had a significant positive correlation with video game use in males and older adolescents, with Internet use in both sexes, and a negative correlation with self-rated health and academic performance in females. Multivariate logistic regression analysis shows that television viewing >2 h a day, independent of physical activity was associated with video games use >2 h a day, Internet use >2 h a day, poor/fair self-rated health and poor self-reported academic performance. Television viewing time and sex had a significant interaction effect on both video game use >2 h a day and Internet use >2 h a day. Reducing television viewing time may be an effective strategy for improving health and academic performance in adolescents.
... Jago and colleagues (2005) found positive relationships between BMI and television viewing among 3-6-year-olds. Davison, Marshall, and Birch (2006), found significant associations between television viewing and BMI, but only for girls ages 7-10. Vandewater, Shim, and Caplovitz (2004) found that videogame use (but not television viewing) was related to elevated weight status -but only for girls ages 9-12 who played moderate amounts of games. ...
... Failure to examine moderating factors affecting the nature of the relationship between media use and childhood obesity It seems likely that the connections between electronic media use and childhood obesity may hold only for certain groups (for example, post-menarchal girls, or children at risk for obesity), thus diluting the linear relationships in more heterogeneous samples. Studies finding relationships between electronic media and BMI only among children of a certain age and gender certainly seem to suggest that moderating factors may be at work (e.g., Davison, Marshall, & Birch, 2006;Gortmaker et al., 1999;Vandewater, Shim, & Caplovitz, 2004). In our research, we examined the moderating effect of familial risk of obesity on the relationship between television viewing and weight status. ...
... It is well established that decreased sleep duration is associated with increased risk of obesity. The Study of Davidson et al. 37 reported that overweight and obese children sleep less than 10 hours compared to normal weight children. Most normal-weight children engage in school and/or extracurricular physical activity, whereas sedentary behaviors characterize overweight and obese children. ...
Aim: This study aimed to describe the behavior, eating habits, and lifestyle of schoolchildren from different regions of Bejaia, and to evaluate their food consumption on the one hand and their Physical Activity Level (PAL) on the other hand. Methods: This study involved children (n = 240, B/G = 120/120), aged from 6 to 12, that are enrolled in different institutions (primary schools, colleges) in different regions of Bejaia. The children's body weight and height were measured (BMI), and their eating habits and level of physical activity were assessed using adapted questionnaires. Food consumption was estimated by the 24-hour recall method. Results: Results showed observable BMI rise including drastic changes in BMI Z-score as a function of age, height and mainly weight, BMI Z-score values were between 0 and +2 in overweight for obese girls and boys and less than +1 for normal-weight girls and boys. The PAL evaluation was low in overweight and obese children compared to normal-weight children. The correlation test showed a positive correlation between BMI and PAL in both sexes. According to the results of the dietary habits, the frequency of consumption of the different food groups distributed according to the fourth daily intakes (breakfast, lunch, dinner and snacking between meals) was very rich in carbohydrates and fats in overweight and obese children, compared to normal-weight children and according to the recommended threshold. Conclusion: This study shows that there is an increase in BMI values, high BMI Z-scores in overweight and obese children compared to normal-weight children. Children have bad eating habits (snacking between meals, consumption of fast food and sugary drinks). These habits may act as obesity promoting factors when associated with sedentary activities. Keywords: Children, overweight-obesity, normal-weight, BMI, Physical Activity Level, food habits, food consumption.
... On the other hand, physical activity and exercise are associated with multiple physical and mental health benefits [18,19], playing a vital role in weight management and improving the level of fasting blood glucose and lipid profile [8]. Consequently, factors which influence women's daily lives are related to eating habits, TV viewing, playing video games and physical activities levels (PAL) [20]. ...
Background: Television (TV) viewing and computer (PC) use have been associated with poor health outcomes. Aim: To investigate the association of TV viewing and PC use with recreational physical activity energy expenditure (RPAEE), obesity indices, physical activity levels (PAL) and body fat percentage (BF%) of adult women. Methods: Bodyweight (BW), height, waist (WC) and hip (HC) circumferences of 150 adult women were measured. Body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) were calculated. The BF% was measured by bioelectrical impedance analysis. The Athens Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to assess PAL, RPAE, TV viewing and PC hours. Results: The majority of women (53%) were overweight and obese, watched TV for >14 hr/wk (59%), and almost half (47%) of them used computers for >1 hr/day. Slightly more than half of them (54%) had a sedentary lifestyle and reported exercise participation for <2 hr/wk. No walking for leisure was reported by one-third of the subjects, while an alarming low percentage (0.7%) walked only 2.5 hr/wk. No participation in informal physical activity was reported by 69%. RPAEE was estimated at 982 ± 973 kcal/wk and negatively correlated to TV-watching hours (r = –0.31, p < 0.05), computer use (r = –0.3, p < 0.05), BMI (r = –0.44, p < 0.01), BW (r = –0.44, p < 0.01), WC (r = –0.41, p < 0.01), WHR (r = –0.31, p = 0.01). Moreover, RPAEE and BF% were negatively correlated (r = –0.44, p < 0.01). BF% was associated with long hours of PC use and TV watching (R2 = 0.11, F1.148 = 17.94, p = 0.00; R2 = 0.14, F1.148 = 5.4, p = 0.002). Conclusion: Screen use affecting obesity indices seemed to overrun recreational time for physical activity participation and dominate women’s lifestyle. Further research targeting behavioral change practices is recommended. Keywords: obesity, women, physical activity, recreational physical activity expenditure
... [9][10][11] Original Research Article Role of parents on screen time Studies have shown an association between screen time, physical inactivity and obesity in children. 8,11,[12][13][14][15] A study in China showed that more screen time in 2 to 18 years children was associated with overweight and obesity. 16 And another study in China showed that 36.8% of school aged children had screen time more than 2 hours. ...
Background: Sedentary lifestyle is a major modifiable risk factor that usually starts from childhood. High screen time is associated with sedentary lifestyle in children; and parents might have played a role in screen time among the children. This study aims to assess the role of parents in the screen time of young children aged five to nine years in Pokhara metropolitan city in Nepal. Methods: A cross sectional study was done among 360 children where respondents were one of the parents of those children. Face to face interview was done using a semi structured questionnaire between March 8 and September 4, 2020. A daily screen time <2 hours was taken as a normal value. Descriptive and inferential analyses were done with the data. Chi square test at 5% level of significance was computed for the inferential analysis. The ethical approval was taken from the Nepal Health Research Council. Results: Of the total 360 children, 54.7% were male and 35.6% were aged 9 years. Screen time >2 hours was found among 48.6% children. The screen time of >2 hours children was significantly associated with the educational qualification of parents, parental worry and parental permission to watch the screen for tasks like eating, doing homework, not going out or making free time for parents. The screen time of children was not associated with socioeconomic characteristics like parental occupation. Conclusion: Parental characteristics have role in the screen time of children. Parental factors must also be considered while implementing programs to reduce children’s screen time.
... It was highlighted that watching TV, as well as screen time with any other device, for longer than what the recommendations suggest (1-2 h/day), can lead to an increased risk of overweight and obesity [14][15][16]. There are two potential mechanisms behind this: first, watching television is a leisure activity, and an increased time spent in front of the TV reduces energy expenditure [17]; secondly, TV is a medium to convey unhealthy eating behaviors through food marketing, to which children are massively exposed [18]. Food marketing is not only responsible for conveying unhealthy eating behaviors, it was also proven to increase the daily intake of food and calories in children [19], leading to the spread of childhood obesity and increasing the risk of obesity-related non-communicable diseases at a young age [20]. ...
Unhealthy eating habits are one of the main risk factors for overweight/obesity, and food marketing plays a major role in their development. The aim of this study was to monitor the amount and the characteristics of food marketing directed to Italian children broadcasted on television (TV). The WHO tool to assess food and beverage multimedia marketing aimed at children was used to analyze TV recordings. Type of product branded, viewing time, channel's target, and broadcasting company were the exposure variables analyzed. The power of persuasive techniques was also assessed. Food products were categorized as either core or non-core products on the basis of their nutritional profile. A total of 320 h of TV broadcasting was analyzed, including 51.7 h of commercials. Food and beverages were the second most frequently advertised products, with an average of 6 food advertisements per hour during peak viewing time. A total of 23.8% of food advertisements were recorded during the time slot of 3:00 p.m. Considering food and beverage commercials, "humor" was the most frequently used primary persuasive technique, while the "image of the product/packaging" was the most commonly used secondary persuasive technique. Products specifically targeted to children were 94.3% non-core. Our findings indicate that core foods are highly underrepresented in TV commercials, especially during children TV programs and peak viewing time.
... 20 . Increased caloric intake is associated with the habit of watching television, due to the high intake of foods that are dense in energy and low in nutrients 21 . ...
OBJECTIVE To analyze the association of television food advertisements with eating habits in Brazilian adolescents. METHODS The sample was composed of 1,011 adolescents, aged from 10-17 years. The influence of television food advertisements on eating habits, as well as food consumption and socioeconomic variables were assessed through questionnaires. A binary logistic regression was performed to assess the magnitude of the associations, adjusted for gender, age, socioeconomic status, and parental schooling. RESULTS Of the sample, 83.3% (n = 843) reported food consumption while watching TV. Adolescents who do not consume food while watching TV had a higher weekly consumption of fruits (3.98, SD = 2.0 versus 3.39, SD = 2.1) and vegetables (4.1, SD = 2.2 versus 3.4, SD = 2.3). Adolescents that consume food while watching TV had higher weekly consumption of fried foods (3.1, SD = 2.0 versus 2.3, SD = 1.7), sweets (4.1, SD = 2.1 versus 3.3, SD = 2.1), soft drinks (3.2, SD = 2.1 versus 2.2, SD = 1.9), and snacks (2.3, SD = 2.0 versus 1.6, SD = 1.7). For 73,8% of the sample, food advertisements induce product consumerism, most commonly sweets and fast foods. Buying or asking to buy food after seeing it on the television was associated with fried foods (OR = 1.36, 95%CI = 1.03- 1.79), sweets (OR = 1.69, 95%CI = 1.30-2.18), and snacks (OR = 1.57, 95%CI = 1.12-2.22). CONCLUSION Food advertisements were associated with greater consumption of fried foods, sweets, and snacks in adolescents, even after adjusting for confounding factors.
... The lack of regular physical activity is also associated with worsening of chronic disease conditions and health conditions, favoring the occurrence of strokes, certain types of cancer and type 2 diabetes as well as osteoporosis and hypertension (4, 5, 6, and 7). The most common sedentary behaviors among young people that are using media are watching TV, and playing PC/video games or usage of mobile phones (8,9). Some studies show that excess TV viewing time, independent of the general level of physical activity, is negatively associated with metabolic risk factors (10,11). ...
The purpose of the present study was to determine the relationship between the media usage, physical activities (PA) and nutritional approach for a group of students, from Galati County. A cross-sectional study design was designed for this purpose in order to achieve the objectives. A total of 1143 subjects, male and female students aged between 19±25 years old, answered self-reported anonymous questionnaires about their usage of the media namely watching TV, computers or PC games, in a typical week (from Monday to Sunday). Also, the IPAQ questionnaires were designed to assess their physical activities (in which median values of combined activities were expressed in the metabolic equivalent task (MET)·minute/week and a self-reported anonymous Diet History Questionnaire III was created to establish their food habits quantified in Healthy Eating Index (HEI) 2015 score. Anthropometric measurements were used to calculate the body mass index (BMI) of the subjects. Within this study, randomly selected different subgroups of 212 subjects, male and female students, with the same age, between 19±25 years old also participated in an ancillary similar study with a set of questionnaires and interviews about their time of viewing TV or using other ways of media, (e.g.: computers, PC games, etc.), and the PA and nutritional habits that they have during this time.
In the main study, it was found that the decreasing number of hours allocated for TV or other forms of media, from 24.3 h/week to 13.6 h/week which was associated with the increase of PA of the male students from 386 MET to 5347 MET, and for female students there was an increase in PA from 346 MET to 4525 MET. In terms of nutritional habits, there was an increase in the HEI index from 51.3 to 56.7 for male students and from 51.6 to 55.8 for female students. The BMI index fell from 25.12 to 21.18 for male students and from 26.32 to 20.64 for female students. The cross-sectional study of the results showed a correlation between media usage, PA and nutritional approach (p≤ 0.05). The statistical analysis showed that there are strong positive correlations between the indices calculated in the main study and in the ancillary study.
... In this study, no relationship was found between fat intake or screen time with adiposity and BMI. This is consistent with other studies which failed to show a relationship between fat intake with BMI and adiposity (Atkin & Davies, 2000;Davies, 1997), and also between screen time and physical measurements (Davison, Marshall & Birch, 2006;Jago et al., 2005). However, some findings suggest that fat intake and screen time have an effect on adiposity and BMI (Nguyen et al., 1996;Robertson et al., 1999;Lumeng et al., 2006;Mendoza, Zimmerman & Christakis, 2007;Dietz and Gortmaker, 1985). ...
... On the one hand, time spent with screen media leads to physical inactivity, and on the other hand, it contributes to an increased energy intake through snacking and consuming soft drinks in front of the screen [10]. A study of Krahnstoever Davison et al. shows that 7year-old girls who exceed the recommendations of the tolerable time watching TV are more likely to be overweight at age 11 [11]. Due to the high calorific density of soft drinks, there is a special interest in the association of soft drink consumption and obesity [12]. ...
Background:
Regular breakfast and well-balanced soft drink, and screen media consumption are associated with a lower risk of overweight and obesity in schoolchildren. The aim of this research is the combined examination of these three parameters as influencing factors for longitudinal weight development in schoolchildren in order to adapt targeted preventive measures.
Methods:
In the course of the Baden-Württemberg Study, Germany, data from direct measurements (baseline (2010) and follow-up (2011)) at schools was available for 1733 primary schoolchildren aged 7.08 ± 0.6 years (50.8% boys). Anthropometric measurements of the children were taken according to ISAK-standards (International Standard for Anthropometric Assessment) by trained staff. Health and lifestyle characteristics of the children and their parents were assessed in questionnaires. A linear mixed effects regression analysis was conducted to examine influences on changes in waist-to-height-ratio (WHtR), weight, and body mass index (BMI) measures. A generalised linear mixed effects regression analysis was performed to identify the relationship between breakfast, soft drink and screen media consumption with the prevalence of overweight, obesity and abdominal obesity at follow-up.
Results:
According to the regression analyses, skipping breakfast led to increased changes in WHtR, weight and BMI measures. Skipping breakfast and the overconsumption of screen media at baseline led to higher odds of abdominal obesity and overweight at follow-up. No significant association between soft drink consumption and weight development was found.
Conclusion:
Targeted prevention for healthy weight status and development in primary schoolchildren should aim towards promoting balanced breakfast habits and a reduction in screen media consumption. Future research on soft drink consumption is needed. Health promoting interventions should synergistically involve children, parents, and schools.
Trial registration:
The Baden-Württemberg Study is registered at the German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS) under the DRKS-ID: DRKS00000494 .
... Although some of the dietary variables were independently associated with TV viewing, average sedentary bout duration and zBMI, none of the dietary variables significantly mediated the relationships between the sedentary variables and zBMI cross-sectionally or prospectively. The null finding for the association of TV viewing with zBMI in the current study is in contrast to previous studies in youth that have consistently shown significant and positive associations both cross-sectionally [6] and prospectively [29,30]. The differences in findings could be attributed to the homogeneity of the current sample being examined, with higher than average number of hours spent watching TV [31] and a lower zBMI compared to the population average [32]. ...
Background
Cross-sectional evidence suggests TV viewing, but not objectively-measured sedentary time or bouts of sedentary time, is consistently associated with body mass index (BMI) in adolescents. However, it is unclear whether dietary intake is a potential mediator of these relationships. The aim of this study was to explore the cross-sectional and prospective mediating effects of dietary intake on the association of sedentary behaviour with BMI z-score (zBMI) in a cohort of Australian adolescents.
Methods
Cross-sectional and prospective analyses were conducted in adolescents aged 12–15 years participating in the 2002/03 (baseline) and 2004/05 (follow-up) Nepean Growing Up Study. The independent variables were television (TV) viewing, an objective measure of total sedentary time and average sedentary bout duration, and the outcome variable zBMI. Using the Sobel-Goodman method with bootstrapping, mediation analyses were conducted examining three dietary components (discretionary foods, sugar-sweetened beverages [SSB] and takeaway foods) as mediators of associations between TV viewing and zBMI (n = 259) and between total sedentary time and average sedentary bout duration with zBMI (n = 140).
Results
No significant cross-sectional or prospective total or direct associations were observed for TV viewing, total sedentary time and average sedentary bout duration with zBMI. However, TV viewing was positively associated with consumption of takeaway foods cross-sectionally (β = 0.06; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.12), prospectively at baseline (β = 0.07; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.12) and prospectively at follow-up (β = 0.10; 95% CI 0.04, 0.16), and average sedentary bout duration was inversely associated with SSB consumption both cross-sectionally (β = −0.36; 95% CI -0.69 to −0.02) and prospectively at baseline (β = −0.36; 95% CI -0.70 to −0.02). No mediation effects were identified.
Conclusions
TV viewing, total sedentary time and bouts of sedentary time were not associated cross-sectionally or prospectively with adolescents’ zBMI, and three elements of dietary intake (e.g. intake of discretionary foods, SSB and takeaway foods) did not mediate this relationship. The role of dietary intake and sedentary behaviour in relation to adolescent health requires further clarification.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-017-4771-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
... Given these socio-economic differences in children's TV viewing time and the home media environment, it is not surprising that children from low-income backgrounds experience higher rates of the health risks associated with TV consumption, such as overweight and obesity. Decades of research and numerous epidemiological studies have documented the association between TV use and obesity (Boulos, Vikre, Oppenheimer, Chang, & Kanarek, 2012;Coon, Goldberg, Rogers, & Tucker, 2001;Davison, Marshall, & Birch, 2006;De Jong et al., 2011;Dietz & Gortmaker, 1985;Harrison & Liechty, 2012;Hingle & Kunkel, 2012;Jago, Baranowski, Baranowski, Thompson, & Greaves, 2005;Jordan, 2004;Lumeng & Burke, 2006;Strasburger, 2011). Indeed, children of low SES experience higher rates of obesity, compared to their higher-income peers Wang & Beydoun, 2007). ...
Low-income children are at greater risk for excess screen time and negative correlates associated with screen media use. The goal of this study is to increase our understanding of low-income mothers’ beliefs and practices around their children’s television (TV) use (parental mediation). We administered semi-structured interviews to 296 low-income mothers of children ages four–eight years old in the United States. Five themes emerged from the qualitative analysis: (1) mothers are confident in restriction of TV content; (2) time limits are not as important as TV content and are only necessary in extreme situations; (3) mothers make meaning of child learning from TV content; (4) mothers identified individual differences in child TV overuse; and (5) mothers’ policy on TV during mealtime depends on how they believe TV to affect child mealtime behaviors and mothers’ mealtime goals. We discuss the implications of these themes for promoting parental mediation in low-income families.
... Uno de los aspectos críticos para el desarrollo de ECNT en la infancia y en la adolescencia señalados en la reunión de expertos, es el desarrollo de hábitos saludables o no saludables que tienden a permanecer durante toda la vida 5 , entre ellos la inactividad física y el tiempo dedicado a ver televisión (TV). Sin embargo, diversos estudios realizados en Estados Unidos (USA), muestran que la TV está relacionada con la obesidad no sólo por ser una actividad sedentaria, si no por su influencia en el aumento del consumo de alimentos densos en energía y bajos en nutrientes [7][8][9] . ...
Background: Nutrition labels provide an opportunity to obtain data of sodium content in packaged foods. Objective: To describe sodium content, by nutritional labeling, from processed food obtained from a leader supermarket in Colombia. Materials and methods: Photos of food labels were obtained and divided into 15 categories. Sodium content per portion, 100 g, or 100 mL was analyzed. A descriptive analysis was performed by mean, range (maximum and minimum). Percentages of adequate intake and upper intake level that a portion would provide were determined. Results: 426 products were evaluated. Mean; range of sodium content per 100 g from categories with the highest mineral levels were: spices and essences (5829 mg; 0-21000), sauces and dressings (2426 mg; 0-7818), convenient meal (1929 mg; 41-6400), and processed meats (1068 mg; 44-7455). Variability in sodium content between categories and products from a same category was high. Conclusion: Data reported are an input to generate targets for sodium reduction in processed foods distributed in Colombia. Furthermore, they are an opportunity for research and development of food industry.
... Last, with the use of lagged behaviors we were able to establish a latency period between behaviors and risk factors. Previous studies have reported longitudinal but not cross-sectional associations of sedentary time with body fat among non-Hispanic white girls (65) and with insulin resistance in white adults (66,67). The difference in results from longitudinal compared with cross-sectional studies highlights the importance of a latency period between behaviors and risk factors when studying the behavior-risk associations. ...
Background: Little is known about intergenerational differences in associations of urbanization-related lifestyle behaviors with cardiometabolic risk factors in children and their parents in rapidly urbanizing China.
Objective: We tested the intergenerational differences in longitudinal associations of away-from-home eating, snacking, screen time, and leisure-time sports with high waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), elevated blood pressure (BP), elevated glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), and elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) among Chinese children and their parents.
Design: We studied children enrolled in the longitudinal China Health and Nutrition Survey (1991–2009, 7 surveys) aged 7–17 y in ≥2 surveys (average follow-up: 2.3 surveys out of a possible 4 surveys with the age restriction; n = 3875, including 1175 siblings) and their parents (2947 mothers, 2632 fathers) living in the same household. We used 3 consecutive interviewer-administered 24-h dietary recalls to derive a 3-d average for away-from-home eating (nonconsumer, >0 and <1 meal/d, or ≥1 meals/d) and consumption of fruit or vegetable snacks (any or none) and other snacks (any or none) and a self-reported 7-d physical activity recall for screen time (≤1, >1 and ≤2, or >2 h/d) and leisure-time sports (any or none). Random-effects logistic regression was used to examine the associations of lagged (average: 3 y) behaviors with cardiometabolic risk factors (WHtR, BP, HbA1c, and CRP).
Results: We detected intergenerational differences in associations between lagged behaviors and risk factors (P-interaction < 0.1). Generation-specific models showed that lagged away-from-home eating of ≥1 meal/d (compared with none) was negatively associated with parents’ high WHtR (OR: 0.68; 95% CI: 0.53, 0.88) but positively associated with children’s high WHtR (OR: 1.46; 95% CI: 1.01, 2.12). Lagged fruit and vegetable snack consumption was negatively related to parents’ (OR: 0.76; 95% CI: 0.59, 0.97) and children’s (OR: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.33, 1.00) high WHtR. Lagged screen time (>2 compared with ≤1 h/d) was positively associated with parents’ (OR: 2.58; 95% CI: 1.56, 4.28) and children’s high WHtR (OR: 2.26; 95% CI: 1.06, 4.83).
Conclusion: Parent-offspring differences in associations between lifestyle behaviors and cardiometabolic risk factors provide insight into intergenerational differences in cardiometabolic risk with urbanization.
... Individuals who spend higher amounts of time watching TV are particularly vulnerable, since the amount of hours of TV watched can by itself affect choice [1,2], as well as immediate [3,4] and subsequent consumption [5]. Positive associations between hours of TV watched and body mass index (BMI) were observed in children [6,7], such that kids who watched TV for longer periods showed higher levels of BMI. Watching TV also appears to predict higher BMI levels during adulthood [8]. ...
Unhealthy Food Commercials on Brazilian TV
Determining and monitoring the amount of unhealthy food commercials on TV is relevant to the prevention and control of obesity. The aim of this study was to determine the proportion of unhealthy food commercials on Brazilian TV and compare it with preexisting data on the frequency and quality of the advertised products. We recorded 14 hours of programming from the three basic Brazilian TV channels with the largest audiences (total=378 hrs.). Commercials were classified into 25 categories based on the type of product advertised. We compared the proportions of the types of commercials and types of food using the Pearson Chi-square test. Food commercials constitute the category with the second highest amount of airtime at 720 hours (9%), lagging behind the respective channels’ TV programming advertising at 1958 hours (26%). Compared with previous data from 2002, the proportion of food commercials on TV decreased by 12%. However, commercials for unhealthy food increased by 16%. These results have implications for the development of contingency plans and public policies aimed at reducing the risks of exposure to unhealthy food commercials on TV.
... 60 It is well established that variations in body composition during childhood (from 3 to 10 years of age) impact pubertal timing such that greater BMI is associated with earlier AAM. 33,37,[73][74][75][76][77][78][79] Changes in nutritional conditions and adiposity are considered central factors that are contributing to the secular trend in reduced pubertal age in Western countries and more recently in China and India. 80,81 Adding to the current body of the literature, our results also suggest that increased adiposity in girls at 5.5 years of age predicts earlier AAM. ...
Early pubertal timing is known to put women at greater risk for adverse physiological and psychological health outcomes. Of the factors that influence girls’ pubertal timing, stress experienced during childhood has been found to advance age at menarche (AAM). However, it is not known if stress experienced by mothers during or in the months before conception can be similarly associated with earlier pubertal timing. Prenatal maternal stress (PNMS) is associated with metabolic changes, such as increased childhood adiposity and risk of obesity, that have been associated with earlier menarchal age. Using a prospective longitudinal design, the present study tested whether PNMS induced by a natural disaster is either directly associated with earlier AAM, or whether there is an indirect association mediated through increased girls’ body mass index (BMI) during childhood. A total of 31 girls, whose mothers were exposed to the Quebec’s January 1998 ice storm during pregnancy were followed from 6 months to 5 1/2 to 5.5 years of age. Mother’s stress was measured within 6 months of the storm. BMI was measured at 5.5 years, and AAM was assessed through teen’s self-report at 13.5 and 15.5 years of age. Results revealed that greater BMI at 5.5 years mediated the effect of PNMS on decreasing AAM [ B =−0.059, 95% confidence intervals (−0.18, −0.0035)]. The present study is the first to demonstrate that maternal experience of stressful conditions during pregnancy reduces AAM in the offspring through its effects on childhood BMI. Future research should consider the impact of AAM on other measures of reproductive ability.
... These patterns are similar in childhood, but the use of bicycles increases as children become adolescents (unlike in the case of walking, which decreases). This increased use of bicycles could be primarily due to parents' increased perception of safety on the routes that their sons and daughters take [40,41] and the students' increasingly independent mobility. Another reason for the increased use of bicycles at these ages is the greater distance between households and schools [42] that usually characterizes Secondary (as opposed to Primary) Education in Bogotá. ...
Background: Active commuting to school (ACS) can contribute to daily physical activity (PA) levels in children and adolescents. The aim of the study was to analyze the characteristics of active commuting to and from school by bicycle and to identify the factors associated with the use of bicycles for active commuting to school based in a sample of schoolchildren in Bogotá, Colombia.
... These patterns are similar in childhood, but the use of bicycles increases as children become adolescents (unlike in the case of walking, which decreases). This increased use of bicycles could be primarily due to parents' increased perception of safety on the routes that their sons and daughters take [40,41] and the students' increasingly independent mobility. Another reason for the increased use of bicycles at these ages is the greater distance between households and schools [42] that usually characterizes Secondary (as opposed to Primary) Education in Bogotá. ...
Background: Active commuting to school (ACS) can contribute to daily physical activity (PA) levels in children and adolescents. The aim of the study was to analyze the characteristics of active commuting to and from school by bicycle and to identify the factors associated with the use of bicycles for active commuting to school based in a sample of schoolchildren in Bogotá, Colombia.
Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in 8,057 children and adolescents. A self-reported questionnaire was used to measure frequency and mode of commuting to school and the time it took them to get there. Weight, height, and waist circumference measurements were obtained using standardized methods, and mothers and fathers self-reported their highest level of educational attainment and household level. Multivariate analyses using unordered multinomial logistic regression models were conducted in the main analysis.
Results: 21.9% of the sample reported commuting by bicycle and 7.9% reported commuting for more than 120 minutes. The multivariate logistic regression showed that boys, aged 9-12 years, and those whose parents had achieved higher levels of education (university/postgraduate) were the factors most strongly associated with a use bicycles as a means of active commuting to and from school.
Conclusion: The findings of this study suggest that it’s necessary to promote ACS from childhood and to emphasize its use during the transition to adolescence and during adolescence itself in order to increase its continued use by students.
... These patterns are similar in childhood, but the use of bicycles increases as children become adolescents (unlike in the case of walking, which decreases). This increased use of bicycles could be primarily due to parents' increased perception of safety on the routes that their sons and daughters take [40,41] and the students' increasingly independent mobility. Another reason for the increased use of bicycles at these ages is the greater distance between households and schools [42] that usually characterizes Secondary (as opposed to Primary) Education in Bogotá. ...
Introducción: El “transporte activo” es la forma más práctica y sostenible de aumentar la actividad física en las rutinas de la vida diaria y promocionar el estilo de vida activo desde edades tempranas.
Objetivo: Identificar el tipo de transporte utilizado en la ida y vuelta al colegio por parte de los escolares del Distrito Bogotá, pertenecientes al estudio FUPRECOL.
Métodos: Estudio transversal en 2.461 niños (1.530 mujeres, edad 9-12.9 años) y 2.456 adolescentes (1.465 mujeres, edad 13-17.9 años), promedio de edad 12,7±2,3 años, peso 45,2±12,1 kg e IMC 19,9±3,5 kg/m2) entre 9 y 17.9 años de Bogotá, Colombia. Se aplicó de manera auto-diligenciada un cuestionario que indagó por las modalidades de transporte utilizadas para desplazarse al colegio (a- bicicleta b- transporte motorizado: coche, transporte público y/o moto, c) caminando).
Resultados: En población general, los niños y adolescentes utilizan en promedio 3±2 días el transporte motorizado, con una media de tiempo de 77±56 min y 89±64 min, respectivamente (p<0,05). En los niños, el transporte motorizado es el principal medio de desplazamiento utilizado para asistir al colegio (57,3%), seguido de la bicicleta (22,9%) y caminar (19,8%). En adolescentes, esta proporción fue (56,2%) para el transporte motorizado, (19,4%) la bicicleta y (24,4%) el caminar.
Conclusión: Se observa una alta proporción de utilización del medio de transporte motorizado en niños y adolescentes colombianos. Se requieren políticas educativas destinadas al fomento del transporte activo hacia el colegio para promocionar el estilo de vida activo desde edades tempranas.
... Yet, empirical evidence for the link between television and obesity has been surprisingly inconsistent. Despite high levels of media use and a high incidence of obesity among youth, evidence that these concurrent trends are strongly related is mixed at best [5]. Some studies find weak but positive associations between television viewing and obesity among youth [6][7][8][9], some find no relationship [10][11][12], and others find that the relationship is no longer statistically significant once important confounders are controlled for [13][14][15]. ...
Though bivariate relationships between childhood obesity, physical activity, friendships and television viewing are well documented, empirical assessment of the extent to which links between obesity and television may be mediated by these factors is scarce. This study examines the possibility that time with friends and physical activity are potential mechanisms linking overweight/obesity to television viewing in youth.
Data were drawn from children ages 10-18 years old (M = 13.81, SD = 2.55) participating in the 2002 wave of Child Development Supplement (CDS) to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) (n = 1,545). Data were collected both directly and via self-report from children and their parents. Path analysis was employed to examine a model whereby the relationships between youth overweight/obesity and television viewing were mediated by time spent with friends and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA).
Overweight/obesity was directly related to less time spent with friends, but not to MVPA. Time spent with friends was directly and positively related to MVPA, and directly and negatively related to time spent watching television without friends. In turn, MVPA was directly and negatively related to watching television without friends. There were significant indirect effects of both overweight/obesity and time with friends on television viewing through MVPA, and of overweight/obesity on MVPA through time with friends. Net of any indirect effects, the direct effect of overweight/obesity on television viewing remained. The final model fit the data extremely well (χ2 = 5.77, df = 5, p<0.0001, RMSEA = 0.01, CFI = 0.99, TLI =0.99).
We found good evidence that the positive relationships between time with friends and physical activity are important mediators of links between overweight/obesity and television viewing in youth. These findings highlight the importance of moving from examinations of bivariate relationships between weight status and television viewing to more nuanced explanatory models which attempt to identify and unpack the possible mechanisms linking them.
... These statistics highlight an association between obesity and low-grade, chronic inflammation, predisposing adolescents to cardiovascular and metabolic abnormalities, and setting the stage for advanced cardiovascular disease (CVD) in adulthood (Daniels, 2006;Giordano et al., 2011;Reinehr, Kiess, de Sousa, Stoffel-Wagner, & Wunsch, 2006). Increased sedentary behavior may be a substantial contributor for the increasing rates of obesity among adolescents over the last 50 years (Davison, Marshall, & Birch, 2006;Gortmaker et al., 1996;Rey-Lopez, Vicente-Rodríguez, Biosca, & Moreno, 2008). Some studies have reported adolescents spending approximately 45% of their leisure time in sedentary activities (Hardy, Bass, & Booth, 2007). ...
Inactivity combined with obesity during adolescence increases the risk of future cardiovascular disease. The study purpose was to compare the influence of differing intensities of exercise on endothelial function in sedentary adolescents with obesity. Participants were randomized to one of two groups in a 6-week exercise intervention: moderate intensity (MOD) or high intensity interval exercise (HIIE). Endothelial function was assessed pre- and post-intervention via fasted serum levels of endothelin-1 (ET-1). Pre-measures of ET-1 concentrations were elevated at baseline. No significant differences in ET-1 were found between or within exercise groups. However, in the HIIE group, ET-1 was inversely associated with percentages of age predicted maximal heart rate achieved during the intervention (p=0.035, r=-0.567). The exercise interventions did not positively change ET-1 levels, yet participants who exercised at higher intensities in the HIIE group experienced greater decreases in ET-1.
... The environmental component with the largest impact on energy expenditure is physical activity. Particularly for children and teenagers, physical activity includes time spent practicing sports, which contrasts with time spent on sedentary activities, such as playing video games and watching television (8). ...
Introducción. La obesidad resulta de la interacción entre factores de riesgo genéticos y ambientales.
Objetivo. Evaluar el efecto de tres variantes genéticas y factores ambientales en el exceso de peso en jóvenes de 10 a 18 años de Medellín, Colombia.
Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un estudio transversal en 424 jóvenes divididos en tres grupos: 100 obesos, 112 jóvenes con sobrepeso, y, pareados con ellos, 212 jóvenes con peso adecuado, que conformaron el grupo de control. Se evaluó la asociación entre tres polimorfismos genéticos (UCP3-rs1800849, FTO-rs17817449 y CAPN10-rs3842570) y el exceso de peso, así como su interacción con antecedentes familiares de enfermedad, el tiempo dedicado a ver televisión y a jugar videojuegos y el consumo de alimentos.
Resultados. Los antecedentes familiares de obesidad, la dedicación de más de dos horas al día a ver televisión y jugar videojuegos, la falta de lactancia materna, el bajo consumo de cereales, legumbres, frutas y verduras y el gran consumo de comidas rápidas fueron más frecuentes entre los obesos que en los controles. Se observó una asociación significativa entre el genotipo I/I (SNP19 del CAPN10) y el exceso de peso, incluso en los jóvenes que llevaban una vida activa. Además, se encontró una asociación significativa entre los genotipos C/C del UCP3 y G/G y T/T del FTO y el exceso de peso, pero solo en los jóvenes sedentarios.
Conclusiones. En esta población, la alimentación inadecuada y el sedentarismo aumentaron el riesgo de exceso de peso. El genotipo I/I de SNP19 del CAPN10 se asoció significativamente con el exceso de peso. Algunas variantes del FTO y el UCP3 mostraron tener efecto solo en jóvenes sedentarios.
... The environmental component with the largest impact on energy expenditure is physical activity. Particularly for children and teenagers, physical activity includes time spent practicing sports, which contrasts with time spent on sedentary activities, such as playing video games and watching television (8). ...
Introduction : Obesity results from interaction between genetic and environmental risk factors.
To evaluate the effect of three gene variants and environmental factors on obesity and overweight in young people aged 10 to 18 years in a Colombian population.
A total of 424 subjects were selected and separated into three groups for a cross-sectional study; 100 obese and 112 overweight subjects were matched with 212 normal-weight controls. Associations were evaluated between excess weight and three genetic polymorphisms ( UCP3- rs1800849, FTO -rs17817449, and CAPN10 -rs3842570), as well as the family history, the time spent watching television and playing video games, and the diet.
A family history of obesity, the time spent watching television and playing video games, the lack of breastfeeding, a low consumption of cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetables, and a high consumption of fast foods were characteristics typically found in obese individuals compared to controls. A significant association between genotype I/I (SNP19 of CAPN10 ) and excess weight was found even with an active lifestyle. In addition, significant associations between the C/C genotype of the UCP3 gene and the G/G and T/T genotypes of the FTO gene and excess weight were found only in young sedentary individuals.
In this population, inadequate diet and sedentary lifestyle increased the risk of excess weight. Genotype I/I of SNP19 in CAPN10 was significantly associated with excess weight. In contrast, FTO and UCP3 variants exhibited effects only in sedentary environments.
... The environmental component with the largest impact on energy expenditure is physical activity. Particularly for children and teenagers, physical activity includes time spent practicing sports, which contrasts with time spent on sedentary activities, such as playing video games and watching television (8). ...
Introduction: Obesity results from interaction between genetic and environmental risk factors.
Objective: To evaluate the effect of three gene variants and environmental factors on obesity and
overweight in young people aged 10 to 18 years in a Colombian population.
Materials and methods: A total of 424 subjects were selected and separated into three groups for a
cross-sectional study; 100 obese and 112 overweight subjects were matched with 212 normal-weight
controls. Associations were evaluated between excess weight and three genetic polymorphisms (UCP3-
rs1800849, FTO-rs17817449, and CAPN10-rs3842570), as well as the family history, the time spent
watching television and playing video games, and the diet.
Results: A family history of obesity, the time spent watching television and playing video games, the lack
of breastfeeding, a low consumption of cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetables, and a high consumption of
fast foods were characteristics typically found in obese individuals compared to controls. A significant
association between genotype I/I (SNP19 of CAPN10) and excess weight was found even with an active
lifestyle. In addition, significant associations between the C/C genotype of the UCP3 gene and the G/G
and T/T genotypes of the FTO gene and excess weight were found only in young sedentary individuals.
Conclusions: In this population, inadequate diet and sedentary lifestyle increased the risk of excess
weight. Genotype I/I of SNP19 in CAPN10 was significantly associated with excess weight. In contrast,
FTO and UCP3 variants exhibited effects only in sedentary environments.
... Children with television sets in their rooms spent less time in bed on weekdays and reported higher overall levels of being tired (Davison et al., 2006;Dennison et al., 2002;Van den, 2004) distribution of TV viewing in its tertiles was 34, 45 and 21% in children who slept less than 8.5 h known as lowest tertile of sleep. Hence, there was no significant clustering observed in the present study. ...
Obesity is an emerging problem in urban and semi urban Indian children; it is associated with several health problems and social consequences. Poor eating habits in all the children plays major role in the development and increases in childhood overweight and obesity. The present study was aimed to evaluate the dietary and physical activity patterns as determinants of overweight in a sample of children, along with television watching with different food habits which lead to the development of different disorders in the children who are living at south Indian core of the country. Methodology was applied to study the selected parameters as a constraint to obesity in the given samples.
... In most cases the effect of various factors on BMI was the main object. Besides, in many papers (see for instance Danner et al., 2008;Davison et al., 2006;Henderson, 2007;Lazarou et al., 2009, among others) an effort is made to investigate the effect of TV viewing hours on the BMI. Almost in all cases, cross-sectional data are used and the standard statistical methods are applied. ...
Many techniques are met in the literature, trying to investigate the effect of TV watching hours on BMI. However, we haven't traced any empirical study with co-integration analysis, as it is applied here. With this in mind, we present in this paper the proper methodology, based on the co-integration analysis for a detailed justification of the effect of TV viewing hours together with some minor changes in life style of participants on BMI. Apart from finding and testing an acceptable co-integration relation, we further for-mulated an error correction model to determine the coefficient of adjustment. All findings, which are fully justified, are presented in details in the relevant sections. It should be pointed out, that we haven't met this type of analysis in the relevant literature.
Obesity has achieved scourge extents in India in the 21st century, with child obesity influencing 5% of the nation's populace. India is following a pattern of other creating nations that are consistently winding up increasingly stout. Undesirable, prepared sustenance has turned out to be considerably more available after India's proceeded with coordination in worldwide food markets. TV viewing is a noteworthy movement and impact on childs and teenagers. Youngsters in India watch a normal of three to four hours of TV daily Time spent in staring at the TV detracts from significant exercises, for example, perusing, school work, playing, work out, family communication, and social improvement. Childs likewise take in data from TV that might be improper or off base. Child obesity is the serious issue that influences the Indian childs. To the extent presently there are not many investigations which manages effect of TV on tyke stoutness in India, especially in Tamilnadu and Kerala
Background: Excessive screen time has been increasing among children and adolescents globally. The study aimed to find out the prevalence and associated factors of excessive screen time among young children. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among children aged 5 to 9 years attending schools in Pokhara metropolitan. Face to face interview was conducted with one of the parents of 352 children. The study was carried out from March to October, 2020. Excessive screen time (ST) was defined as >2 hours screen viewing a day. Chi-square test and binary logistic regression were applied at 5% level of significance. Results: Of total, 47.4% of children had ST>2 hours a day. Among socio-demographic factors, being a boy (adjusted odds ratio (AOR), 1.65; 95% CI,1.05-2.57)), living in nuclear family (AOR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.39-0.99) and age of the children (AOR, 1.28; 95% CI,1.03-1.58) were significantly associated with excessive ST. Having television at home, parental ST, offering screen devices to children had increased likelihood of reporting excessive ST. Odds of reporting of excessive ST was 8.97 times higher among those who had one television at home as compared to those who do not have. Excessive ST was more than three times among those children whose parents offered screen devices to make them eat as well as to have free time for the parents themselves. Conclusions: Few socio-demographic characteristics, parental ST and parental offering of screen devices were significantly associated with excessive ST. Interventions should target screen device accessibility and ST related behavior of parents.
Dr. Leann Birch, an innovator in the field of children's eating behavior, was the first scientist to synergize the fields of developmental psychology and nutrition science. One of Leann's groundbreaking projects was the Girls' NEEDS Project (GNP), an NIH-funded observational study of the longitudinal development of eating and weight-related behaviors of girls across middle childhood and adolescence. At the time of GNP, obesity prevalence during childhood had roughly doubled during the previous two decades, research interest in dieting had increased as societal expectations of the ‘thin ideal’ got even thinner, and little was known about how environmental factors such as parenting influenced the development of maladaptive eating and weight-related behaviors. GNP resulted in over 70 publications, covering a range of topics from girls' dietary intake and physical activity to parental influences on girls' eating behavior, thus laying the groundwork for many topics in the obesity, food parenting, and dieting literature today. Therefore, this narrative review aims to summarize and synthesize the literature that resulted from the GNP and provide implications for future work building from this foundation.
Exposure to advertisement is considered to be the primary source of indulgence and distraction for children. Past studies have treated children as both empowered and vulnerable. Empowered because after a certain age children become mature enough to understand the difference between entertainment and persuasion, but before reaching that stage children are extremely naïve. This paper aims to explore the changes in childrens’ attitude towards frequent changes in advertising campaigns with reference to a popular product of a famous chocolate multinational brand in India. Four focus groups comprising of 22 children of both the genders between the age group of 8–14 years participated in the study. Selective advertisement from a period of three decades (1983–2016) were chosen and shown to the children in a birthday party and their responses were collected. Congruency Theory of Social Psychology was applied for the analysis of the excerpts. The findings reveals that frequent changes in advertising campaigns create confusion in the minds of the children. The entertainment and empathy towards the advertisement were reduced considerably when the advertisement execution shifted from children to adults.
Understanding the determinants of obesity and developing appropriate prevention and treatment strategies require an in-depth examination of behavioral risk factors for obesity. The goal of this chapter is to review available data regarding the prevalence of overweight and obesity and the modifiable dietary and physical activity behavioral determinants of obesity that are potential targets for obesity prevention and treatment interventions. We begin with an examination of dietary factors that contribute to the development of overweight and obesity. Multiple factors that influence food intake will be discussed, including total energy intake, specific eating patterns, and environmental and societal influences. We then discuss physical activity factors, including exercise self-efficacy, social support, and access to exercise opportunities. The review will focus on behavioral risk factors for obesity in both children and adults.
Levels of child and adolescent obesity have risen at dramatic rates over the past few decades, and both overweight and obesity are associated with numerous adverse health and psychosocial consequences in childhood and later life. An oft-cited reason for this situation is engagement in sedentary activities, such as television viewing. One mechanism linking television viewing and obesity may be the impact of television food advertising on food preferences, choices and consumption. Increasing research evidence exists to show that exposure to television food advertising alters brand preferences and food preferences, increases food intake, and results in a greater number of requests for the advertised products. Regulation of advertising to restrict children’s exposure to adverts for high-fat, high-sugar and/or high-salt foods on television is a useful step, but it is not without its difficulties.
Evidence for adverse health effects of excessive sedentary behaviour in children is predominantly based on cross‐sectional studies, measuring TV viewing as proxy for sedentary behaviour. This systematic review and meta‐analysis summarizes the evidence on the prospective relationship between childhood sedentary behaviour and biomedical health indicators, overall and stratified by type of sedentary behaviour (TV viewing, computer use/games, screen time and objective sedentary time).
PubMed, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Cochrane were systematically searched till January 2015. Methodological quality of all included studies was scored, and a best evidence synthesis was applied.
We included 109 studies of which 19 were of high quality. We found moderate‐to‐strong evidence for a relationship of overall sedentary time with some anthropometrics (overweight/obesity, weight‐for‐height), one cardiometabolic biomarker (HDL‐cholesterol) and some fitness indicators (fitness, being unfit). For other health indicators, we found no convincing evidence because of inconsistent or non‐significant findings. The evidence varied by type of sedentary behaviour. The meta‐analysis indicated that each additional baseline hour of TV viewing ( β = 0.01, 95%CI = [−0.002; 0.02]) or computer use ( β = 0.00, 95%CI = [−0.004; 0.01]) per day was not significantly related with BMI at follow‐up.
We conclude that the evidence for a prospective relationship between childhood sedentary behaviour and biomedical health is in general unconvincing.
Television viewing is an extremely popular activity worldwide, but evidence is mounting linking increased television viewing with weight gain and risk of obesity. Levels of obesity have risen at dramatic rates over the past few decades, and both overweight and obesity are associated with numerous adverse health and psychosocial consequences. Weight gain, and ultimately obesity, occurs when energy intake exceeds expenditure over time, so it is vital that we examine factors affecting food intake in young people in order to try to curb the obesity epidemic. It has been suggested that one mechanism linking television viewing and obesity may be the impact of television food advertising on food preferences, choices, and consumption. There is considerable evidence to show that exposure to television food advertising alters brand preferences, food preferences, increases food intake and results in a greater number of requests for the advertised products. Steps to address this issue should focus on limiting television viewing in young people, restricting their exposure to adverts for high fat, sugar, and/or salt foods and encouraging the promotion of healthier foods on television. Lessons can be learnt from the experience of banning cigarette advertising, and can be used to inform future restrictions on the advertising of alcohol on television.
Screen-based media are becoming an increasingly important part of life for today's children and adolescents. That is why our purpose was to review the literature published within the past 10 years regarding the use and impact of TV, video game, and computer /Internet on youth health outcomes including how they affect their psychosocial outcomes and physical well-being. Systematic literature search for and analysis of a variety of media used by children and adolescents from a public health perspective was done. Literature was reviewed from May to July 2014. Children and adolescents spend a great deal of time using screen-based media. This high overall electronic media use was associated with poorer behavior and health status. A large part of this younger generation's social and emotional development is occurring while on the Internet and on cell phones. Screen-based media use was mutually associated, and the plural use of these media had stronger associations with unhealthy lifestyles and subjective health complaints. Various physical complaints, like obesity, backache and headache, neck-shoulder pain, and sleep disorders were also found significant. Children and adolescents are consumers, but also they are producers of social media. Public health professionals and society as a whole should increase health education on screen-based media consumption, by stimulating reasonable use and teaching youth to be critical. Parents can be most helpful if they understand the core issues and have strategies for dealing with them. Acta Medica Medianae 2015;54(3):64-73.
Obtaining a better understanding of the determinants of obesity and developing effective prevention and treatment strategies require an in-depth examination of behavioral risk factors for obesity. This chapter reviews available research regarding behavioral and environmental determinants of physical activity and dietary intake in both children and adults. Factors reviewed that influence physical activity levels include sedentary behavior, psychological variables such as self-efficacy and social support, and environmental and societal influences. Factors reviewed that influence food intake include total energy intake, specific eating patterns, family patterns, binge eating, and environmental and societal influences. Implications for future public health research and intervention are also discussed.
Developmental disabilities (DEVDIS) such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorders (ASD), developmental delay (DD), and learning disabilities, affect 14% of US youth, who also experience higher rates of obesity, approximately 19%, than youth without these conditions. Screen time is a risk factor for obesity, though it is not well-studied among youth with developmental disabilities. Youth with developmental disabilities experience challenges with learning, have underdeveloped social skills, and problematic behaviors. These predispositions can often result in peer rejection. The resulting social isolation may make these youth particularly vulnerable to engaging in solitary activities such as screen time. The objectives of this dissertation were to compare screen time rates among youth with developmental disabilities to typically developing youth and to examine the associations between social and family engagement with screen time among youth with developmental disabilities.
Data from the 2007 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH), a national cross-sectional study that assesses the physical and emotional health of US children (N = 91,642), were used. Youth 6-17 years, with ADHD (n = 7,024), ASD (n = 1,200), DD (n = 3,276), LD (n = 7,482), and without special health care needs (n = 44,461) were studied.
Unadjusted analyses found that children with DEVDIS engage in higher rates of screen time than youth without special health care needs. For youth with DEVDIS who were medicated for their ADHD, these associations attenuated. Thus ADHD symptoms, a common comorbidity across developmental disabilities, drove associations between the other developmental disabilities and screen time. Across all developmental disability groups, television in the bedroom was a significant screen time risk factor in both children and adolescents. Among children with ADHD, additional screen time risk factors included lack of caregiver knowledge of the child’s friends and any social engagement outside of the household. Among adolescents with ADHD, additional screen time risk factors included lower frequency that caregiver attends adolescent’s events and sport social engagement. Findings of this dissertation elucidate modifiable screen time risk factors that could potentially be adapted to decrease screen time among youth with developmental disabilities.
Clinical manifestations of cardiometabolic risk (CMR) may be set early in childhood due to unfavorable behaviors or lifestyle patterns related to diet and physical activity. Several factors may determine the adoption of such lifestyle-related behaviors, which researchers have tried to cluster under certain frameworks or models. In this context, the framework developed and proposed by this review gathers all the present knowledge regarding these determining factors to date and groups them into three main categories related to personal characteristics and the social and physical environment. Based on the proposed framework, a large variety of personal, social and physical environmental factors can positively or negatively influence CMR-related behaviors (either directly or indirectly via their interrelations), thus leading to decreased or increased risk, respectively. This framework could be of great value to public health policy makers and legislators for designing and implementing interventional programs tailored to the needs of susceptible population groups who are most in need for such initiatives. Targeting the correlates as potential determinants of CMR-related behaviors, and not just on the behaviors themselves, has been shown previously to be the most effective approach for tackling health issues related to CMR starting from early life stages.
To investigate the sociodemographic and behavioural factors associated with incidence, persistence or remission of obesity in a longitudinal sample of Australian children aged 4-10 years.
Nationally representative Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC).
The sample for this analysis included all children in the Kinder cohort (aged 4-5 years at wave 1) who participated in all four waves of LSAC (wave 1, 2004, aged 4-5 years; wave 2, 2006, aged 6-7 years; wave 3, 2008, aged 8-9 years and wave 4, 2010, aged 10-11 years). Of the 4983 children who participated in the baseline (wave 1) survey, 4169 (83.7%) children completed all four waves of data collection.
Movement of children between weight status categories over time and individual-level predictors of weight status change (sociodemographic characteristics, selected dietary and activity behaviours).
The study found tracking of weight status across this period of childhood. There was an inverse association observed between socioeconomic position and persistence of overweight/obesity. Sugar-sweetened beverages and fruit and vegetable intake and screen time appeared to be important predictors of stronger tracking.
Overweight and obesity established early in childhood tracks strongly to the middle childhood years in Australia, particularly among children of lower socioeconomic position and children participating in some unhealthy behaviour patterns.
Published by the BMJ Publishing Group Limited. For permission to use (where not already granted under a licence) please go to http://group.bmj.com/group/rights-licensing/permissions.
Physical inactivity contributes to weight gain in adults, but whether this relationship is true for children of different ethnic groups is not well established.
To assess participation in vigorous activity and television watching habits and their relationship to body weight and fatness in US children.
Nationally representative cross-sectional survey with an in-person interview and medical examination. SETTING and
Between 1988 and 1994, 4063 children aged 8 through 16 years were examined as part of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III. Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic blacks were oversampled to produce reliable estimates for these groups.
Episodes of weekly vigorous activity and daily hours of television watched, and their relationship to body mass index and body fatness.
Eighty percent of US children reported performing 3 or more bouts of vigorous activity each week. This rate was lower in non-Hispanic black and Mexican American girls (69% and 73%, respectively). Twenty percent of US children participated in 2 or fewer bouts of vigorous activity perweek, and the rate was higher in girls (26%) than in boys (17%). Overall, 26% of US children watched 4 or more hours of television per day and 67% watched at least 2 hours per day. Non-Hispanic black children had the highest rates of watching 4 or more hours of television per day (42%). Boys and girls who watch 4 or more hours of television each day had greater body fat (P<.001) and had a greater body mass index (P<.001) than those who watched less than 2 hours per day.
Many US children watch a great deal of television and are inadequately vigorously active. Vigorous activity levels are lowest among girls, non-Hispanic blacks, and Mexican Americans. Intervention strategies to promote lifelong physical activity among US children are needed to stem the adverse health consequences of inactivity.
We examined the effect of television viewing on resting metabolic rate (RMR) in a cohort of 9 obese and 18 nonobese girls aged 10.4 +/- 1.1 y. RMR was measured while girls watched television, read, or sat quietly for 15 min. Movement was assessed by using activity monitors and a manual count of movements observed on a videotape. Absolute RMR was greater for the obese girls, but no significant treatment effect existed for absolute RMR within either group. Although measured activity did not differ, observed movements were greater when the girls were sitting quietly. Total observed and measured movements were significantly correlated with the CV of the minute-by-minute RMR. These results suggest that television viewing does not alter RMR. Although children appear to fidget more when sitting quietly than when they read or watch television, fidgeting appears to affect the minute-to-minute variation of RMR rather than the level of resting energy expenditure.
The prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents has increased, and television viewing has been suggested as a cause. We examined the relation between hours of television viewed and the prevalence of overweight in 1990, and the incidence and remission of overweight from 1986 to 1990 in a nationally representative cohort of 746 youths aged 10 to 15 years in 1990 whose mothers were 25 to 32 years old. Overweight was defined as a body mass index higher than the 85th percentile for age and gender.
We observed a strong dose-response relationship between the prevalence of overweight in 1990 and hours of television viewed. The odds of being overweight were 4.6 (95% confidence interval, 2.2 to 9.6) times greater for youth watching more than 5 hours of television per day compared with those watching 0 to 2 hours. When adjustments were made for previous overweight (in 1986), baseline maternal overweight, socioeconomic status, household structure, ethnicity, and maternal and child aptitude test scores, results were similar (odds ratio, 5.3; 95% confidence interval, 2.3 to 12.1). We also found significant relations between television viewing and increased incidence and decreased remission of overweight during this 4-year period, adjusted for baseline covariates. The adjusted odds of incidence were 8.3 (95% confidence interval, 2.6 to 26.5) times greater for youth watching more than 5 hours of television per day compared with those watching for 0 to 2 hours. Estimates of attributable risk indicate that more than 60% of overweight incidence in this population can be linked to excess television viewing time.
Television viewing affects overweight among youth, and reductions in viewing time could help prevent this increasingly common chronic health condition.
To determine the extent to which physical activity and inactivity patterns vary by ethnicity among subpopulations of US adolescents.
Nationally representative data from the 1996 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health of >14,000 US adolescents (including 3135 non-Hispanic blacks, 2446 Hispanics, and 976 Asians).
Hours per week of inactivity (TV viewing, playing video or computer games) and times per week of moderate to vigorous physical activity were collected by using questionnaire data. Multinomial logistic regression models of physical activity and inactivity were used to adjust for sociodemographic factors.
Large ethnic differences are seen for inactivity, particularly for hours of television or video viewing per week (non-Hispanic blacks, mean = 20.4; non-Hispanic whites, mean = 13.1). Physical activity (>/=5 bouts of moderate to vigorous physical activity per week, 5-8 metabolic equivalents) is lowest for female and minority adolescents. Ethnic differences are far greater for inactivity than for moderate to vigorous physical activity.
Minority adolescents, with the exception of Asian females, have consistently higher levels of inactivity. Results vary by sex; males have higher inactivity and physical activity, whereas lowest physical activity is found for non-Hispanic black and Asian females, although Asian females also have low inactivity and low levels of overweight. Overall, efforts to reduce the problem of adolescent overweight should focus on increasing activity levels of adolescents, particularly female, older, and major minority subpopulations.
The term "epidemic" of obesity implies that obesity is a characteristic of populations, not only of individuals. The purpose of this paper is to review evidence on obesity in populations and to identify future research issues.
To examine recent increases in the population prevalence of overweight or obesity, a literature search was undertaken.
Trends in overweight or obesity among adults showed considerable variability internationally. Some countries, including Canada, Finland (men), New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Western Samoa showed large increases in prevalence (>5 percentage points), whereas several other countries showed smaller or no increases. Overweight is also increasing among children and adolescents, at least in some countries. It is not clear what the expected prevalence of overweight or obesity might be in the current environment, and these findings may be most usefully viewed as shifts in the distribution of a population characteristic. The reasons for these shifts are not clear. The health implications of these shifts are also not clear, in part because trends in cardiovascular risk factors do not always parallel trends in obesity. Of the classic epidemiologic triad of host, agent, and environment, the environment has often received the least attention.
The economic, social, and cultural factors that influence the distribution of body mass index in a population are not well understood. Future research needs include continued monitoring of trends in obesity and in related health conditions and observational studies to examine the causes of these trends. Public health research should aim at defining realistic goals and strategies to improve health in an environment conducive to high levels of overweight and obesity.
This report presents the revised growth charts for the United States. It summarizes the history of the 1977 National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) growth charts, reasons for the revision, data sources and statistical procedures used, and major features of the revised charts.
Data from five national health examination surveys collected from 1963 to 1994 and five supplementary data sources were combined to establish an analytic growth chart data set. A variety of statistical procedures were used to produce smoothed percentile curves for infants (from birth to 36 months) and older children (from 2 to 20 years), using a two-stage approach. Initial curve smoothing for selected major percentiles was accomplished with various parametric and nonparametric procedures. In the second stage, a normalization procedure was used to generate z-scores that closely match the smoothed percentile curves.
The 14 NCHS growth charts were revised and new body mass index-for-age (BMI-for-age) charts were created for boys and girls (http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts). The growth percentile curves for infants and children are based primarily on national survey data. Use of national data ensures a smooth transition from the charts for infants to those for older children. These data better represent the racial/ethnic diversity and the size and growth patterns of combined breast- and formula-fed infants in the United States. New features include addition of the 3rd and 97th percentiles for all charts and extension of all charts for children and adolescents to age 20 years.
Created with improved data and statistical curve smoothing procedures, the United States growth charts represent an enhanced instrument to evaluate the size and growth of infants and children.
To prospectively examine the relation between television watching and body fat change in children from preschool to early adolescence.
In a longitudinal study, 106 children were enrolled during preschool years (mean age 4.0 y) and followed into early adolescence (mean age 11.1 y). Parents completed an annual questionnaire on the child's television and video habits. Body mass index (BMI), triceps skinfolds, and sum of five skinfolds were recorded yearly at annual clinic visits. Longitudinal statistical analyses were carried out using mixed modeling procedures to control for potential confounding by a number of factors.
Television watching was an independent predictor of the change in the child's BMI, triceps, and sum of five skinfolds throughout childhood. Its effect was only slightly attenuated by controlling for the baseline body fat, level of physical activity (as measured repeatedly by Caltrac accelerometer), percent of calories from fat, total calorie intake, or the parents' BMI or education. By age 11, children who watched 3.0 h or more of television per day had a mean sum of skinfolds of 106.2 mm, compared with a mean sum of skinfolds of 76.5 mm for those who watched less than 1.75 h per day (P=0.007). Furthermore, the adverse effect of television viewing was worse for those children who were also sedentary or had a higher-fat diet.
Children who watched the most television during childhood had the greatest increase in body fat over time. Healthy lifestyle education designed to prevent obesity and its consequences should target television-watching habits of children.
Experimental findings causally link restrictive child-feeding practices to overeating in children. However, longitudinal data are needed to determine the extent to which restrictive feeding practices promote overeating.
Our objectives were to determine whether restrictive feeding practices foster girls' eating in the absence of hunger (EAH) and whether girls' weight status moderates the effects of restrictive feeding practices.
Longitudinal data were used to create a study design featuring 2 maternal restriction factors (low and high), 2 weight-status factors (nonoverweight and overweight), and 3 time factors (ages 5, 7, and 9 y).
Mean EAH increased significantly (P < 0.0001) from 5 to 9 y of age. Higher levels of restriction at 5 y of age predicted higher EAH at 7 y of age (P < 0.001) and at 9 y of age (P < 0.01). Girls who were already overweight at 5 y of age and who received higher levels of restriction had the highest EAH scores at 9 y of age (P < 0.05) and the greatest increases in EAH from 5 to 9 y of age (P < 0.01).
The developmental increase in EAH from 5 to 9 y of age may be especially problematic in obesigenic environments. These longitudinal data provide evidence that maternal restriction can promote overeating. Girls who are already overweight at 5 y of age may be genetically predisposed to be especially responsive to environmental cues. These findings are not expected to be generalized to boys or to other racial and ethnic groups.
To review the empirical evidence of associations between television (TV) viewing, video/computer game use and (a) body fatness, and (b) physical activity.
Meta-analysis.
Published English-language studies were located from computerized literature searches, bibliographies of primary studies and narrative reviews, and manual searches of personal archives. Included studies presented at least one empirical association between TV viewing, video/computer game use and body fatness or physical activity among samples of children and youth aged 3-18 y.
The mean sample-weighted corrected effect size (Pearson r).
Based on data from 52 independent samples, the mean sample-weighted effect size between TV viewing and body fatness was 0.066 (95% CI=0.056-0.078; total N=44,707). The sample-weighted fully corrected effect size was 0.084. Based on data from six independent samples, the mean sample-weighted effect size between video/computer game use and body fatness was 0.070 (95% CI=-0.048 to 0.188; total N=1,722). The sample-weighted fully corrected effect size was 0.128. Based on data from 39 independent samples, the mean sample-weighted effect size between TV viewing and physical activity was -0.096 (95% CI=-0.080 to -0.112; total N=141,505). The sample-weighted fully corrected effect size was -0.129. Based on data from 10 independent samples, the mean sample-weighted effect size between video/computer game use and physical activity was -0.104 (95% CI=-0.080 to -0.128; total N=119,942). The sample-weighted fully corrected effect size was -0.141.
A statistically significant relationship exists between TV viewing and body fatness among children and youth although it is likely to be too small to be of substantial clinical relevance. The relationship between TV viewing and physical activity is small but negative. The strength of these relationships remains virtually unchanged even after correcting for common sources of bias known to impact study outcomes. While the total amount of time per day engaged in sedentary behavior is inevitably prohibitive of physical activity, media-based inactivity may be unfairly implicated in recent epidemiologic trends of overweight and obesity among children and youth. Relationships between sedentary behavior and health are unlikely to be explained using single markers of inactivity, such as TV viewing or video/computer game use.
To investigate whether, diet, physical activity, sedentary behavior or television (TV) viewing predicted body mass index (BMI) among 3-7-y-old children.
A triethnic cohort of 3-4-y-old children was followed for 3 y from 1986 to 1989.
BMI was assessed at the beginning and end of each measurement year. Heart rate monitoring and observation were used to assess physical activity. Diet (calories, % calories from fat and carbohydrate), sedentary behavior and TV viewing were assessed by direct observation in each year. A repeated measures regression analysis with year as a factor and BMI at the end of each year as dependent variables was run. Nonsignificant variables were removed in a stepwise backward deletion process and significant interactions graphed.
The interactions between minutes of TV viewing per hour and study year and minutes of physical activity per hour and study year were significant (P<0.05). There were also significant main effects for TV viewing, physical activity and BMI from the beginning of the study. The model accounted for 65% of the variance in BMI across the three study years. Plotting the significant interactions demonstrated that physical activity was positively associated with BMI in year 1, and negatively associated in years 2 and 3 with a stronger negative relationship in year 3 than 2. TV viewing became positively associated with BMI during the third study year.
Physical activity and TV viewing were the only significant predictors (other than baseline BMI) of BMI among a triethnic cohort of 3-4-y-old children followed for 3 y with both physical activity (negatively associated) and TV viewing (positively associated) becoming stronger predictors as the children aged. It appears that 6 or 7 y is a critical age when TV viewing and physical activity may affect BMI. Therefore, focusing on reducing time spent watching television and increasing time spent in physical activity may be successful means of preventing obesity among this age group.
The association of television viewing and obesity in data collected during cycles II and III of the National Health Examination Survey was examined. Cycle II examined 6,965 children aged 6 to 11 years and cycle III examined 6,671 children aged 12 to 17 years. Included in the cycle III sample were 2,153 subjects previously studied during cycle II. These surveys, therefore, provided two cross-sectional samples and one prospective sample. In all three samples, significant associations of the time spent watching television and the prevalence of obesity were observed. In 12- to 17-year-old adolescents, the prevalence of obesity increased by 2% for each additional hour of television viewed. The associations persisted when controlled for prior obesity, region, season, population density, race, socioeconomic class, and a variety of other family variables. The consistency, temporal sequence, strength, and specificity of the associations suggest that television viewing may cause obesity in at least some children and adolescents. The potential effects of obesity on activity and the consumption of calorically dense foods are consistent with this hypothesis.
Objective:
To examine prevalence of overweight and trends in overweight for children and adolescents in the US population.Design:
Nationally representative cross-sectional surveys with an in-person interview and a medical examination, including measurement of height and weight.Participants:
Between 3000 and 14000 youths aged 6 through 17 years examined in each of five separate national surveys during 1963 to 1965, 1966 to 1970, 1971 to 1974, 1976 to 1980, and 1988 to 1991 (Cycles II and III of the National Health Examination Survey, and the first, second, and third National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, respectively).Main Outcome Measures:
Prevalence of overweight based on body mass index and 85th or 95th percentile cutoff points from Cycles II and III of the National Health Examination Survey.Results:
From 1988 to 1991, the prevalence of over-weight was 10.9% based on the 95th percentile and 22% based on the 85th percentile. Overweight prevalence increased during the period examined among all sex and age groups. The increase was greatest since 1976 to 1980, similar to findings previously reported for adults in the United States.Conclusions:
Increasing overweight among youths implies a need to focus on primary prevention. Attempts to increase physical activity may provide a means to address this important public health problem.(Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1995;149:1085-1091)
The influence of television on children has been of concern to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) for a number of years. Two academy task forces during the past 15 years have addressed specifically television's relationship to children's learning and behavior. Violence portrayed in programming and cigarette advertising have been highlighted as major concerns. No ongoing recommendations have been implemented.
Because of an increased public awareness and concern about the overall pervasiveness of children's television viewing, as well as the effect of specific programming, numerous groups have addressed these issues. Some are active "watchdogs" and lobbying organizations that publicize each concern and seek legislative restrictions on what can and should be televised. Action for Children's Television falls into this category. Other organizations link the producers, writers, and directors with the industry networks, public broadcasting system, and cable networks to plan educational efforts to improve television programs. The National Council on
Background and Methods:
The prevalence of obesity among children and adolescents has increased, and television viewing has been suggested as a cause. We examined the relation between hours of television viewed and the prevalence of overweight in 1990, and the incidence and remission of overweight from 1986 to 1990 in a nationally representative cohort of 746 youths aged 10 to 15 years in 1990 whose mothers were 25 to 32 years old. Overweight was defined as a body mass index higher than the 85th percentile for age and gender.Results:
We observed a strong dose-response relationship between the prevalence of overweight in 1990 and hours of television viewed. The odds of being overweight were 4.6 (95% confidence interval, 2.2 to 9.6) times greater for youth watching more than 5 hours of television per day compared with those watching for 0 to 2 hours. When adjustments were made for previous overweight (in 1986), baseline maternal overweight, socioeconomic status, household structure, ethnicity, and maternal and child aptitude test scores, results were similar (odds ratio, 5.3; 95% confidence interval, 2.3 to 12.1). We also found significant relations between television viewing and increased incidence and decreased remission of overweight during this 4-year period, adjusted for baseline covariates. The adjusted odds of incidence were 8.3 (95% confidence interval, 2.6 to 26.5) times greater for youth watching more than 5 hours of television per day compared with those watching for 0 to 2 hours. Estimates of attributable risk indicate that more 60% of overweight incidence in this population can be linked to excess television viewing time.Conclusion:
Television viewing affects overweight among youth, and reductions in viewing time could help prevent this increasingly common chronic health condition.(Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1996;150:356-362)
Context Some observational studies have found an association between television
viewing and child and adolescent adiposity.Objective To assess the effects of reducing television, videotape, and video game
use on changes in adiposity, physical activity, and dietary intake.Design Randomized controlled school-based trial conducted from September 1996
to April 1997.Setting Two sociodemographically and scholastically matched public elementary
schools in San Jose, Calif.Participants Of 198 third- and fourth-grade students, who were given parental consent
to participate, 192 students (mean age, 8.9 years) completed the study.Intervention Children in 1 elementary school received an 18-lesson, 6-month classroom
curriculum to reduce television, videotape, and video game use.Main Outcome Measures Changes in measures of height, weight, triceps skinfold thickness, waist
and hip circumferences, and cardiorespiratory fitness; self-reported media
use, physical activity, and dietary behaviors; and parental report of child
and family behaviors. The primary outcome measure was body mass index, calculated
as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters.Results Compared with controls, children in the intervention group had statistically
significant relative decreases in body mass index (intervention vs control
change: 18.38 to 18.67 kg/m2 vs 18.10 to 18.81 kg/m2,
respectively; adjusted difference −0.45 kg/m2 [95% confidence
interval {CI}, −0.73 to −0.17]; P=.002),
triceps skinfold thickness (intervention vs control change: 14.55 to 15.47
mm vs 13.97 to 16.46 mm, respectively; adjusted difference, −1.47 mm
[95% CI, −2.41 to −0.54]; P=.002), waist
circumference (intervention vs control change: 60.48 to 63.57 cm vs 59.51
to 64.73 cm, respectively; adjusted difference, −2.30 cm [95% CI, −3.27
to −1.33]; P<.001), and waist-to-hip ratio
(intervention vs control change: 0.83 to 0.83 vs 0.82 to 0.84, respectively;
adjusted difference, −0.02 [95% CI, −0.03 to −0.01]; P<.001). Relative to controls, intervention group changes
were accompanied by statistically significant decreases in children's reported
television viewing and meals eaten in front of the television. There were
no statistically significant differences between groups for changes in high-fat
food intake, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and cardiorespiratory
fitness.Conclusions Reducing television, videotape, and video game use may be a promising,
population-based approach to prevent childhood obesity.
To assess the effect of television viewing on subsequent change in body mass index (BMI=kg/m(2)) percentiles (BMI%) in adolescence.
Data were drawn from the California Teen Longitudinal Survey of adolescents 12 to 17 years old with baseline assessment in 1993 and follow-up in 1996. Self-reported height and weight were used to calculate BMI and derive age-specific and sex-specific BMI%. Hours of television watched per day were obtained at baseline (BTV). The relations of BTV and BMI percentiles both at baseline and after 3 years were assessed with linear regression modeling.
Of 2223 adolescents (52% male, 68% white), 5.85% (n=130) were overweight (BMI > or =95th percentile) at baseline and 5.40% (n=120) at follow-up. Mean BTV was 2.85 (SD, 1.98). In adjusted models, with each additional hour of BTV, the baseline BMI% increased by.9, and the follow-up BMI% increased by.47. Adolescents who watched more than 2 hours of television a day were twice as likely to be overweight at follow-up as adolescents who watched < or =2 hours.
Television viewing leads to a subsequent increase in BMI percentiles and overweight. Efforts to decrease overweight should consider interventions to reduce television time.
Television (TV) often depicts a version of the world that differs from social reality in several ways. The present study examined the relationship between the amount of TV people watch, how important TV is for their entertainment and information-gathering purposes, and their perceptions of their health, weight, and physical fitness. Regression analyses showed that, after controlling for their actual level of obesity, health perceptions were negatively related to both the amount of time spent watching TV and TV's perceived importance as an entertainment medium, but for women only. In addition, those who watched a lot of TV tended to see themselves as more overweight than did those who watched less TV. The implications of these findings for the cultivation hypothesis, as well as issues of replication, were discussed.
The association of television viewing and obesity in data collected during cycles II and III of the National Health Examination Survey was examined. Cycle II examined 6,965 children aged 6 to 11 years and cycle III examined 6,671 children aged 12 to 17 years. Included in the cycle III sample were 2,153 subjects previously studied during cycle II. These surveys, therefore, provided two cross-sectional samples and one prospective sample. In all three samples, significant associations of the time spent watching television and the prevalence of obesity were observed. In 12- to 17-year-old adolescents, the prevalence of obesity increased by 2% for each additional hour of television viewed. The associations persisted when controlled for prior obesity, region, season, population density, race, socioeconomic class, and a variety of other family variables. The consistency, temporal sequence, strength, and specificity of the associations suggest that television viewing may cause obesity in at least some children and adolescents. The potential effects of obesity on activity and the consumption of calorically dense foods are consistent with this hypothesis.
Mixed longitudinal data on the physical changes at puberty in 228 normal boys are presented together with normal standards for stages of genital and pubic hair development.The genitalia began to develop between the ages 9½ years and 13½ years in 95% of boys (mean = 11.6 ± 0.09) and reached maturity at ages varying between 13 and 17 (mean = 14.9 ± 1.10). The age at which pubic hair first appeared was not accurately determined, but its development through the later stages was studied. It reached the equivalent of an adult female distribution at a mean age of 15.2 ± 0.01 years.On average the genitalia reached the adult stage 3.0 years after they first began to develop; but some boys completed this development in as little as 1.8 years while others took as much as 4.7 years. Some boys complete the whole process in less time than others take to go from Stage G2 to Stage G3. The genitalia begin to develop before pubic hair is visible in photographs in practically all boys.The 41 boys in whom it could be studied reached their maximum rate of growth (peak height velocity) at a mean age of 14.1 ± 0.14 years.Very few boys (about 5%) reached peak height velocity before their genitalia were in Stage 4 and over 20% did not do so until their genitalia were adult. Peak height velocity is reached, on the average, nearly 2 years later in boys than in girls, but the boys' genitalia begin to develop only about 6 months later than the girls' breasts. Pubic hair appears about 1½ years later in boys than in girls.
Mixed longitudinal data on the physical changes at puberty in 192 normal girls are presented, together with pictorial standards for stages of breast and pubic hair development. The first sign of puberty (i.e. either breast or pubic hair development) appeared between the ages of 8.5 years and 13 years in 95% of girls, and the breasts reached the mature stage between 11.8 and 18.9 years. The mean ages at which the intermediate stages of breast and pubic hair development were reached are given; all had standard deviations of approximately 1 year. The mean age at peak height velocity (i.e. the maximum rate of growth in stature) was 12.14 ± ±0.14 (SD =0.88) and the mean age at menarche was 13.47 ± 0.10 (SD = 1.02). The limits of normal variation in the length of time which girls take to pass from one stage of breast or pubic hair development to another are given. The interval from the first sign of puberty to complete maturity varied from 1.5 years to over 6 years. The bud stage of breast development persisted for between 6 months and 2 years before further change took place. The mean interval from the beginning of breast development to menarche was 2.3 ± 0.1 years, but the range observed was 6 months to 5 years 9 months. The mean interval from the beginning of breast development to peak height velocity was 1.01 ±0.12 years (SD = 0.77). The limits of normal variation in the relation between breast and pubic hair development, the adolescent growth spurt, and menarche are described. Peak height velocity was reached very early in puberty by about 25% of girls, and in all cases it preceded menarche. 90% of girls had menstruated before their breasts reached the mature stage. Pubic hair was seen before breast development had begun in about a third of all girls. The use of these data in making a clinical distinction between normal and abnormal puberty is discussed, together with their relevance to the study of the neuro-endocrine mechanisms by which puberty is controlled.
To examine prevalence of overweight and trends in overweight for children and adolescents in the US population.
Nationally representative cross-sectional surveys with an in-person interview and a medical examination, including measurement of height and weight.
Between 3000 and 14,000 youths aged 6 through 17 years examined in each of five separate national surveys during 1963 to 1965, 1966 to 1970, 1971 to 1974, 1976 to 1980, and 1988 to 1991 (Cycles II and III of the National Health Examination Survey, and the first, second, and third National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, respectively).
Prevalence of overweight based on body mass index and 85th or 95th percentile cutoff points from Cycles II and III of the National Health Examination Survey.
From 1988 to 1991, the prevalence of overweight was 10.9% based on the 95th percentile and 22% based on the 85th percentile. Overweight prevalence increased during the period examined among all sex and age groups. The increase was greatest since 1976 to 1980, similar to findings previously reported for adults in the United States.
Increasing overweight among youths implies a need to focus on primary prevention. Attempts to increase physical activity may provide a means to address this important public health problem.
The study examines the relationship between children's television (TV) viewing and physical fitness.
Cross-sectional data from questionnaires and objective measures were analyzed.
Data were collected during the fall of 1990 from public elementary school students in a suburban California city.
Approximately 98% of eligible students participated. Of these, 10% were dropped due to missing data, yielding a final sample of 284 girls and 304 boys.
Children reported their amount of TV viewing on a typical summer day; parents reported their child's TV viewing on a typical weekday during the school year. Cardiovascular fitness was the 1-mile run/walk. Body fat was both the child's body mass index (BMI) and skinfolds. Additional measures included muscular strength/endurance and flexibility.
Mile run/walk times were associated with both parental (eta 2 = .051 and .031 for boys and girls, respectively) and child reports (eta 2 = .020 and .028) of the child's amount of TV viewing. Parental reports, but not child reports, of the child's TV viewing were related to BMI (eta 2 = .041 and .058) and skinfolds (eta 2 = .050 and .029). Neither measure of children's TV viewing was related to muscular strength/endurance or flexibility.
Children's TV viewing seems to be weakly and inconsistently related to various components of physical fitness. However, given the tracking of cardiovascular disease risk factors from childhood into adulthood and the high proportion of children who watch television, these relationships are worthy of further study.
Some observational studies have found an association between television viewing and child and adolescent adiposity.
To assess the effects of reducing television, videotape, and video game use on changes in adiposity, physical activity, and dietary intake.
Randomized controlled school-based trial conducted from September 1996 to April 1997.
Two sociodemographically and scholastically matched public elementary schools in San Jose, Calif.
Of 198 third- and fourth-grade students, who were given parental consent to participate, 192 students (mean age, 8.9 years) completed the study.
Children in 1 elementary school received an 18-lesson, 6-month classroom curriculum to reduce television, videotape, and video game use.
Changes in measures of height, weight, triceps skinfold thickness, waist and hip circumferences, and cardiorespiratory fitness; self-reported media use, physical activity, and dietary behaviors; and parental report of child and family behaviors. The primary outcome measure was body mass index, calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters.
Compared with controls, children in the intervention group had statistically significant relative decreases in body mass index (intervention vs control change: 18.38 to 18.67 kg/m2 vs 18.10 to 18.81 kg/m2, respectively; adjusted difference -0.45 kg/m2 [95% confidence interval [CI], -0.73 to -0.17]; P = .002), triceps skinfold thickness (intervention vs control change: 14.55 to 15.47 mm vs 13.97 to 16.46 mm, respectively; adjusted difference, -1.47 mm [95% CI, -2.41 to -0.54]; P=.002), waist circumference (intervention vs control change: 60.48 to 63.57 cm vs 59.51 to 64.73 cm, respectively; adjusted difference, -2.30 cm [95% CI, -3.27 to -1.33]; P<.001), and waist-to-hip ratio (intervention vs control change: 0.83 to 0.83 vs 0.82 to 0.84, respectively; adjusted difference, -0.02 [95% CI, -0.03 to -0.01]; P<.001). Relative to controls, intervention group changes were accompanied by statistically significant decreases in children's reported television viewing and meals eaten in front of the television. There were no statistically significant differences between groups for changes in high-fat food intake, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Reducing television, videotape, and video game use may be a promising, population-based approach to prevent childhood obesity.
Data from a nationally representative sample of 2630 English children show that the frequency of overweight ranged from 22% at age 6 years to 31% at age 15 years and that of obesity ranged from 10% at age 6 years to 17% at age 15 years.
To report trends in overweight and obesity, defined by new internationally agreed cut-off points, in children in the United Kingdom.
Three independent cross sectional surveys. Setting: Primary schools in England and Scotland.
10 414 boys and 9737 girls in England and 5385 boys and 5219 girls in Scotland aged 4 to 11 years.
Prevalence and change in prevalence of overweight and obesity, as defined by the international obesity task force, in 1974, 1984, and 1994, for each sex and country.
Little change was found in the prevalence of overweight or obesity from 1974 to 1984. From 1984 to 1994 overweight increased from 5.4% to 9.0% in English boys (increase 3. 6%, 95% confidence interval 2.3% to 5.0%) and from 6.4% to 10.0% in Scottish boys (3.6%, 1.9% to 5.4%). Values for girls were 9.3% to 13. 5% (4.1%, 2.4% to 5.9%) and 10.4% to 15.8% (5.4%, 3.2% to 7.6%), respectively. The prevalence of obesity increased correspondingly, reaching 1.7% (English boys), 2.1% (Scottish boys), 2.6% (English girls), and 3.2% (Scottish girls).
These results form a base from which trends can be monitored. The rising trends are likely to be reflected in increases in adult obesity and associated morbidity.
Obesity has increased dramatically over the past two decades and currently about 50% of US adults and 25% of US children are overweight. The current epidemic of obesity is caused largely by an environment that promotes excessive food intake and discourages physical activity. This chapter reviews what is known about environmental influences on physical activity and eating behaviors. Recent trends in food supply, eating out, physical activity, and inactivity are reviewed, as are the effects of advertising, promotion, and pricing on eating and physical activity. Public health interventions, opportunities, and potential strategies to combat the obesity epidemic by promoting an environment that supports healthy eating and physical activity are discussed.
High rates of Type 2 diabetes in Native populations underlie the need for research on risk factors, including physical activity (PA) and obesity.
In 1994 and in 1996, 103 girls and 95 boys [mean age (standard deviation): 7.5 (1.3) years] attending elementary schools in two Mohawk communities completed a questionnaire assessing demographic and lifestyle variables. In addition, height, weight, and subscapular skinfold thickness (SSF) were measured and children performed a run/walk fitness (R/W) test. Gender-specific multiple linear regression assessed the impact of baseline variables on the log of SSF at baseline and follow-up.
In cross-sectional analyses among boys and girls, the common correlates of baseline SSF included failing to achieve the minimal fitness standard for the R/W test and being involved in summer sports. Additional correlates identified only among girls included excessive television watching, lower PA, and involvement in community sports. Longitudinal predictors among girls were younger age, being from the comparison community, excessive TV, and PA. Among boys, only baseline SSF predicted follow-up SSF. Girls who watched excessive TV had SSFs 30 and 14% greater than those who watched less TV at baseline and follow-up, respectively.
TV viewing was the only consistent determinant of adiposity among girls.
The purpose of this study was to examine whether television viewing (TVV) provides a context for patterns of snacking fostering overweight in young girls from overweight and non-overweight families.
Participants were 173 non-Hispanic white girls and their parents from central Pennsylvania, assessed longitudinally when girls were 5, 7, and 9 years old. Path analysis was used to test patterns of relationships among girls' TVV, snacking while watching television, snacking frequency, fat intake from energy-dense snack food, and girls' increase in body mass index (BMI) from age 5 to 9.
In both overweight and non-overweight families, girls who watched more television consumed more snacks in front of the television. In families where neither parent was overweight, television viewing was the only significant predictor of girls' increase in BMI. In families where one or both parents were overweight, girls who watched more television snacked more frequently, and girls who snacked more frequently had higher intakes of fat from energy-dense snacks, which predicted their increase in BMI from age 5 to 9. TVV did not directly predict girls' increase in BMI in girls from overweight families.
The results of this study support and extend previous findings that have shown that excessive television viewing and snacking patterns are risk factors for the development of overweight in children; however, patterns of relationships may differ based on parental weight status. For overweight families, TVV may provide a context for excessive snack consumption, in addition to inactivity.
Cross-sectional studies have suggested that children who were less physically active and children who watched more television (TV) had more excess body weight, but no large nationwide longitudinal studies have addressed whether children who change their personal levels of activity or inactivity, from one year to the next, experience changes in adiposity. Our objective is to study the association between change in body mass index (BMI) over 1 year and same year change in recreational physical activity and change in recreational inactivity (TV/videos/video games).
Cohort study using data from 2 mailed questionnaires, 1 year apart.
A total of 11 887 boys and girls, aged 10 to 15, who returned questionnaires in both 1997 and 1998 as part of the Growing Up Today Study. Outcome Measure. Change in BMI from 1997-1998, accounting for increases in BMI associated with growth and development.
An increase in physical activity from 1997-1998 was associated with decreasing relative BMI in girls (-0.06 kg/m2 per hour increase in daily activity; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.11, -0.01) and in overweight boys (-0.22 kg/m2; CI: -0.33, -0.10). An increase in inactivity was associated with increasing BMI in girls (+0.05 kg/m2 per hour increase in daily TV/videos/video games; CI: +0.02, +0.08). Effects were generally stronger among overweight children. Increasing time doing aerobics/dancing and walking were associated with BMI declines for some groups of children.
Many children may benefit by increasing their physical activity and by reducing time watching TV or videos and playing video games. In particular, 2 activities accessible to most children, aerobics/dancing and walking, also appeared beneficial.
Watching television in childhood and adolescence has been linked to adverse health indicators including obesity, poor fitness, smoking, and raised cholesterol. However, there have been no longitudinal studies of childhood viewing and adult health. We explored these associations in a birth cohort followed up to age 26 years.
We assessed approximately 1000 unselected individuals born in Dunedin, New Zealand, in 1972-73 at regular intervals up to age 26 years. We used regression analysis to investigate the associations between earlier television viewing and body-mass index, cardiorespiratory fitness (maximum aerobic power assessed by a submaximal cycling test), serum cholesterol, smoking status, and blood pressure at age 26 years.
Average weeknight viewing between ages 5 and 15 years was associated with higher body-mass indices (p=0.0013), lower cardiorespiratory fitness (p=0.0003), increased cigarette smoking (p<0.0001), and raised serum cholesterol (p=0.0037). Childhood and adolescent viewing had no significant association with blood pressure. These associations persisted after adjustment for potential confounding factors such as childhood socioeconomic status, body-mass index at age 5 years, parental body-mass index, parental smoking, and physical activity at age 15 years. In 26-year-olds, population-attributable fractions indicate that 17% of overweight, 15% of raised serum cholesterol, 17% of smoking, and 15% of poor fitness can be attributed to watching television for more than 2 h a day during childhood and adolescence.
Television viewing in childhood and adolescence is associated with overweight, poor fitness, smoking, and raised cholesterol in adulthood. Excessive viewing might have long-lasting adverse effects on health.
This longitudinal study examines links between parents' television (TV)-related parenting practices and their daughter's daily TV viewing hours.
Participants included 173 non-Hispanic white girls and their parents who were examined when girls were age 9 and 11 years. Girls' daily TV viewing hours, mothers' and fathers' daily TV viewing hours, parents' use of TV as a recreational activity, family TV co-viewing, and parents' restriction of girls' access to TV were assessed.
Approximately 40% of girls exceeded the TV-viewing recommendations (ie, < or =2 hours/day). Girls watched significantly more TV when their parents were high-volume TV viewers, relied heavily on TV as a recreational activity, watched TV with them, and failed to limit their access to TV. A parenting risk score was calculated by collapsing information across all parenting variables. In comparison with girls exposed to 1 or fewer parenting risk factors at age 9, girls exposed to 2 or more parenting risk factors were 5 to 10 times more likely to exceed TV viewing recommendations at age 9 and 11.
Efforts to reduce TV viewing among children should encourage parents to limit their own TV viewing, reduce family TV viewing time, and limit their children's access to TV.
The impact of broadcasting
- Bronfenbrenner
Bronfenbrenner, U. The impact of broadcasting. In: Clayre, J., editor. The impact of broadcasting.
Compton Russell; London: 1973. p. 277-302.
Relationship of physical activity and television watching with body weight and level of fatness among children
- R E Andersen
- C J Crespo
- S J Bartlett
- L J Cheskin
- M Pratt
Andersen RE, Crespo CJ, Bartlett SJ, Cheskin LJ, Pratt M. Relationship of physical activity and
television watching with body weight and level of fatness among children. JAMA 1998;279:938-42. [PubMed: 9544768]
Kids & media @ the new millennium. The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation
- D Roberts
- U Foehr
- V Rideout
- M Brodie
Roberts, D.; Foehr, U.; Rideout, V.; Brodie, M. Kids & media @ the new millennium. The Henry J.
Kaiser Family Foundation; 1999.
Policy statement: children, adolescents and television (RE0043)
American Academy of Pediatrics. Policy statement: children, adolescents and television (RE0043).
Pediatrics 2001;107:423-6. [PubMed: 11158483]
Relationship of physical activity and television watching with body weight and level of fatness among children
- Andersen
The obesity epidemic in children and adults
- Flegal