No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Nanotechnology and Drug Delivery Part 1: Background and Applications
Abstract
Nanotechnology in general and as it relates to drug delivery in humans has been reviewed in a two-part article, the first part of which is this paper. In this paper, nanotechnology in nature, history of nanotechnology and methods of synthesis are discussed, while also outlining its applications, benefits and risks. Nanotechnology is an industrial revolution, based on integration of disciplines that could change every facet of human life. Some examples ofchanges brought about by reduction in particle sizes to the physical, chemical and biological properties of substances, compounds and drug products have been cited. The benefits of nanotechnology are enormous and so these benefits should be maximized while efforts are made to reduce the risks.
... e.g., micelles dendrimer based nano structures, though the nano carriers are the agent used in formulation of NPs have number of advantages like particle size, narrow size distribution, surface feature for target specific localization, protective in solution of a drug molecule to enhance stability, they can respond to physiological stimuli as well as distribution pattern upon systemic administration. Some other inherent properties like multiple therapeutic agents can be combined to have a synergistic effect on the formulation, designing and development of NPs [3][4][5] . Along all these effects there smaller particles size and larger surface area to volume ratio potentiates them to cross through various biological barriers also [1][2][3][4][5] . ...
... Some other inherent properties like multiple therapeutic agents can be combined to have a synergistic effect on the formulation, designing and development of NPs [3][4][5] . Along all these effects there smaller particles size and larger surface area to volume ratio potentiates them to cross through various biological barriers also [1][2][3][4][5] . Due to larger surface area NPs are held in suspension and oral route is widely accepted due to optimum absorption based on larger surface area present in the GIT. ...
... These parameters have profound effects on the biological environment. Apart from these surface charges, surface adsorption-like properties of nano carriers contribute to its usefulness as carrier platforms [1][2][3][4][5] . Figure 1. ...
According to studies made by previous researchers there are various technical problems associated with liposomes which can be avoided by designing colloidal drugs carrier like nanoparticles with nanotechnology. Now a days they are beneficial in the field of agriculture, veterinary, pharmaceutical, textile technologies. Site specific delivery of encapsulated drugs can be formulated with a nanometer size range which can be injected into the general circulation. The objective of this review is to explain the potential of NPs and nanotechnology associated with their characters and classifications, synthesis and application as the emerging scopes for NPs, rather will attract everyone’s attention. The aim of the present work is to characterize biodegradable nanoparticulate systems for oral controlled release, while numerous publications have appeared on this by international research teams, the research on polymeric nanoparticles has been primarily performed by a few research groups in Europe. Nanoparticles are being investigated as an alternative colloidal drug delivery system that could potentially avoid some of the technical problems observed with other drug delivery system.
... Non-economical Economical [40] Conventional and Biological Synthesis ...
... There has been a persistent rise in the production of TiO 2 NPs globally, which increases its mass production availability for different fields [176]. Currently, TiO 2 NPs are the most biocompatible, with low toxicity and low allergic potential that makes them ideally suitable for utilization in medical and dental applications [39,40,177,178]. The TiO 2 NPs are resourceful, versatile, and adaptable because of their extraordinary functionality, increased strength, light weight [179], brightness, resistance to UV light, high density [177,178,180], cost effectiveness, purely white color, high corrosion resistance [181][182][183], long-term chemical stability, and durability [184,185]. ...
... Comparative differences between conventional and biological TiO 2 NPs[40,51,85,90,91]. ...
Currently, titanium oxide (TiO2) nanoparticles are successfully employed in human food, drugs, cosmetics, advanced medicine, and dentistry because of their non-cytotoxic, non-allergic, and bio-compatible nature when used in direct close contact with the human body. These NPs are the most versatile oxides as a result of their acceptable chemical stability, lower cost, strong oxidation properties, high refractive index, and enhanced aesthetics. These NPs are fabricated by conventional (physical and chemical) methods and the latest biological methods (biological, green, and biological derivatives), with their advantages and disadvantages in this epoch. The significance of TiO2 NPs as a medical material includes drug delivery release, cancer therapy, orthopedic implants, biosensors, instruments, and devices, whereas their significance as a dental biomaterial involves dentifrices, oral antibacterial disinfectants, whitening agents, and adhesives. In addition, TiO2 NPs play an important role in orthodontics (wires and brackets), endodontics (sealers and obturating materials), maxillofacial surgeries (implants and bone plates), prosthodontics (veneers, crowns, bridges, and acrylic resin dentures), and restorative dentistry (GIC and composites).
... In 1902 the first observation and size measurement of nanomaterials were practiced by Richard Zsigmondy by using ultra microscope. Two inventions in the fields of nanotechnology was made that permit the imaging of individual atoms, molecules as well as their treatment that led to significant progress in nanotechnology (Ochekpe, Olorunfemi, & Ngwuluka, 2009 (Damschroder et al., 2009). Ag dollars were used by American pioneers to prevent milk spoilage and in 1954 Ag material, colloidal, suspension were registered as a biocidal materials used in medications (Reidy et al., 2013). ...
... Nano particles below 100 nm are prepared by a technique known as "Self Assembly Lithography" which is cost effective technique. However, the random movement of atoms is one of the peculiar challenge of the Bottom Up Approach (Ochekpe et al., 2009). ...
... In this approach, the bulk materials reduced by some techniques that result the formation of nanostructures. This process involves the breaking, cutting, and etching of bulk material and the whole procedure is involved step by step employing lithography e.g., film machining, surface machining, and mold machining, x-ray, electron beam lithography etc (Ochekpe et al., 2009). ...
... In 1902 the first observation and size measurement of nanomaterials were practiced by Richard Zsigmondy by using ultra microscope. Two inventions in the fields of nanotechnology was made that permit the imaging of individual atoms, molecules as well as their treatment that led to significant progress in nanotechnology (Ochekpe, Olorunfemi, & Ngwuluka, 2009 (Damschroder et al., 2009). Ag dollars were used by American pioneers to prevent milk spoilage and in 1954 Ag material, colloidal, suspension were registered as a biocidal materials used in medications (Reidy et al., 2013). ...
... Nano particles below 100 nm are prepared by a technique known as "Self Assembly Lithography" which is cost effective technique. However, the random movement of atoms is one of the peculiar challenge of the Bottom Up Approach (Ochekpe et al., 2009). ...
... In this approach, the bulk materials reduced by some techniques that result the formation of nanostructures. This process involves the breaking, cutting, and etching of bulk material and the whole procedure is involved step by step employing lithography e.g., film machining, surface machining, and mold machining, x-ray, electron beam lithography etc (Ochekpe et al., 2009). ...
... The goal of therapy is to always selectively remove the tumours or the source of illness in a long-lasting manner (35). Nanotechnologies are making a compelling contribution in this area through the development of novel modes for drug delivery, and some of these methods have proven effective in a clinical setting and are clinically used (36). For example, doxorubicin a -Cochlear implants, the ability to re-join damaged nerves and use in retinal implants. ...
... drug which exhibits high toxicity, can be delivered directly to tumour cells using liposomes (Doxil ® ) without affecting the heart or kidneys. Additionally, paclitaxel incorporated with polymeric mPEG-PLA micelles (Genexol-PM ® ) are used in chemotherapeutic treatment of metastatic breast cancers (10,11,36). The success of nanotechnologies in drug delivery can be attributed to the improved in vivo distribution, evasion of the reticuloendothelial system and the favourable pharmacokinetics (36). ...
... Additionally, paclitaxel incorporated with polymeric mPEG-PLA micelles (Genexol-PM ® ) are used in chemotherapeutic treatment of metastatic breast cancers (10,11,36). The success of nanotechnologies in drug delivery can be attributed to the improved in vivo distribution, evasion of the reticuloendothelial system and the favourable pharmacokinetics (36). A perfect drug delivery system encompasses two elements: Control over drug release and the targeting ability. ...
Nanotechnology is the exploitation of the unique properties of materials at the nanoscale. Nanotechnology has gained popularity in several industries, as it offers better built and smarter products. The application of nanotechnology in medicine and healthcare is referred to as nanomedicine, and it has been used to combat some of the most common diseases, including cardiovascular diseases and cancer. The present review provides an overview of the recent advances of nanotechnology in the aspects of imaging and drug delivery.
... Thus, with the knowledge of nanotechnology, various platforms such as liposomes, nanotubes, nanopores, fullers, magnetic nanoprobes, quantum dots, and radiocontrolled nanoparticles are being developed (Surendiran et al., 2009). Nanobased drug delivery for antimalarial treatment is a scientific approach, involving formulations, technologies, and systems for transporting pharmaceutical compounds in the body as needed to safely achieve the desired therapeutic effects (Ochekpe et al., 2009). Nanoparticles have emerged as the future of drug delivery technology, as they might become crucial diagnostic and therapeutic tools (Vanka et al., 2007). ...
... Therefore, antimalarial compounds can be solubilized or encapsulated within their oil or lipid compartment to enhance their bioavailability. Examples of lipid-based delivery systems include liposomes and lipid nanoparticles with the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (Ochekpe et al., 2009;Patel et al., 2013). ...
Malaria remains a burden for the tropical and subtropical countries where the disease frequently spreads. The major challenge in the treatment of malaria is the development of resistance by the parasite to currently used drugs. Several methods have been proposed to tackle and prevent the development of resistance to the antimalarial drug, including the use of nanotechnology. The advantages of nanotechnology include improved drug bioavailability, drug encapsulation, pharmacokinetics, reduced toxicity, and effective therapy. Effective delivery of antimalarial drugs is achieved through the use of lipid nanoemulsion, polymeric micelles, lipid nanoparticles, and the use of liposome-encapsulated drugs. Others are through mesoporous silica, solid lipid, nanostructural lipid carriers, nanocapsules, and polymeric nanoparticles. This chapter provides insight into the application of nanotechnology for the effective delivery of antimalarial drugs to prevent resistance and improve their therapeutic outcome for malarial treatment
... Notably, nanotubes have the ability to penetrate cells and even reach the cell nuclei [11][12][13][14][15][16]. Furthermore, their non-toxic properties make them promising candidates for biomedical applications [17,18]. ...
In this study, efficiency of functionalized carbon nanotube as a potential delivery system for imatinib anti-cancer drug was investigated. Accordingly, carboxyl and hydroxyl functionalized carbon nanotube were inspected as a notable candidate for the carriage of this drug in aqueous media. For this purpose, possible interactions of imatinib with pure and functionalized carbon nanotube were considered in aqueous media. The compounds were optimized in gas phase using density functional calculations. Solvation free energies and association free energies of the optimized structures were then studied by Monte Carlo simulation and perturbation method in water environment. Outcomes of quantum mechanical calculations presented that pure and functionalized carbon nanotubes can act as imatinib drug adsorbents in gas phase. However, results of association free energy calculations in aqueous solution indicated that only carboxyl and hydroxyl functionalized carbon nanotubes could interact with imatinib. Monte Carlo simulation results revealed that electrostatic interactions play a vital role in the intermolecular interaction energies after binding of drug and nanotube in aqueous solution. Computed solvation free energies in water showed that the interactions with functionalized carbon nanotubes significantly enhance the solubility of imatinib, which could improve its in vivo bioavailability.
... The functionalized 2D Nano graphene oxide against Coronavirus has been recently reported as a helpful therapeutic approach [15]. Experimental studies have shown graphene family 2d nanomaterials to possess strong antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activity [16,17]. ...
The resilient and adaptive nature of biofilms and its associated infections pose a serious threat in the current state of play aiming the need for a promising strategy. The two-dimensional nanomaterials functionalized with antimicrobial peptides serve as a novel approach to combat biofilms and their related infections. This review article explains the current landscape of research in this field focusing on classification and physiochemical properties of two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials and their exploitation as antimicrobial peptide delivery system. The review also offers insights into their potential application in various settings such as medical devices wound healing and water treatment. Additionally we discuss the challenges and future directions in the development and implementation of this innovative strategy, emphasizing the need for multidisciplinary approach that bridges the gap between fundamental research and practical applications. Through a comprehensive synthesis of current literature, this review aims to provide researchers, clinicians and industry professionals with a thorough understanding of promises and challenges, which aim in the development of advanced materials and strategies for combating microbial biofilms and improving industrial control measures.
... Nanotubes can enter cells and the cell nuclei [24][25][26][27][28][29]. Furthermore, their non-toxic behavior makes them potential candidate for biomedical applications [14,30]. Monte Carlo simulation study of the interaction of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with β-Alanine and Histidine in aqueous solution have been revealed that adsorption of these amino acids can improve solvation of CNTs [31]. ...
The improvement of the solubility of sulfasalazine in physiological media was the major aim of this study. Accordingly, BNNT inspected as a notable candidate for the carriage of this drug in aqueous media. For this purpose, four possible interactions of two tautomer of sulfasalazine with (9,0) boron-nitride nanotube were considered in aqueous media. The compounds were optimized in gas phase using density functional calculations. Solvation free energies and association free energies of the optimized structures were then studied by Monte Carlo simulation and perturbation method in water environment. Outcomes of quantum mechanical calculations presented that interaction of keto form of sulfasalazine produce the most stable complexes with boron-nitride nanotube in gas phase. Simulation results revealed that electrostatic interactions play a vital role in the intermolecular interaction energies after binding of drug and nanotube in aqueous solution. Results of association free energy calculations indicated that complexes of both two sulfasalazine tautomers (keto and enol) and nanotube were stable in solution. Computed solvation free energies in water showed that the interaction with boron-nitride nanotube significantly improved the solubility of sulfasalazine, which could improve its in vivo bioavailability.
... This has led to the availability of many materials and nanoparticles as solutions for environmental and technological confrontations in Different areas where it depends on the overall size, shape and distribution (Plaza et al., 2014). The end of the twentieth century witnessed the emergence of nanotechnology, which is considered one of the modern technologies that has an effective role in overcoming many problems for medicines because it works to improve absorption and solubility and also increases the efficiency of treatment, stability and delivery of medicines to their target sites, in addition to reducing their potential side effects (Ochekpe et al., 2009: Al-Obaidi , 2012) , Nanoparticles have been used to diagnose and treat many diseases, including cancer and autoimmune diseases. Nanoparticles that have harmful effects on normal cells and living organs are limiting ...
Green nanotechnology has attracted attention worldwide. This work aims to study the
antioxidant and anti-hemolytic activity of the synthesized silver nanoparticles. It was noted
that the synthesized green nanoparticles possess remarkable antioxidant and anti�hemolytic activity as well. The antioxidant activity of silver nanoparticles was studied.
The highest absorbency was at a concentration of 1 mg/ml, with an inhibition rate of
68.439%, while the lowest absorbency was at a concentration of 0.12 mg/ml, with an
inhibition rate of 27.240%.The results of detecting the anti-hemolytic activity of silver
nanoparticles of Spirulina Platensis algae extract for concentrations (100, 50, 25 and 200)
μg / ml showed that there were no significant hemolytic potentials compared to the triton
100X control used in the study. This result indicates that the nan
... In general, nanoparticles can protect the encapsulated drugs against hydrolysis and enzymatic decomposition, which deliver a wide range of drugs in the targeted tissue and control the release to different body parts. Nanoparticles can transport water-insoluble medicines into the body and bypass the hepatic first pass (Ochekpe et al., 2009). Generally, there are two ways for drug targeting: (1) Passive targeting, (2) Active targeting. ...
... The foundations of nanotechnology were laid by Richard Feynman in a dinner speech in 1959 where he theorized the exploration of manipulating materials at the atomic and molecular level. He observed that through nanoengineering, new materials could be fabricated similar to the biological system [19]. Nanotechnology made more progress in the 1980s where tracking of atoms led to the creation of materials on the nanoscale. ...
Nanotechnology is an inter-disciplinary branch of science and technology that focuses on the manipulation of matter on the nanoscale, usually between 1-100 nanometers. Nanotechnology blends various aspects of materials science, electrical/electronic engineering, biology, chemistry, physics and computer science to create a synergy of knowledge to improve modern science. The human race was hit hardly during the COVID-19 pandemic, which led to the loss of millions of lives across the globe and has created long-lasting socioeconomic problems. Nanomaterials, based on their completely unique properties after fabrication have played a vital role in healthcare, especially combating the coronavirus. This has been achieved through advances in vaccines, drug delivery, diagnostics and personal protective equipment (PPE) for healthcare workers. Scientists must sustain the success of nanotechnology applications in COVID management. This can be achieved by focusing on the applications of nanotechnology that can specifically combat the coronavirus.
... 103,125,126 Using these, various novel methods for drug delivery are being developed that have been proven clinically effective. For instance, paclitaxel, incorporated with polymeric mPEG-PLA micelles, is used for treating metastatic breast cancer chemotherapeutically. 20,127 Furthermore, anticancer therapies are oen considered superior only when the therapeutic agent can reach the target site without causing side effects. With nanoparticles used as carriers, this can be relatively easily achieved by chemically modifying carrier surfaces. ...
Eighty-five percent of gastric cancer is caused by Helicobacter pylori infection. Delays in detection, limited efficacy, and significant side effects of the available treatments lead to a 5-year survival chance of only 32%. Therefore, better remedies are required. Numerous studies have been published on herbal medications offering an edge over conventional medicines. Secondary metabolites such as different polyphenolic compounds including terpenes are key players for therapeutic advantages. The antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, etc. activities of biocompatible active ingredients make these compounds suitable for therapeutic use. Despite such advantages, the use of herbal medicine in gastric cancer treatment is limited. In this article, we describe the therapeutic potential and limitations of terpenes followed by the potential advantages offered by the combinatorial effects of terpenes with their nanoconjugates. These include increasing the anticancer and antimicrobial potency of drugs as well as resolving drawbacks including targeted delivery, stability, half-life, etc, thus making them suitable for gastric cancer treatment. The article concludes with a detailed discussion on the challenges encountered in deploying targeted secondary metabolites and their future developmental prospects to provide ideas and insights for future research.
... Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems offer effective drug delivery to overcome these problems [16]. Nanotechnology is a collection of techniques including the design, synthesis, characterization, and application of structures, materials, devices, and systems by controlling the size and shape on the nanoscale, which is capable of overcoming various challenges in drug delivery [17]. Transferosomes (TFS) are highly flexible, deformed vesicles with an aqueous core surrounded by a lipid bilayer which enables them to be a good carrier for both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs [18]. ...
Itraconazole (ITZ) is a triazole antifungal agent characterized by broad-spectrum activity against fungal infections. The main drawback of ITZ, when applied topically, is the low skin permeability due to the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin, which represents the main barrier for drug penetration. Therefore, this study aimed to prepare itraconazole as transferosomes (ITZ-TFS) to overcome the barrier function of the skin. ITZ-TFSs were prepared by thin lipid film hydration technique using different surfactants, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) and sodium deoxycholate (SDC). The prepared ITZ-TFS were evaluated for entrapment efficiency (EE) %, particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, and in vitro drug release to obtain an optimized formula. The surface morphology of the optimized formula of ITZ-TFS was determined by transmission electron microscope (TEM). The optimized formulation was prepared in the form of gel using hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) gel base. The prepared ITZ-TFS gel was evaluated for homogeneity, drug content, spreadability, pH, and in vitro antifungal activity in comparison with the free ITZ- gel. The prepared ITZ-TFS formulations exhibited high EE% ranging from 89.02 ± 1.65% to 98.17 ± 1.28% with particle size ranging from 132.6 ± 2.15 nm to 384.1 ± 3.46. The PDI for all ITZ-TFSs was less than 0.5 and had a negative zeta potential. The TEM image for the optimized formulation (ITZ-TFS4) showed spherical vesicles with a smooth surface. The prepared gels had good spreadability, pH, and acceptable drug content. ITZ-TFS gel showed higher antifungal activity than free ITZ gel as determined by zone of inhibition. ITZ was successfully prepared in form of TFSs with higher antifungal activity than the free drug.
... Nanotechnology represents manipulation or synthesis of systems or materials in which one dimension at least is in nanometer scale [62][63][64][65][66]. Studying interactions between nanostructured materials and biological systems is known as nanobiotechnology, it also merges between different fields with nanotechnology as proteomics, drug discovery and molecular engineering. ...
Background and aim: In early December 2019 started coronavirus disease 2019
(COVID-19) pandemic in China by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
(SARS-CoV-2) infection which transmitted from bats to humans. According to WHO,
there are more than two hundred million confirmed cases of COVID-19 including more
than seven million deaths, so we desperately need to discover an effective treatment to
eliminate SARS-CoV-2 infection permanently. One of the most promising technologies
for the treatment of COVID-19 is Nanotechnology. Herein we tried to summarize
usages of nanotechnology in fighting of COVID-19 and to focus on the challenges,
advantages, and disadvantages of the application of this technology.
Methods: Searching of PubMed, SCOPUS and Google scholar by using a specific search
strategy ‘‘(COVID 19 OR COVID-19 Virus Disease OR COVID 19 Virus Infection OR
2019-nCoV Infection OR Coronavirus Disease-19 OR 2019 Novel Coronavirus Infection
OR SARS-CoV-2 Infection OR COVID-19 Pandemic) AND nanotechnology.
Results and Conclusions: Nanotechnology can be used in treatment, diagnosis and
prevention of COVID-19. Many nanoparticle types can be used in treatment of COVID�19 such as polymers, dendrimers and quantum dots. In addition to these types of
nanoparticles, there is Nan bot used for carrying out localized drug delivery and can be
controlled by a user. We can also use quantum dots, metal and magnetic nanoparticles
for the diagnosis of COVID-19 to increase the efficiency of diagnostic tests. Regarding to
COVID-19 prevention, nanoparticles are used for the manufacture of nano-masks and
vaccines such as: Oxford/AstraZeneca, Cansino, Moderna and Biotech/Pfizer vaccines.
Each technology has advantages and disadvantages. Challenges remain in the domain
for its application due to lack of knowledge.
... MNPs have been in focus scientist at chemistry, biology, medicine, and physics [1]. Due to their dimensions comparable with those of cells, viruses, genes and proteins, they opened the potentiality of interacting with fundamental biological applications [2][3][4][5]. Iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (SPIONs) are physically and chemically stable, biocompatible and environmentally safe, thus presenting unique characteristics for clinical applications [6]. ...
Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are developed considering the importance of this class of in different fields of biochemical and biomedical applications owing to their distinctive chemical and physical properties. In this work, the preparation of iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs (using Co-precipitation method has been done as the most commonly used wet chemical method of magnetic nanoparticles preparation for biological applications. The SPIONs synthesis was based on sodium hydroxide (NaOH) mediated precipitation of Fe3+ and Fe2+ salts in an aqueous solution using trisodium citrate as surfactant within a closed system. The size and stability of the magnetite nanoparticles were carefully controlled using different chemical and physical parameters in order to obtain the SPIONs with small particle size and distribution that is needed for biomedical applications. The synthesized Fe3O4 nanoparticles were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), and Zeta potential analysis (Zp). XRD pattern showed the presence of peaks corresponding to the phase of magnetite Fe3O4. Moreover, SEM and TEM results revealed spherical particles with a mean diameter of ≥ 5 nm. The monodispersed SPIONs were successfully prepared with a mean hydrodynamic size of 209.32 nm at a stirring speed of 900 rpm and NaOH concentration of 1.2 gm. The results showed that the particle size is considerably dependent on the stirring rate and NaOH concentration. Fe3O4 nanoparticles exhibited superparamagnetic behavior and the saturation magnetization was around 50 emu/g.
... It was revealed that the drug delivery system is established on the following effective transport to target cell, providing excellent encapsulation of the drugs and release. Ochekpe et al. (2009) discussed the usage of nanoparticles for drug delivery in biomedical science with tremendous beneficial effects such as treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, tuberculosis treatment, clinical ...
Several scientific breakthrough and inventions that could mitigate against uncountable barriers normally experienced in traditional drugs delivery system are utilized as therapeutic candidate for the management of cancer diseases.It has been observed that conventional chemotherapeutics are associated with
several side effects and high level of toxicity, entailing impairment of the
immune system as well as having numerous detrimental effects on organ
with quick penetrating cells that might be linked to the absence of solubility,
nonspecific targeting, and incapability of the drug to enter the core of the
tumors, which eventually lead to compromised treatment with a decrease
dose and with little subsistence rate. Nanotechnology has a very great
prospect with direct impact on cancerous cells as well as higher selectively
with enhanced cellular uptake and drug localization. Moreover, nanoparticles
could be automated for accurate identification of cancerous cells permitting
selective and more precise drug delivery, which could prevent interface
with the healthy cells. This chapter provides detailed information on the cell
identification capability of nanomaterials with the aids of special strategies
that could differentiate them from the anticancer therapies. Special highlights
are provided on specific nanodrugs that are highly effective for target delivery
of the active constituents against numerous cancerous cells and how they
could ameliorate several side effects of unadventurous therapies.
... 29 Several fields have been included with nanotechnology, including biology; engineering; and technology. 30 Pharmaceutical sciences and technology use nanomaterials extensively. Drug delivery, diagnostic imaging, and biosensors are a few additional fields where nanotechnology is used extensively. ...
Throughout the last few decades, cardiovascular research has substantially advanced our awareness of the atherosclerotic process, the molecular processes underlying the disease remain essentially unexplained. Atherosclerosis results from the imbalanced lipid metabolism and lipoproteins accumulation that results in the thickening of the artery walls, linked to most cardiovascular events, and also one of the foremost common causes of morbidity and mortality around the world. Despite the extensive investigation into the process of development and advancement of atherosclerotic lesions over the years, there is little information is available. The use and handling of nanotechnology on a molecular scale is a new approach to quantify the functional organization in nanometers. In medicine, it is capable to improve diagnostics, delivery of pharmaceuticals, treatment, and many areas of research, development, and clinical application. Medical nanotechnology or nanomedicine has demonstrated a growing trend in the reduction of costs and improving the efficiency of current medicines, diagnostic reagents, implants, etc. Nanomedicine overcomes certain problems of conventional drugs like drug toxicity and the required dose of the drug. Promising research has resulted in pre-clinical validation of nanoscale devices targeting cell and molecular components of atherosclerotic plaque in the past decade. This review paper will cover basic insights into the use of nanomedicine in atherosclerosis
... CNTs can enhance the remedy of brain tumours, making them extra beneficial in scientific practice. Ren et al., as an instance, developed a dual-centered PEG-based totally oxidized MWCNTs (O-MWNTs) conjugated with angiopep-2 for the treatment [46] Certainly, gold-coated, surface-modified CNTs have been recently produced as an optical nanotheranostic probe that established the biological sample's focused Raman imaging potential using an NIR laser as an excitation supply. CNTs' healing usefulness is confined, however, due to their slower biodegradation rate, which may additionally bring about toxicity for the duration of in-vivo nanotheranostic programs. ...
This is an Open Access Journal / article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY-NC-ND 3.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. All rights reserved. Brain tumors develop from unregulated proliferation within the brain of neural tissue cells or supporting cells of glial tissue. Brain tumor diagnosis and treatment is an incredibly difficult process. In addition, its severity is compounded by the lack of early stage signs and subsequently delays in diagnosis and therapy. Although the chemotherapeutic approach is the most popular therapeutic approach at present, it is still related to many precincts. The key obstacle to administering most chemotherapeutic agents is the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which leads to inadequate aggregation at the tumor site and prevents adequate destruction of malignant cells. Targeted delivery of nanoparticle-mediated drugs may significantly decrease dosage and optimize their release properties, increase specificity and bioavailability, boost shelf life, and decrease toxicity. A detailed overview of preclinical and clinical research of nanodrugs in brain tumor therapy is presented in this analysis, based both on a literature study and on the authors' own experimental work.
... These nanoscale size devices are called nanomedicine. Nanomedicines have a size of <1 μm that's why these are called nanoparticles [2]. The nanosystems show major enhancement in treatment via their specificity, the good delivery system of drugs, and their property of tolerating multi-drug resistance chemicals. ...
Site-specific delivery of the therapeutic agents to the target site is the most challenging and most important goal from the clinical point of view. Recently, much effort has been indulged in developing targeted drug delivery systems, especially for tumor, instead of introducing new drugs. Stimuli-nanocarriers are the significant results of these efforts. In this regard, internal stimuli such as temperature, pH, hypoxia, redox potential as well as some external stimuli like ultrasound, light, and magnetic field were exploited. The stimuli-responsive nanocarriers can respond to these internal and external stimuli by release of the encapsulated drug. Among the various nanocarriers, nanoliposomes have emerged as promising drug cargo that has been well investigated. Although the higher accumulation of nanoliposomes in the tumor microenvironment can be achieved via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. However, inefficient drug release and uptake by the endosomes can limit their therapeutic efficacy. Hence, there is a need to develop such stimuli-responsive nanocarriers that can overcome these drawbacks and provides efficient drug delivery to the desired site of action. This review addresses the advantages and mechanisms of the nanoliposomes through which targeted delivery is achieved. Moreover, different targeting approaches with special emphasis on the stimuli-responsive targeting approaches for efficient cancer therapy, and challenges associated with these systems have also been discussed in detail in the current review.
... 16 Nanotechnology is considered the best way to solve these problems. 17 Advances and applications of nanotechnology within the field of medicine and pharmaceuticals revealed a significant impact on human health by replacing traditional therapies and overcoming problems associated with drug delivery and toxicity. 18 Designing nanoscale particles as drug carriers offer abundant advantages over the traditional drugs including drug delivery improvement at the target site or targeted cell, low toxicity, dose control, decrease side effects as well as protecting the drug from degradation and digestion before reaching the active site in vivo. ...
The study planned to estimate biological parameters linked to rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients, detecting the influence of MTX and biotherapy treatments on these parameters and synthesizing methotrexate bovine serum albumin nanoparticles linked to folate (FA-MTX-BSA NPs) to reduce the overwhelming expression of inflammatory cytokines. Inflammatory parameters showed significant increases in newly diagnosed and MTX-receiving groups while no changes were observed in the biotherapy-maintained group. MTX-loaded BSA nanoparticles were fabricated by the desolvation method and further linked to activated folic acid to obtain FA-MTX-BSA NPs. FA-MTX-BSA NPs were successfully characterized within the nanoscale range using different screening techniques. FA-MTX-BSA NPs showed an in vitro release in a sustained manner. The potential of MTX, MTX-BSA NPs, and FA-MTX-BSA NPs in inducing cytokine level reduction was detected. Significant decreases in interleukin-1 beta (IL-1b), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a) levels were obtained in cultures treated with FA-MTX-BSA NPs compared to the untreated culture in a dose-dependent pattern. Furthermore, FA-MTX-BSA NPs comparing with MTX and MTX-BSA NPs exhibited a significant advanced effect in decreasing cytokines levels. Accordingly, the conjunction of BSA NPs and MTX linked to folate potentially reduced cytokines manifestation in RA.
... show singular characteristics at the nanoscale of 1 to 100 nm [1]. Laser-induced forward transfer (LIFT) is a direct-printing method that relies upon the reaction of a laser to write a little part of matter from a thin donor layer to a receiving substrate through laser pulse action as shown in Figure 1 [2,3]. ...
Various methods could be employed to synthesize nanomaterials. In this work laser induced forward technology was used to synthesize silver nanoparticles. Silver nanomaterials were tested using different measuring instruments such as UV–vis diffuse (DRS), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), and optical Microscope to characterize features such as the optical and morphological properties of these nanoparticles. AFM results show that when the laser energy of the pulsed Nd: YAG laser increases, the diameter and roughness of produced AgNPs will be decreased for the same number of pulses and the air cavity between donner and acceptor. Also, results show that when laser energy is (300,400) mJ, the AgNPs diameters are (95.76,88.44) nm and the roughness are (7,6) nm respectively. While, results show that as laser pulses increase, structure to be rougher for different laser pulses and constant laser energy at 300 mJ the same behavior will be found when the laser energy becomes 400mJ.Finally, results show that the reflectance peaks of Ag NPs increase by decreasing the number of pulses to a maximum value of 467 at 2 pulses.
... They concluded that scientists in the field of biomedical sciences and other fields should be abreast with and employ nanotechnology for the advancement of research and development. [46,47] In order to demonstrate the recent advances and trends in the biosynthesis of Ag, Au, and Ag-Au alloy nanoparticles for biomedical applications, the antimicrobial, antioxidant, larvicidal, anticoagulant and thrombolytic activities of these greenly synthesized metallic nanoparticles were reviewed which included the discussion of the properties of the nanoparticles. These biomedical applications are to combat the numerous problems facing mankind; predominantly the antimicrobial resistance phenomena, control of vectorborne diseases, mitigation of the deleterious of free radical species among others. ...
... 71 Tissue-specific drug-targeted methods have proven to boost the drug's effectiveness at a low dose while reducing adverse effects by controlling the bio-distribution of the drug in nonspecific tissues. [72][73][74] Suppression of the viral load to an undetectable level and minimizing antiretroviral drugs' toxicity without affecting the therapeutic concentration has been described as the primary goal in the management of HIV infection. In this regard, the usefulness of antiretroviral drug-loaded NPs has received considerable attention. ...
... 71 Tissue-specific drug-targeted methods have proven to boost the drug's effectiveness at a low dose while reducing adverse effects by controlling the bio-distribution of the drug in nonspecific tissues. [72][73][74] Suppression of the viral load to an undetectable level and minimizing antiretroviral drugs' toxicity without affecting the therapeutic concentration has been described as the primary goal in the management of HIV infection. In this regard, the usefulness of antiretroviral drug-loaded NPs has received considerable attention. ...
The conjugation of nanoparticles (NPs) with antiretroviral drugs is a drug delivery approach with great potential for managing HIV infections. Despite their promise, recent studies have highlighted the toxic effects of nanoparticles on testicular tissue and their impact on sperm morphology. This review explores the role of stereological techniques in assessing the testicular morphology in highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) when a nanoparticle drug delivery system is used. Also, NPs penetration and pharmacokinetics concerning the testicular tissue and blood–testis barrier form the vital part of this review. More so, various classes of NPs employed in biomedical and clinical research to deliver antiretroviral drugs were thoroughly discussed. In addition, considerations for minimizing nanoparticle‐drugs toxicity, ensuring enhanced permeability of nanoparticles, maximizing drug efficacy, ensuring adequate bioavailability, and formulation of HAART‐NPs fabrication are well discussed. This illustration depicts application of stereology in assessment of testicular morphology when nanoparticle is used to deliver antiretroviral drugs to the testis. (A) Nanoencapsulated antiretroviral drug (B) Blood‐Testis Barrier (C) Stereological approaches on the testis.
... Porous silicon particles can also exhibit self-reporting photoluminescence due to quantum confinement effects under specific etching conditions, eliminating the need to co-load reporter molecules as required in liposomal and polymeric delivery systems [139,140,219]. Porous silicon implants have already been demonstrated successfully as a platform for sustained and controlled delivery of a given therapeutic over extended periods of up to days, with the ability to promote tissue adhesion, and to dampen the host's immune response [220]. ...
Metal-assisted chemical etching (MACE) affords porous silicon nanostructures control over size, shape, and porosity in a single step. Simplicity and flexibility are potential advantages over more traditional silicon bulk micromachining techniques. MACE-generated porous micro- and nanostructures are suitable as biomaterials through their length scales and biocompatibility.
This work provides a comprehensive overview of the MACE reaction mechanism that yields biomedically relevant silicon nanostructures – from nanowires, nanopillars, to sub-micrometer holes and pores. We discuss their biomedical applications in biosensors, cell capture and transfection arrays, and drug delivery vectors. We assess the reported benefits of the various nanostructures and discuss whether MACE provides clear and distinct advantages over other techniques.
The flexibility and simplicity of MACE comes at a cost. The reaction parameters are many and inter-related, and we lack a full model of the etching mechanism. While the cathode reaction is well understood, the anode reaction involving dissolution of the silicon remains controversial. Such uncertainties impede rational design of specific structures that address biomedical requirements. We summarize current understanding to provide design guidelines for structures used in biomedicine and review the effects of key parameters on the morphological attributes of the etched features.
... In recent year extensive studies have led to the invention of Solid lipid nanocarries (SLN) which are made from solid lipid such as compritol, tristearin, and tripalmitin that are biocompatible and biodegradable (Ochekpe et al., 2009). ...
A number of complex diseases such as cancer, metabolic disorder, neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases have plagued the world with very high mortality rate. The treatment of these diseases have posed a major challenge in the field of medicine in relation to the method of delivering the therapeutic agent against the disease. Although there are effective therapeutic agent and drugs for these diseases, the delivery systems remain a concern. The limitations of the conventional drug delivery system which include non-target delivery, poor drug bioavailability, undesirable side effects, low drug loading capacity, plasma fluctuation of the drug level and low therapeutic effectiveness have contributed to the difficulties in the treatment of these complex diseases. The quest to alleviate these challenges posed by the conventional drug delivery systems and improve the efficiency of drugs and other therapeutic substances have necessitated the development of new drug delivery systems that is capable of improving effectiveness and potency of drug therapy with greater safety. However, nanotechnology has found relevance and tremendously altered the field of drug delivery by proffering solutions to the problems of the conventional drug delivery systems. Nanotechnology offers techniques capable of delivering drugs to target site with greater efficiency and reduced side effects. Nanomaterials as major tools in nanotechnological applications possess unique properties which make them function as drug carriers. They are used as effective transport and delivery systems. Lipid-based nanosystems, polymer-based nanosystems, metallic nanoparticles, carbon nanomaterial, nanocrystals and nanosuspension are some of the nanosystems which have revolutionalized the field of drug delivery with notable successful applications in the treatment of diseases. This review therefore presents WORLD JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES SJIF Impact Factor 7.632
... For instance, depending on NPs size, gold is able to raise its melting point from 200 to 1068 °C [7]. Although different NPs' classification methods may be found in the literature attending to different characteristics [8], it is important to differentiate nanoparticulate materials according to their origin for the purpose of this review. In this sense, three different groups can be established ( Figure 1) [5]: ...
The unique properties that nanoparticles exhibit, due to their small size, are the principal reason for their numerous applications, but at the same time, this might be a massive menace to the environment. The number of studies that assess the possible ecotoxicity of nanomaterials has been increasing over the last decade to determine if, despite the positive aspects, they should be considered a potential health risk. To evaluate their potential toxicity, models are used in all types of organisms, from unicellular bacteria to complex animal species. In order to better understand the environmental consequences of nanotechnology, this literature review aims to describe and classify nanoparticles, evaluating their life cycle, their environmental releasing capacity and the type of impact, particularly on living beings, highlighting the need to develop more severe and detailed legislation. Due to their diversity, nanoparticles will be discussed in generic terms focusing on the impact of a great variety of them, highlighting the most interesting ones for the industry.
Nanomedicine deals with the usage of nanotechnology for medical purposes. Due to their identical size to the majority of biological molecules, nanomaterials utilized in nanomedicine are advantageous for in vivo applications. The aim of applying nanotechnology in medicine is to effectively diagnose and treat diseases. Although nanomedicine remains in its early stages, many analytical tools, diagnostic devices, biosensors, drug delivery vehicles, and physical therapy applications are being developed under this branch of medicine to treat diseases. It is anticipated that a growing number of medicines will use nanotechnology in the coming years as a result of the progress in the field. However, as nanotechnology develops, it is essential to consider both benefits and limitations of the technology including its potential risks. Current problems in the development of nanomedicine involve the toxicity and environmental effects of nanoscale compounds, but as the field develops, its impact on the economy is expected to be significant in the future.
The use of the one-of-a-kind qualities possessed by substances at the nanoscale is the core concept of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has become increasingly popular in various business sectors because it enables better construction and more advanced product design. Nanomedicine is the name given to the application of nanotechnology in the medical and healthcare fields. It has been used to fight against some of the most prevalent diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases. This current manuscript provides an overview of the recent advancements in nanotechnology in drug delivery and imaging.
Bio-Inspired Nanotechnology focuses on the use of bio-inspired and biomimetic methods for the fabrication and activation of nanomaterials. It summarizes recent developments in biocompatible and biodegradable materials, including their properties, fabrication methods, synthesis protocols, and applications. This includes studies concerning the binding of the biomolecules to the surface of inorganic structures, structure/function relationships of the final materials, and unique applications of such biomimetic materials in harvesting/storage, biomedical diagnostics, and materials assembly. The book chapters also cover a range of available bio-based nanomaterials, including chitin, starch and nanocellulose. It serves as a detailed reference for learners and anyone interested in sustainable nanoscale materials, including materials scientists, biomedical engineers, environmental scientists, food and agriculture manufacturers and scientists.
The development of modern cutting-edge technology relies heavily on the huge success and advancement of nanotechnology, in which nanomaterials and nanostructures provide the indispensable material cornerstone. Owing to their nanoscale dimensions with possible quantum limit, nanomaterials and nanostructures possess a high surface-to-volume ratio, rich surface/interface effects, and distinct physical and chemical properties compared with their bulk counterparts, leading to the remarkably expanded horizons of their applications. Depending on their degree of spatial quantization, low-dimensional nanomaterials are generally categorized into nanoparticles (0D); nanorods, nanowires, and nanobelts (1D); and atomically thin layered materials (2D). This review article provides a comprehensive guide to low-dimensional nanomaterials and nanostructures. It begins with the classification of nanomaterials, followed by an inclusive account of nanofabrication and characterization. Both top-down and bottom-up fabrication approaches are discussed in detail. Next, various significant applications of low-dimensional nanomaterials are discussed, such as photonics, sensors, catalysis, energy storage, diverse coatings, and various bioapplications. This article would serve as a quick and facile guide for scientists and engineers working in the field of nanotechnology and nanomaterials.
The aim of the study is to microencapsulate gac oil in solid lipid nanoparticles. Homogenization method was employed to produce microencapsulate particles. Following conditions were used: speed of 17500 rpm, assimilation time of 60 minutes at 80°C. The obtained particles had the smallest size of 103 nm. The ratio between gac oil and Stearic acid is 7.5% (v/v) and the ratio of solid lipid and oil is 8/2 (v/v) with the surfactant concentration Tween 80 of 3% (v/v). The particles are spherical with core-shell structure and the micro-encapsulated efficiency of Lycopene and β-Carotene are 65.28% and 70.13%, respectively. The obtained product was then stored in different conditions of thermal shock and temperature (10°C, ambient temperature and 45°C), with and without aluminum wrappings. Results showed that the color of the product changed slightly, and the solid lipid nanoparticles had very good stability without phase separation.
Treatment of various diseases, especially cancer treatment, includes the potential use of different types of nanoparticles and nanostructures as drug carriers. However, searching for the less toxic and more efficient therapy requires further progress wherein recent developments in medicine increasingly include the use of various advanced nanostructures. Their more successful application might be achieved by leveling imbalances between the potentiality of different nanostructures and demands required for their safe use. Biocompatibility, biodegradability, prolonged circulation time and enhanced accumulation and uptake by cells are some of the key preconditions for their usage in efficient drug delivery. Thanks to their greatly tunable functions, they are major building blocks for manufacturing novel materials. Nevertheless, given that their toxicity is questionable their practical application is challenging. Hereof, before entering in the sphere of human consumption it is of critical importance to perform more studies regarding their toxicity and drug distribution. This review emphasizes some recent advances in the field of nanomedicine employing different kinds of conventionally used nanoparticles as well as novel nanoparticles and nanostructures. Special emphasis is placed on micro/nanomotors (MNMs) discussing their opportunities, limitations, challenges and possible applications in drug delivery and outlining some perspectives in nanomedicine area.
In today state of interaction, biological strategies endow us with a green tool for the design of nonmaterials. It is vital to espouse safer substitute strategies to integrate miscellaneous nanoassemblies. Nanomedicine and nano delivery systems are a moderately new but hurriedly mounting science where materials in the nano scale range are employed to serve as means of diagnostic tools or to deliver therapeutic agents to specific targeted sites in a proscribed manner. The exploration of nanostructured drug delivery systems allows the encroachment of novel stages for the efficient transport and controlled release of drug molecules in the unsympathetic microenvironment of diseased tissues of living systems. The chapter deals with a brief account of delivery devices produced from green methods and describes site-specific drug delivery systems (including their pros and cons) and their relevance in the field of green nanomedicine.
Successful treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and Huntington’s disease (HD), remains a significant challenge for neurologists due to the undesirable curative outcomes. Apart from surgeries, most drugs are only used to relieve the patients’ symptoms without a permanent cure of the disease. The development of novel biomaterials targeting NDDs is greatly hindered by the limited understanding of underlying molecular mechanisms. Considering the difficulties in NDD drug development and clinical trials, a comprehensive and up-to-date review of disease pathogenesis and related novel therapies are needed. In the current article, the basic concepts and pathogenic characteristics of NDDs are firstly illustrated. Following the detailed description of molecular mechanisms underlying three common NDDs, recent advances of drug development based on targeting different pathogenic mechanisms are clarified. Hopefully, this review will be beneficial to address the gap between materials and targeted mechanisms while simultaneously provide suggestions for the future design of precise NDD medicine.
Food-derived bioactive peptides have drawn much attention because of their health-promoting benefits. The previous study has demonstrated that bioactivity peptide RVPSL could be considered a possible food ingredient. However due to low stability and bioavailability in the gastrointestinal tract limit the application in the food industry. Thus, a biodegradable nano-porous Mn3O4 based on the two-dimensional sacrificial template graphene oxide was synthesized to improve the stability of RVPSL in the gastrointestinal tract. The size of the porous Mn3O4 was approximately 50–150 nm with 5–15 nm pores, and exhibited a high surface area (38.62 m²/g) result to high loading capacity of RVPSL (0.43 mg/1 mg). More importantly, the stability of RVPSL was improved after loaded to the porous Mn3O4. The cumulative release of the functional composite Mn3O4/RVPSL was 31.16% after 120 h incubated in pH 7.4. Furthermore, the bioactivity of peptide RVPSL was improved about 32% after 7 h simulated digestion. In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that the porous Mn3O4 nanoparticle could be considered as a potential strategy for the delivery of bioactive compounds with improved functional attributes.
Current study mainly describes the delivery of three model nitrogen mustard drugs with heterocyclic substituents by single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) as a drug delivery system. The electronic properties and interaction energies were calculated using density functional theory (DFT). Results suggest that the model drugs bind exothermically with SWCNT. HOMO-LUMO, DOS plots and non-covalent interaction (NCI) plots indicate that the interaction between the drugs and SWCNT are weak. Further, calculations of quantum mechanical descriptors suggest that electron migration takes place from SWCNT to the drug. Finally, molecular dynamics simulation was performed to investigate the effect of EtOH co-solvent on the stability of the drug-SWCNT complex. The results suggest that the complexes are most stable in a water environment and the addition of EtOH co-solvent makes it unstable. In summary, all the results suggest that SWCNT may successfully deliver the investigated model nitrogen mustard drugs and these systems are most stable in a water solvent.
Nanobiotechnology is an interdisciplinary field that encompasses the applications of nanomaterials in biotechnology. This field has significant applications in medicine, health, imaging, immunoproteomics, drug delivery, tissue engineering, cosmetics, agriculture, and pharmacy. Nanobiotechnology has been instrumental in developing intelligent drug delivery and gene therapy tools, nanobiosensors, nanodiagnostics, nanobioconstructs, nanofluidic devices, and bio-compatible nanodevices. Nanoparticles, nanomaterials, and nanocolloids can be synthesized by using biological, chemical, and physical methods. Currently, there is an impending need for the development of cost-effective and environment-friendly methods for the synthesis of biocompatible nanoparticles. In the present chapter, we have attempted to present an overview of the different methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles, the underlying mechanisms of biological synthesis, and the recent trends in their applications in nanobiotechnology.
Nanotechnology is introduced particularly as an exciting and developing technology at the size of 10⁻⁹ m, clearing the obstacles among biology, chemistry, and physics. In particular, it is described as the design, description, production, and utilization of structures, devices, and systems with controlling the dimension at the range of nanometer (Stylios et al. 2005, Shanti et al. 2011, Rana et al. 2020). At the nanoscale, there are two crucial methods: “Top-down,” the manufacturing of nanostructured matters via taking bulk matter and turning it into the favorite shape containing integrated circuit development, and the “Bottom-up” technique, constructing up nanostructures molecule-by-molecule or atom-by-atom viz., nanotubes, and quantum dots (Majumder et al. 2007). Nanotechnology phrase is traced back to the Greek word, meaning “dwarf,” while in scientific and technological domains, the prefix “nano” is 10⁻⁹, viz. 0.000000001 (Shanti et al. 2011). Richard Feynman, an outstanding physicist, proposed the nanotechnology platform upon his lecture titled as “there is plenty of room at the bottom” at California Institute of Technology. He offered a scientific vision on miniaturizing the materials through manipulation and control of their size at nanoscale, well known as “Nanotechnology” (Sahoo et al. 2007). He proposed the technology to construct nano-object, atom-by-atom, and molecule-by-molecule utilizing the toolbox (Ochekpe et al. 2009). Feynman lecture gave birth to some new definitions such as nanotechnology, nanoscale, nano-object, and nano-engineering, instead of phrases like small size, small things, and miniaturization (Feynman 1960). Notwithstanding the popularity of nanotechnology in contemporary years, it cannot be considered as a novel science, given some historical instances such as Lycurgus glass cup in British Museum, seemed to be jade green in natural light and red color when exposing to the bright light, due to the utilization of NPs of silver and gold (Smith 2006b), and carbon in manufacturing the vehicle tires, while the red and yellow colors are seen at sunsets considering the existence of NPs in the atmosphere (Smith 2006a). Some other ancient examples ascribed to nanotechnology can be mentioned: the weapons fabricated by Indian craftsmen and artisans utilizing nanotechnology, the cave paintings attributed to 2000 years ago, famous sword of Tipu Sultan with carbon NPs, and Ajanta paintings. In 1902, Richard Zsigmondy conducted the first seeing and scale measurements of NPs utilizing an ultramicroscope. Norio Taniguchi, the University of Tokyo, was the first to utilize the term “nanotechnology” to explain the capability of engineering materials at the nanoscale (Miyazaki and Islam 2007). In the 1980s, the possibility of imaging the individual atoms or molecules in addition to their manipulation, prompted considerable development in nanotechnology (Cortie 2004). Indeed, the present popularity of nanotechnology owes to the speeches and books of Eric Drexler in 1986 titled as “Engines of creation: the coming era of nanotechnology.” In addition, carbon nanotubes were discovered by Saumio lijima in 1991. Flowingly, the national nanotechnology initiative was introduced by the United States in 2000, all opening the window for the advancement in nanotechnology (Verma et al. 2011a). There is an increasing need to grow clean, nontoxic, and eco-friendly techniques (green chemistry) for the synthesis of NPs. The use of biological organisms in this field is quickly attracting a lot of attention, thanks to its increasing success and simplicity of NPs formation.
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a descriptive type of immune system dysfunction disorder which is caused by HIV infection. Since its discovery, HIV has been responsible for the death of more than 25 million people worldwide, and many people are infected with HIV each year. Because of the structural complexity of the virus and the lack of a promising vaccine, several antiviral drugs, and nucleic acid therapies such as siRNA have been studied and evaluated for the HIV prevention. The antiviral treatments have considerably improved the quality and hope of life for the infected people, but along with the capacity to adapt to the virus, it has prevented further success. Nanotechnology approaches have had a positive impact on the prevention and treatment of different diseases. Various nanoparticles and substances have been evaluated for the antiviral drugs improvement for the prophylaxis and treatment of AIDS. Some nanoparticles which have been discussed in this article include liposomes, dendrimers, gold nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, nanofibers, silver nanoparticles, and drug nanocrystals. In this review study, the nanotechnology approaches, the structure and properties of nanoparticles and their function in the prophylaxis and treatment of HIV were discussed. © 2020. This is an original open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-noncommercial 4.0 International License which permits copy and redistribution of the material just in noncommercial usages with proper citation. All rights reserved.
Nanotechnology plays an important role in the medicinal field and removes the obstacles between physical and biological sciences by approaching nanobased drug delivery, where nanoparticles and nanostructures are used for major interest. Nanoparticle drug deliveries have gained significant attention in the past few decades because of their unique physical, chemical, biological, and structural properties. Nanoparticles used for the application of drug delivery include a variety of materials such as metallic nanoparticles, lipids (liposomes), and polymers (polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, or micelles). The main focus of nanoparticle drug delivery was largely based on the bioavailability, solubility, targeted, and controlled release of drugs. However, the development and discovery of nanodrugs dealt with various uncertainties such as the toxicity concerns associated with metallic nanoparticles should not be ignored.
Drug delivery systems (DDSs) consist of a drug component as an active agent and a carrier component. Polymers are widely used as drug carriers in the pharmaceutical industry. Some chronic skin wounds require a controlled release of specific drugs at the wound bed, so the ability to load the drug to the skin scaffolds is crucial and ultimately leads to the formation of transdermal DDDs (TDDSs). In this chapter, the basic principles of the physiological structure of the skin, the process of spontaneous healing, and the types of wounds are discussed first. The following provides brief information and requirements for wound dressings as drug carriers in TDDSs. Also, the drugs which are commonly used in these systems are classified and studied in terms of their nature. Then, according to thermodynamic principles, affecting factors on the drug release are investigated in both loading and releasing phases. These thermodynamical factors are shown to be linked to the release kinetics. In the final step of this chapter, parallel to the noted basics, different TDDSs get introduced as well as their properties and applications are discussed and compared.
Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) have been used as the systems in drug delivery due to their exceptional physical and chemical properties. In this study, the adsorption of an anticancer drug Dacarbazine (DAC) into the inner and outer surface of pristine and Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes (FCNTs) with four carboxylic acid groups was investigated in aqueous solution using the Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations. Our simulation results showed that in spite of the adsorption of drug molecules on the outer sidewall of pristine and functionalized nanotubes, the spontaneous encapsulation of DAC molecule into the cavity of CNTs and FCNTs is observed. The simulations show that the arrangement of the DAC molecule into the CNTs and FCNTs is controlled by π-π interactions.
Protagonists in the emerging field of nanotechnology have as their objective the design, construction and study of useful
devices based on nanoscale materials and objects. Objects or structures that have at least one important dimension in the
range 0.5 to perhaps 50 nm may be considered to be in the nanoscale domain. These sizes lie far below the 200 nm or so that
can be resolved with an optical microscope, and are closer in size to the 0.3 nm diameter of individual atoms. The field of
nanotechnology is attracting keen interest at present. The excitement is motivated by the observation that control of matter
at the nanoscale holds the promise of, amongst others, faster computing, better medicines, and more useful materials. In this
paper, the physical phenomena on which this optimism is based are broadly discussed and explained. Where appropriate, examples
of the rather different and curious properties of gold at the nanoscale are used to illustrate the points covered.
We report data from the first representative national phone survey of Americans'' perceptions about nanotechnology (N =1536). Public opinion about nanotechnology is in its infancy, and knowledge about it is quite limited. Yet, Americans'' initial reaction to nanotechnology is thus far generally positive, probably rooted in a generally positive view of science overall. Survey respondents expected benefits of nanotechnology to be more prevalent than risks, and they reported feeling hopeful about nanotechnology rather than worried. Their most preferred potential benefit of nanotechnology is new and better ways to detect and treat human diseases, and they identified losing personal privacy to tiny new surveillance devices as the most important potential risk to avoid. The most discouraging aspect to the data is respondents'' lack of trust in business leaders to minimize nanotechnology risks to human health. Overall, these data indicate that while Americans do not necessarily presume benefits and the absence of risks, their outlook is much more positive than not.
Leading experts believe that advances in nanotechnology will lead to dramatic changes in the way materials, devices and systems are understood and created. Generalizations about nanotechnology-based innovations abound in technical circles and in the media, where they are typically described as radical, their anticipated impact on firms as disruptive, and their effect on society as transformative. To-date, no articles have been published in peer-reviewed technology management research journals on the subject. This paper suggests that nanotechnology is a general purpose technology and that, as such, its applications will spread through many economic sectors with varying magnitudes and forms of impact on existing firms and industries. This paper also demonstrates how the innovation management literature can be used to guide further research aimed at anticipating the magnitude and nature of the impact of specific nanotechnology-based innovations.
... accumulation of the delocalised valence electrons only, and should not be confused with that of the individual Au sub-valence ... to affect the electronic structure, with less symmetrical structures calculated [38] to have simpler, but still metallic, density of states ... 3.3 Melting point ...
Abstract After identifying the main characteristics and prospects of nanotechnology as an emerging technology, the paper presents the general risks associated with nanotechnology applications and the deficits of the risk governance process today, concluding with recommendations to governments, industry, international organizations and other stakeholders. The International Risk Governance Council (IRGC) has identified a governance gap between the requirements pertaining to the nano- rather than the micro-/macro- technologies. The novel attributes of nanotechnology demand different routes for risk-benefit assessment and risk management, and at present, nanotechnology innovation proceeds ahead of the policy and regulatory environment. In the shorter term, the governance gap is significant for those passive nanostructures that are currently in production and have high exposure rates; and is especially significant for the several ‘active’ nanoscale structures and nanosystems that we can expect to be on the market in the near future. Active nanoscale structures and nanosystems have the potential to affect not only human health and the environment but also aspects of social lifestyle, human identity and cultural values. The main recommendations of the report deal with selected higher risk nanotechnology applications, short- and long-term issues, and global models for nanotechnology governance.
Nanotechnology is molecular manipulation. Any branch of technology that results from our ability to control and manipulate matter on length scales of 1-100 nm can be treated as nanotechnology. Nanotechnology is not new to nature. Nature has been doing molecular manipulation to build its systems like plants and animals. After observing and understanding the fundamental design principles of natural products, one gets inspiration to build his own nanoproducts. This paper stimulates a nanotechnician or a student to study nanotechnology and to think inline with nature, since it has been a great nanoscientist and nanotechnologist.
How nanotechnology can be harnessed to address some of the world's most critical development problems
Although humans have been exposed to airborne nanosized particles (NSPs; < 100 nm) throughout their evolutionary stages, such exposure has increased dramatically over the last century due to anthropogenic sources. The rapidly developing field of nanotechnology is likely to become yet another source through inhalation, ingestion, skin uptake, and injection of engineered nanomaterials. Information about safety and potential hazards is urgently needed. Results of older biokinetic studies with NSPs and newer epidemiologic and toxicologic studies with airborne ultrafine particles can be viewed as the basis for the expanding field of nanotoxicology, which can be defined as safety evaluation of engineered nanostructures and nanodevices. Collectively, some emerging concepts of nanotoxicology can be identified from the results of these studies. When inhaled, specific sizes of NSPs are efficiently deposited by diffusional mechanisms in all regions of the respiratory tract. The small size facilitates uptake into cells and transcytosis across epithelial and endothelial cells into the blood and lymph circulation to reach potentially sensitive target sites such as bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, and heart. Access to the central nervous system and ganglia via translocation along axons and dendrites of neurons has also been observed. NSPs penetrating the skin distribute via uptake into lymphatic channels. Endocytosis and biokinetics are largely dependent on NSP surface chemistry (coating) and in vivo surface modifications. The greater surface area per mass compared with larger-sized particles of the same chemistry renders NSPs more active biologically. This activity includes a potential for inflammatory and pro-oxidant, but also antioxidant, activity, which can explain early findings showing mixed results in terms of toxicity of NSPs to environmentally relevant species. Evidence of mitochondrial distribution and oxidative stress response after NSP endocytosis points to a need for basic research on their interactions with subcellular structures. Additional considerations for assessing safety of engineered NSPs include careful selections of appropriate and relevant doses/concentrations, the likelihood of increased effects in a compromised organism, and also the benefits of possible desirable effects. An interdisciplinary team approach (e.g., toxicology, materials science, medicine, molecular biology, and bioinformatics, to name a few) is mandatory for nanotoxicology research to arrive at an appropriate risk assessment.
Nanotechnology is expected to have an impact on all industries including semiconductors, manufacturing, and biotechnology. Tools that provide the capability to characterize and manipulate materials at the nanoscale level further elucidate nanoscale phenomena and equip researchers and developers with the ability to fabricate novel materials and structures. One of the most promising societal impacts of nanotechnology is in the area of nanomedicine. Personalized health care, rational drug design, and targeted drug delivery are some of the benefits of a nanomedicine-based approach to therapy. This review will focus on the development of nanoscale drug delivery mechanisms. Nanostructured drug carriers allow for the delivery of not only small-molecule drugs but also the delivery of nucleic acids and proteins. Delivery of these molecules to specific areas within the body can be achieved, which will reduce systemic side effects and allow for more efficient use of the drug.
Nanotechnology has captured wide attention all over the world and excited the imagination of young and old alike. Interest in the subject has increased remarkably during the last few years because of potential technological applications, and commercial interest has skyrocketed. The promise of nanotechnology as an economic engine that can redefine the wellbeing of regions and nations is pervasive; yet the imprecise language, and overuse of the term nanotechnology, has made that term fuzzier, broader, and trendier than many imagined possible. This is especially evident in nanotechnology market projections, which rose dramatically over the past five years as more traditional “product families” were engulfed by the expanding use of the term. Government policy regarding nanotechnology has often resembled an embrace of imagination rather than a systematic use of what Sun Tzu and others have taught about strategic decision making. Further, if nanotechnology is truly the next wave of technology product paradigms, how will we provide an educated workforce to support it? Moreover, in company with these societal benefits come increased societal risks. This paper is intended to provide policy makers and strategists with observations that might limit actions such as those that led to the “over-hype” of nanotechnology and to the fear (or discounting) of societal risks. In the latter case we might learn from the experiences of policy makers connected with other emerging enabling-technology bases, such as nuclear energy and, to a lesser extent, the “dot-com” boom.
Hydrolysis of sodium borohydride, usually with a precious metal catalyst, is a promising method for hydrogen generation in fuel cell applications. We introduce sodium borohydride/metal/water mixtures where the parallel highly exothermic reaction of the metal (aluminum or magnesium) with water assists hydrolysis of sodium borohydride, eliminating the need of catalyst. Upon ignition, such mixtures exhibit self-sustained propagation of combustion wave with simultaneous release of hydrogen stored in sodium borohydride and water. We report mixture ingredients and sodium borohydride/metal mass ratios required for stable generation of hydrogen, with ∼7wt% yield. Because of difficult Al ignition, only nanoscale Al powders can be used, but they contain less active metal. For Mg, coarse (10–50μm) powders provide high efficiency, and the same hydrogen yield as more expensive nanoscale aluminum.
Novel chemical compositions for combustion-based generation of hydrogen, which can be used to feed fuel cells for emergency power supplies and portable electronics, are reported. Combustion heat release from the proposed gas-generating compositions can be converted to electricity. The proposed sodium borohydride/aluminum/water mixtures are combustible and exhibit high hydrogen yield. Mixtures with 50-70 wt% of Al are promising to obtain simultaneously high Hâ yield and stable self-sustained combustion.
Biomolecules are vitally important elements in nanoscale science and also in future nanotechnology. Their shape and their chemical and physical functionality can give them a big advantage over inorganic and organic substances. While this becomes most obvious in proteins and peptides, with their complicated, but easily controlled chemistry, other biomolecular substances such as DNA, lipids and carbohydrates can also be important. In this review, the emphasis is on one-dimensional molecules and on molecules that self-assemble into linear structures, and on their potential applications. An important aspect is that biomolecules can act as templates, i.e. their shape and chemical properties can be employed to arrange inorganic substances - such as metals or metal compounds - on the nanometre scale. In particular, rod- and tube-like nanostructures can show physical properties that are different from those of the bulk material, and thus these structures are likely to be a basis for new technology.
We give evidence on how closely different areas of research in the nanometre range are integrated and on what established and new networks and research programmes at EU level may contribute to the further development of the nanosciences. A Delphi study, participant observation, interviews and informal contacts form the basis of this empirical and sociological study. The analysis shows that the invention of scanning probe techniques and other nanotools is entering a variety of areas of research, which are largely unrelated. The EU networks and research programmes present in the selection environment stimulate the emergence of nanotechnology as one among several technologies which use nanotools, are based on nanometre-long structures and utilize properties which can only be made at a nanoscale.
Thermal conductance measurements are presented on nanostructured individual single crystalline Si suspended nanowires at low temperature. The mechanically suspended silicon nanowires with different sizes (130nm by 100nm and 130 nm by 200nm) are fabricated by e-beam lithography from Silicon On Insulator (SOI) substrate. The thermal conductance of the ballistic phonon wave guides is measured by means of an ac technique, the 3 ω method, using a niobium nitride transducer deposited on top. The geometry of the nanowire is chosen to match the order of magnitude of the dominant phonon wave length in silicon at low temperature which is of the order of 100 nm at 1K. A regular cubic law is observed at high temperature, but a deviation is measured at the lowest temperature with a saturation of thermal conductance which is attributed to the reduced geometry of the nanowire. The experimental results are in agreement with the Casimir theory taking into account the surface state (roughness) of the silicon wire. The deviation observed at low temperature is a clear signature of the consequence of the low dimentionality of the wire as well as the surface effects on the phonon transport.
P-type transparent CuAlO2 semiconductor films are made by the spin-on technique from nanocrystals. The nanocrystals are synthesized by a hydrothermal metathesis reaction. Scanning electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction and energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry suggest that the films contain nanocrystalline phases of CuAlO2. Both the Hall technique and Seebeck measurements reveal that the film is p-type and a very high room-temperature conductivity of 2.4S cm−1 is achieved. This success in fabricating a high-conductivity transparent CuAlO2 film indicates that nanotechnology will be helpful in enhancing the conductivity of p-type transparent semiconductors. The Hall measurement of the film shows a sheet mobility of 3.6 cm2 V−1 S−1 and a carrier concentration of 5.4 × 1018 cm−3. The optical band-gap of the film is estimated to be 3.75 eV and the activation energy for the positive hole is 0.14 eV.
Nanoscale oxide structures are very important for the study of functional nanodevices. Local oxidation induced by electric field with scanning probe microscopy is a promising method. Some oxide lines and dots on Si surface were fabricated using conductive atomic force microscope in this paper. Nanoscale oxide lines induced by dc voltages exhibit the characteristic of single peak, but the hollow structures with higher aspect ratio are observed under the effect of square wave voltages. We present the hollow structures result from the finite diffuse speed and concentration of oxygen ion, and the higher aspect ratio results from the effect of dynamic electric field in the conductor–nonconductor–semiconductor junction formed in the course of fabrication.
Synthetic biology—the redesign of biological molecules, structures and organisms—is
potentially one of the most powerful emerging technologies today. The modification of
biological structures has already been pursued for a variety of nanotechnological objectives;
but synthetic biology could provide the tools and understanding needed both to develop
'nanobiotechnology' in a more systematic manner and to expand the scope of what it might
achieve. In this article I shall review what has been attained so far in this field, and look at
some of the nanoscale possibilities that an engineering approach to cell biology might
herald.
Research and education results after the first 3 years of National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) investment are outlined. The history of NNI and several potential outcomes by 2015 are discussed. The views expressed here are based on the interview given for the website www.nano.gov on November 2003. What is the National Nanotechnology Initiative? The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) is a visionary research and development program that coordinates 16 departments and independent agen-cies, with a total investment of about $961 million in fiscal year (FY) 2004. The program started formally in FY 2001 (October 2000), and was the result of a bottom-up activity proposing the idea of develop-ing nanoscale science and engineering that got started in 1996. The Federal nanotechnology investment per agency since the beginning of NNI is given in Table 1. The main goals of NNI are as follows: • to extend the frontiers of nanoscale science and engineering though support for research and development; • to establish a balanced and flexible infrastructure, including a skilled workforce; • to address the societal implications of nanotechnol-ogy, including actions and anticipatory measures that should be undertaken in the society to bring sooner the advantage of the new technology and in a responsible way; and • to establish a grand coalition of academe, industry and government to realize the full potential of the new technology.
Nanoscale science and engineering are providing unprecedented understanding and control over the basic building blocks of matter, leading to increased coherence in knowledge, technology, and education. The main reason for developing nanotechnology is to advance broad societal goals such as improved comprehension of nature, increased productivity, better healthcare, and extending the limits of sustainable development and of human potential. This paper outlines societal implication activities in nanotechnology R&D programs. The US National Nanotechnology Initiative annual investment in research with educational and societal implications is estimated at about 30 million (of which National Science Foundation (NSF) awards about30 million (of which National Science Foundation (NSF) awards about 23 million including contributions to student fellowships), and in nanoscale research with relevance to environment at about 50 million (of which NSF awards about50 million (of which NSF awards about 30 million and EPA about $6 million). An appeal is made to researchers and funding organizations worldwide to take timely and responsible advantage of the new technology for economic and sustainable development, to initiate societal implications studies from the beginning of the nanotechnology programs, and to communicate effectively the goals and potential risks with research users and the public.
All natural and living systems are governed by atomic and molecular behavior at the nanoscale. Research is now seeking systematic approaches to create revolutionary new products and technologies by control of matter at the same scale. Fundamental discoveries and potential implications of nanotechnology to wealth, health and peace have captured the imagination of scientists, industry and government experts. The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) has become a top national priority in science and technology in U.S. for fiscal year 2001, with a Federal nanotechnology investment portfolio of $422 million. Nanotechnology is expected to have a profound impact on our economy and society in the earlier 21st century.The vision, research and development strategy, and timeline of NNI are presented by using several recent scientific discoveries and results from industry.
The current development and future prospects of nanotechnology are discussed with special emphasis on the pros and cons of the “bottom-up” and “top-down” approaches to nanotechnology, and the eventual merging of the two, at the scale of about 30nm in feature size, to form a new “hybrid” technology. At the scale of about 3nm in feature size, this “hybrid” technology will be challenged by the emerging “supramolecular” and “molecular” technologies epitomized by large-scale integration of single-molecule devices. Ultimately the “supramolecular” and “molecular” technologies will yield to “atomic” or “nuclear” technologies at the dimension of below 0.3nm whereby single-atom, single-electron, single-spin, single-photon devices become realities.
Nanotechnology promises significant improvements of advanced materials and manufacturing techniques, which are critical for the future competitiveness of national industries. This paper is concerned with the sectoral innovation system in nanotechnology in a global perspective with an aim to understand worldwide developments in nanotechnology research from its emerging stage. The research highlights cross-country comparisons, actors and institutions in the innovation system based on quantitative method (bibliometrics and tech mining). The authors present also the varying involvement of academia, public research institutions and commercial companies in relevant research by finding main research contributors, discourse development, as well as clusters or knowledge networks of affiliations and countries. The research findings show that the significant output of commercial companies in Japan and the United States is different from the situation in the European Union, where the relevant scientific activities are dominated by academic and government research institutions. The research reveals the learning patterns of nanotech innovation structure for the science pole. The findings can be particularly useful for forming technology strategies, science and technology policies by revealing strengths and weaknesses of the emerging innovation system in nanotech, existing country-level competencies and differences.
This paper describes recent results of an investigation of the electrocatalytic oxidation of methanol at carbon-supported gold and gold–platinum nanoparticle catalysts. The exploration of the bimetallic composition on carbon black support is aimed at modifying the catalytic properties for methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) at the anode in methanol oxidation fuel cells. Gold and gold–platinum nanoparticles of 2–3 nm core sizes with organic monolayer encapsulation were prepared by two-phase protocol. The nanoparticles were assembled on carbon black materials and thermally treated. The electrocatalytic MOR activities were characterized using voltammetric techniques, and were compared with commercial catalysts under several conditions. The results have revealed some initial insights into the catalytic activity of gold–platinum nanoparticle catalysts. Implications of our findings to the design and manipulation of highly-active gold–platinum nanoparticle catalysts for fuel cell applications are also discussed.
Among the many applications of nanotechnology that have environmental implications, remediation of contaminated groundwater using nanoparticles containing zero-valent iron (nZVI) is one of the most prominent examples of a rapidly emerging technology with considerable potential benefits. There are, however, many uncertainties regarding the fundamental features of this technology, which have made it difficult to engineer applications for optimal performance or to assess the risk to human or ecological health.
This review presents the most outstanding contributions in the field of biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles used as drug delivery systems. Methods of preparation, drug loading and drug release are covered. The most important findings on surface modification methods as well as surface characterization are covered from 1990 through mid-2000.
Text mining was used to extract technical intelligence from the open source global nanotechnology and nanoscience research literature (SCI/SSCI databases). Identified were: (1) the nanotechnology/nanoscience research literature infrastructure (prolific authors, key journals/institutions/countries, most cited authors/journals/documents); (2) the technical structure (pervasive technical thrusts and their inter-relationships); (3) nanotechnology instruments and their relationships; (4) potential nanotechnology applications, (5) potential health impacts and applications; and (6) seminal nanotechnology literature. Our results are summarized in this paper.
Polymeric systems have played important roles as templates for nanofabrication since they can offer nanotemplates with different morphologies and tunable sizes, can be easily removed after reactions, and can be further modified with different functional groups to enhance the interactions. This review covers recent advances in polymer-assisted fabrication of nanomaterials with emphasis on ordered polymeric nanostructures. Examples could include self-assembled amphiphilic block co-polymers/surfactants, cross-linkable polymers, dendrimers, microemulsions, latex particles, biomacromolecules, electric- or shear-induced structures as templates to fabricate inorganic, organic/inorganic composites and polymeric materials with nanoscale modifications. The phase behavior of block co-polymers in water and the use of templates to form ordered nanostructures are reviewed in detail. Modern physical techniques for nanoscale characterization are briefly discussed.
The cyclosporine-loaded poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared by the emulsion-diffusion-evaporation method and were optimized for particle size and entrapment efficiency. The optimized particles were 143.3+/-8.7 nm in size with narrow size distribution and 71.9+/-1.7% entrapment efficiency at 20% w/w initial drug loading when prepared with 0.1% w/v of Didodecylmethylammonium bromide (DMAB) as stabilizer. These particulate carriers exhibited controlled in vitro release of cyclosporine for 23 days at a nearly constant rate and showed very good hemocompatibility in vitro. The nanoparticulate formulation showed significantly higher intestinal uptake as compared to Sandimmune Neoral and cyclosporine suspension. The relative bioavailability of nanoparticulate formulation was found to be 119.2% as compared to Sandimmune Neoral. A marked difference in the pharmacokinetic profile between nanoparticulate and Sandimmune Neoral formulations was observed where nanoparticulate formulation showed controlled release of cyclosporine over 5 days, on the other hand, the marketed formulation showed a sharp Cmax with a 3-day release profile. The nanoparticulate formulation exerted significantly lower nephrotoxicity in the rats as compared to Sandimmune Neoral, which was evidenced by lower blood urea nitrogen (BUN), plasma creatinine (PC) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in plasma and kidney. The results were further supported by the histopathological changes in kidneys. Together, these results indicate that PLGA NPs have greater potential for oral delivery of cyclosporine.
Looking into the future is though hazardous, yet given the rate of technology innovation the society is undergoing presently, it is imperative to ponder over the upcoming technologies and to evolve the national strategy in that regard. In this article an overview of the nanotechnology, which is billed as the technology of the future, is given. Requirement of the type of education and training in this area has been spelt out. A perspective with regard to evolving a national programme in nanotechnology is brought out.
The most frequently used high tech words in the scientific world now are Computer, gene and nanometer. On 29 December 1959, Richard P Feynman [1] gave a talk at the annual meeting of the American Physical society that has become one of the twentieth century′s classic science lectures titled "There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom". He presented a technological vision of the miniaturization of materials, manipulating and controlling things on a small scale called "Nanotechnology". Feynman visualized a technology using a toolbox of nature to build nano-object by atom by atom or molecule by molecule. Taking into account of the future potential of nanoscience, National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) of the White House created the interagency working group on Nanoscience, Engineering and Technology (IWGN) in 1998. A grant of $497 million was granted to National Nanotechnology Institute (NNI) in the year 2001 and made it a top science and technology priority. Scientists are already developing nano-applications that will be bringing revolution in a host of products and services like battery storage capacity, computer chip minimization, drug delivery, facial creams, food processing, agricultural insect control, solar energy management and water purification. The United States have decided to spend US $3.7 billion during 2005-2008 and have spent almost US $3 billion during 2002-2005. The European Union will spend US $1.7 billion and the figures for other countries are - Japan (US $3 billion), China (US $240 million), Brazil (US $25 million), India (US $23 million), South Africa (US $6 million) and Argentina (US $10 million) [2].
Nanotechnology is concerned with the creation and manipulation of functional structures having dimensions ranging from a few to hundreds of nanometers. This size range encompasses a scientific and technological gap. The most effective strategy for the development of viable new technology is, therefore, to close this gap at both ends through the use of the “top-down” or “bottom-up” approaches. A top-down approach refers to the production of nanoscale structures by breaking, cutting, or etching techniques, whereas a bottom-up approach refers to the assembly of structures atom-by-atom or molecule-bymolecule. A general and simple bottom-up approach used in bionanotechnology relies upon the cooperative interaction of individual macromolecules which spontaneously assemble in a predefined manner to form a larger two- or three-dimensional structure.Self-assembly can be viewed as either template or nontemplate in nature. Template assembly involves the interaction of biomacromolecules under the influence of a specific sequence, pattern, structure, external force, or spatial constraint.In contrast, nontemplate assembly involves the formation of a larger structure by individual components without external influence.
Numerous authors have demonstrated uptake of micro- and nanospheres, consisting of natural or synthetic polymeric materials from the gastrointestinal tract over the past two decades. The exploitation of particulate carrier systems for the delivery of peptides and other hydrophilic macromolecules via the oral route remains a challenging task due to morphological and physiological absorption barriers in the gastrointestinal tract. This review examines recent progress in the field of nanoparticle uptake from this site of administration. Since most studies have been performed with poly(styrene) particles of different sizes relatively little is known about both the effect of physicochemical particle properties critical for absorption after peroral application, and the mechanisms of gastrointestinal particle uptake. Apart from particle size, type and composition of the polymers used for micro- or nanoencapsulation are crucial for an uptake and transport across mucosal barriers. Factors such as particle surface charge and hydrophilic/hydrophobic balance of these polymeric materials have not been investigated systematically since adjustment of these particle properties is almost impossible without synthetic modification of the polymers. The current findings will be reviewed and compared to those obtained with nanoparticles consisting of a novel class of charged comb polyesters, poly(2-sulfobutyl-vinyl alcohol)-graft-poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid), SB-PVAL-g-PLGA, allowing adjustment of physicochemical nanoparticle properties with a single class of polymers.
Biodegradable nanoparticles formulated from poly (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) have been extensively investigated for sustained and targeted/localized delivery of different agents including plasmid DNA, proteins and peptides and low molecular weight compounds. Research about the mechanism of intracellular uptake of nanoparticles, their trafficking and sorting into different intracellular compartments, and the mechanism of enhanced therapeutic efficacy of nanoparticle-encapsulated agent at cellular level is more recent and is the primary focus of the review. Recent studies in our laboratory demonstrated rapid escape of PLGA nanoparticles from the endo-lysosomal compartment into cytosol following their uptake. Based on the above mechanism, various potential applications of nanoparticles for delivery of therapeutic agents to the cells and tissue are discussed.
The worldwide emergence of nanoscale science and engineering was marked by the announcement of the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in January 2000. Recent research on biosystems at the nanoscale has created one of the most dynamic science and technology domains at the confluence of physical sciences, molecular engineering, biology, biotechnology and medicine. This domain includes better understanding of living and thinking systems, revolutionary biotechnology processes, the synthesis of new drugs and their targeted delivery, regenerative medicine, neuromorphic engineering and developing a sustainable environment. Nanobiosystems research is a priority in many countries and its relevance within nanotechnology is expected to increase in the future.
Nanotechnology, a multidisciplinary scientific undertaking, involves creation and utilization of materials, devices or systems on the nanometer scale. The field of nanotechnology is currently undergoing explosive development on many fronts. The technology is expected to create innovations and play a critical role in various biomedical applications, not only in drug delivery, but also in molecular imaging, biomarkers and biosensors. Target-specific drug therapy and methods for early diagnosis of pathologies are the priority research areas where nanotechnology would play a vital role. This review considers different nanotechnology-based drug delivery and imaging approaches, and their economic impact on pharmaceutical and biomedical industries.
The major problem in drug delivery to the brain is the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) which limits drug penetration even if in certain pathological situations the BBB is partly disrupted. Therefore, various strategies have been proposed to improve the delivery of drugs to this tissue. This review presents the status of the BBB in healthy patients and in pathologies like neurodegenerative, cerebrovascular and inflammatory diseases. The second part of this article aims to review the invasive and non-invasive strategies developed to circumvent the BBB and deliver drugs into the brain. The use of nanotechnologies (liposomes, nanoparticles) is especially discussed in the ultimate part of the review evidencing their potentiality as non-invasive technique in the brain delivery of drugs with the possibility to target specific brain tissue thanks to ligand linked to carrier surface.
Transparent copper nanorod/nanowire arrays and anodic alumina oxide composite films have been prepared by alternating current electrodeposition, and their linear optical properties have been systematically characterized by absorption spectra. In the experimental spectra, there exist transverse and longitudinal resonance peaks, which are caused by the surface-plasmon resonance along the diameter and the length of the copper nanorods, respectively. The transverse resonance peak is affected by the diameter and aspect ratio of the nanorod. The longitudinal resonance peak appears at longer wavelength when a polarized light illuminates the film with an angle of incidence of about 70 degrees , where the angle is defined with respect to the surface normal. Moreover, the longitudinal resonance mode is sensitive to the polarization direction when compared with the transverse resonance mode.
As medical practice enters a new era with the exciting new applications of nanoscience and technology, the paper introduces the philosophy and the principles of controlled drug delivery and the generation of tissue. It further describes and discusses new research into nanoporous materials and how encapsulation of various medical substances can create stimuli-controlled precision delivery systems. The paper goes on to highlight the process of those new materials for medical applications citing particularly a successful process for coating them onto flexible materials such as fabrics.
An overview is given of the possible applications of nanotechnology to optimise existing separation methods and to enable new methods. Attention is paid to nanotechnological contributions in the fields of HPLC, CEC, sieves, Brownian ratchets and preconcentration units. A brief description is also given of some selection/separation mechanisms that occur in biological (cell) structures and possible future applications of these mechanisms in separation devices are investigated. Especially the active transport in discrete events occurring in cells is mentioned as a potentially powerful separating mechanism.
By considering risk in the early stages of a technology, costs of identifying important health and environmental impacts after a technology has widely diffused can be avoided. Nanotechnology, involving materials and objects less than 100 nm in size, is an important case in point. In this paper we analyze the research priorities discussed by various interest groups concerned with the environmental risks of nanotechnology, evaluate the distribution of federal environmental nanotechnology R&D funding, and discuss research in this field. Overall federal environmental R&D funding to date is limited and focuses more on the positive environmental applications of nanotechnology than on basic knowledge/research, tools for nanoenvironmental research, or the potential risks of nanotechnology. The situation began to change in 2004 when a significant increase occurred in federal R&D funding for the environmental implications of engineered nanomaterials. Though literature exits on the exposure, transport, and toxicity of incidental nanoparticles, little work has been published on the environmental risks of engineered nanoparticles.
Polymeric nanoparticles of AADG cross-linked with MBA encapsulating water soluble macromolecules such as FITC-Dextran have been prepared in the reverse micellar system. The particles obtained were of >85nm in diameter which were highly monodisperse. An optically clear solution was obtained on redispersing these nanoparticles in aqueous buffer. Size and morphology of the particles remains the same on re-dispersing the lyophilized powder of these nanoparticles in aqueous buffer. The size dependency of the particles on the monomer and surfactant concentration was observed. The average size of the nanoparticles as obtained from DLS studies ranges from 74 to 114nm in case 0.06M AOT and 62-104nm in case of 0.1M AOT concentration. FITC-Dextran was entrapped into nanoparticles with high efficiency (>70%). The pH dependent release of the entrapped molecules from these nanoparticles was also studied. At pH 5.0 solution, approximately 43% of FITC-Dx was released and at pH 7.4 it was about 70%.
The views of Vincenzo Balzani on the importance and the role played by nanoscience and nanotechnology for the chemists are discussed. He suggests that technology is the main driving force for the progress of mankind since it provides a wealth of novel materials, devices and machines capable of improving the quality of life. An alternative and the most promising strategy to exploit science and technology at the nanometer scale is offered by the bottom-up approach that starts from nano or sub-nanoscale objects to build up nanostructures. This is the reason why chemists, being able to manipulate atoms and molecules, are in an ideal position to contribute to the development of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The field of nanoscience and nanotechnology is of great interest to physicists and engineers and has led to many innovative applications. It is believed that nanotechnology and nanoscience will contribute in finding solutions for problems related to food, health, energy, and pollution.
Nanotechnology research is booming worldwide, and the general belief is that medical and biological applications will form the greatest sector of expansion over the next decade, driven by an attempt to bring radical solutions to areas of unmet medical need. What is true in the United States is also being fulfilled in Europe. This, though, is generally at a significantly lower investment level, even if for "large" capital infrastructure and interdisciplinary centers. Against this, the United Kingdom and its European partners are following the maxim "small is beautiful" and are attempting to identify and develop academic research and commercial businesses in areas that traditional nanotechnology developments involving engineering or physics find challenging. Thus in London-University College London (UCL) in a major joint project with Imperial College and linked to other UK and European centers of excellence-we are building upon our internationally competitive medical research (the two universities together form one of the largest centers of biomedical research outside the United States) to focus on and develop medical nanotechnology as a major sector of our research activity. A novel approach to commercialization has been the establishment with government and private equity funds of a "BioNanotechnology Centre" that will act as a portal for UK industry to access specialist skills to solve issues relating to developing nanotechnology-based medical applications, for example, for environmental screening, diagnostics, and therapy. This article reviews our academic and business strategy with examples from our current biomedical research portfolio.
The early genesis of the concept of nanomedicine sprang from the visionary idea that tiny nanorobots and related machines could be designed, manufactured, and introduced into the human body to perform cellular repairs at the molecular level. Nanomedicine today has branched out in hundreds of different directions, each of them embodying the key insight that the ability to structure materials and devices at the molecular scale can bring enormous immediate benefits in the research and practice of medicine.
Nanotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that covers a vast and diverse array of devices derived from engineering, physics, chemistry, and biology. The burgeoning new field of nanotechnology, opened up by rapid advances in science and technology, creates myriad new opportunities for advancing medical science and disease treatment in human health care. Applications of nanotechnology to medicine and physiology imply materials and devices designed to interact with the body at subcellular (i.e., molecular) scales with a high degree of specificity. This can be potentially translated into targeted cellular and tissue-specific clinical applications designed to achieve maximal therapeutic efficacy with minimal side effects. In this review the chief scientific and technical aspects of nanotechnology are introduced, and some of its potential clinical applications are discussed.