Richard Whittington

University of Oxford | OX · Saïd Business School

In this Dialog, seven scholars consider the theoretical implications and research opportunities a changing environment presents for the Attention-Based View (ABV). With its roots in the 1950s Carnegie School, ABV is expanding and evolving in ways that accommodate the changes in the corporate context characterized by distributed, porous structures o...

Strategy-as-practice (SAP) has become one of the most vibrant areas of contemporary strategy research in the past two decades. As the field has grown significantly , we have witnessed an emergence of distinct streams of research within the SAP research community. Thus, it is time to take stock of this body of work to better understand the structure...

Strategy process research has yielded a richer understanding of the emergence of strategies from throughout the organization and over extended periods of time; strategy-as-practice research has helped us understand the range of actors involved in strategy and the tools they draw on in their strategy work. The purpose of this chapter is to encourage...

This chapter develops the practice-driven institutionalist perspective by introducing the concept of “restless practices.” Drawing on the practice theory of Theodore Schatzki, the authors distinguish practices by their “teloi”: some practices are devoted to replication, others are restlessly aimed at change. These restless practices are themselves...

In this short paper we address two central questions prompted by the developments of the current Covid-19 crisis: (1) Why do some practice in crisis situations change quickly and radically while others remain apparently stable? (2) How does the fact that some practice changes are meant to be only temporary affect their performance and to what exten...

We propose that the pre-eminent ‘grand challenge’ for organization theorists today is the societal control of powerful corporations. This grand challenge is the more urgent because of the contemporary inadequacies of markets, hierarchies and regulations as instruments of control. We argue for the potential role of ‘open strategy’ in mobilizing norm...

What is the managerial identity work involved in becoming a “strategist”? Building on a rich, longitudinal set of interviews, we uncover three tactics through which managers mobilize the strategist identity. The self-measurement tactic uses strategy discourse as a normative measuring stick for evaluating the individual as a manager. The self-constr...

Exploring Strategy is Europe's leading Strategy text. It covers all the basics as well as adds substantial depth on all core topics. Its focus is on strategy analysis, process and practice and is distinctive in fusing the rigour of academic research with the practical day-to-day activities of strategy managers.

Management journals are currently responding to challenges raised by the “replication crisis” in experimental social psychology, leading to new standards for transparency. These approaches are spilling over to qualitative research in unhelpful and potentially even dangerous ways. Advocates for transparency in qualitative research mistakenly couple...

Opening Strategy tells the story of how corporate strategists and strategy consultants have worked since the middle of the last century to bring about practice change in the Strategy profession. The overall trend is towards more ‘open’ strategy processes – more transparent and more inclusive. First strategic planning, then strategic management, and...

This chapter examines how management ideas become institutionalized as widespread practices within different kinds of professional or occupational fields. In this respect, we take seriously the growing recognition of the differences between professions (Malhotra and Morris, 2009) and hence the need for more explicitly comparative studies amongst th...

This chapter examines corporate strategists—in-house strategy staffs—as a major part of the Strategy profession. It examines their growth since the beginning of the twentieth century, and especially since the 1960s. It demonstrates that corporate strategists remain a significant professional group, long after Mintzberg’s (1994) description of a ‘fa...

Opening Strategy recounts the origins and development of Strategy as a profession from the middle of the last century to the present day. In particular, it focuses on how strategic planning superseded long-range planning, and the more recent rise of strategic management and open strategy. Together, these practices have contributed to growing inclus...

This chapter examines the development of strategic planning practices from around 1960. Strategic planning advanced on the prior practice of long-range planning by emphasizing choice, competition, and control. It also made an initial step towards more open forms of strategizing by widening the discourse of strategy among managerial elites. Strategi...

This chapter introduces the central arguments of Opening Strategy . In particular, it traces the development of three key strategic practices since the middle of the last century to today: strategic planning, strategic management, and open strategy. These practices have gradually made strategy an increasingly inclusive and transparent activity. The...

This chapter introduces the theoretical framework for Opening Strategy . The book builds particularly on the practice theories of Anthony Giddens and Alasdair MacIntyre. Giddens identifies the mechanisms of practice change in the levering of structural conditions; MacIntyre locates the motivations for change in both instrumentalism and idealism. Th...

This chapter summarizes how Strategy’s practices have become gradually more open and inclusive since the middle of the last century. In particular, it underlines how the development of first strategic planning, then strategic management, and then open strategy have resulted from the institutional work of innovators from such prominent corporations...

This chapter examines the development of open strategy practices from the late 1990s. Open strategy involves greater transparency about strategy to internal and external audiences, and greater inclusion for internal and external stakeholders. The contemporary rise of open strategy is supported by three exogenous forces: the dissolving of organizati...

This chapter examines strategy consultants as a major part of the Strategy profession. It examines their growth since the middle of the last century, and particularly the development of leading firms such as Bain & Co., the Boston Consulting Group, and McKinsey & Co. It demonstrates the structurally precarious and permeable predicament of strategy...

This chapter examines the development of strategic management practices from the late 1970s. Strategic management advanced on the prior practices of strategic planning by emphasizing change and implementation. It also opened up the strategy process by decentralizing responsibilities and including employees in implementation. Strategic management’s...

There is a new trend towards the inclusion of lower-level employees in strategy making. Yet, such participation is challenging as lower-level employees typically lack the resources for participation, such as requisite strategy knowledge. Drawing on a practice-theoretical perspective on resources and data from a longitudinal, ethnographic case study...

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This paper draws on the practice theory of Pierre Bourdieu, Michel de Certeau, Michel Foucault, Anthony Giddens, and Alasdair MacIntyre to explore the origins of great strategies. Despite its naturally rather modest approach to social life, practice theory does speak to the question of greatness. In particular, I shall derive five principles capabl...

Recent years have seen an increasing mutual engagement between institutional and strategy-as-practice scholars who realize that they can learn from each other to address critical blind spots in their respective theories (Smets, Greenwood, & Lounsbury, 2015a; Suddaby, Seidl, & Lê, 2013; Vaara & Whittington, 2012). In this chapter, we argue that this...

This article examines the long-run impact of the 1992 completion of the European Single Market on the diversification and internationalization of European business. It does so at a particular moment of crisis: the exit of the United Kingdom from the European Union (“Brexit”). The article finds that completion of the European Single Market is indeed...

This paper challenges the recent focus on practices as stand-alone phenomena, as exemplified by the so-called “Practice-Based View of Strategy (PBV)” by Bromiley and Rau (2014). While the goal of “PBV” points to the potential of standard practices to generate performance differentials (in contrast to the Resource Based View), it marginalizes well-k...

In this debate about the value of introducing a supposed “practice-based view of strategy,” we respond to Bromiley and Rau’s defense of their approach. Coming from a background of two decades of research on strategy-as-practice, we focus on two major concerns about their initiative. The first is that the very use of the term “practice” would seem t...

Responding to increasing practitioner and academic interest in Open Strategy, this article builds on recent theoretical and empirical studies in order to advance research in the following ways. We begin by developing a definition of Open Strategy that emphasizes variation along the two dimensions of transparency and inclusion, as well as the dilemm...

2016) Fundamentals of Strategy, (Greek Edition) ed. Kritiki, Athens, pp. 473-477 ΖΥΘΟΠΟΙΙΑ ΜΑΚΕΔΟΝΙΑΣ ΘΡΑΚΗΣ Εισαγωγή Στα μέσα της δεκαετίας του 1990, η Ελλάδα ήταν μία από τις ελάχιστες χώρες χωρίς εγχώριας ιδιοκτησίας βιομηχανία ζυθοποιίας, με το σύνολο της μπύρας που καταναλώνονταν στη χώρα να είναι είτε εισαγόμενη, είτε παραγόμενη στη χώρα από...

2016) Fundamentals of Strategy, (Greek Edition) ed. Kritiki, Athens, pp. 486-490 CSM BAKERY SOLUTIONS Εισαγωγή Η ελληνική οικονομία εξακολουθεί να είναι αντιμέτωπη με μια άνευ προηγουμένου για τη χώρα κρίση, επτά χρόνια μετά την εμφάνισή της, το 2008, ενώ τα σημάδια ανάκαμψης αργούν να φανούν και οι προοπτικές δεν διαγράφονται ιδιαίτερα ευοίωνες, λ...

2016) Fundamentals of Strategy, (Greek Edition) ed. Kritiki, Athens, pp. 469-473 FAGE INTERNATIONAL S.A. Η Εταιρεία Η ΦΑΓΕ, αποτελεί μια από τις κορυφαίες εταιρείες γαλακτοκομικών προϊόντων διεθνώς με ηγετική παρουσία στην ελληνική αγορά, αλλά και σε τμήματα-κατηγορίες γιαουρτιού σε μεγάλες ξένες αγορές. Η ΦΑΓΕ ξεκίνησε το 1926 τη δραστηριότητά της...

2016) Fundamentals of Strategy, (Greek Edition) ed. Kritiki, Athens, pp. 465-469 Yahoo! Μια αλλαγή που αργεί να έρθει Το Φεβρουάριο του 2016, Η διοίκηση της εταιρείας Yahoo! ανακοίνωσε την απόφασή της να απολύσει το 15% των εργαζομένων σε αυτή. Νωρίτερα είχε ανακοινώσει ότι σχεδιάζει να κλείσει τα γραφεία της σε μια σειρά από μεγάλες πόλεις του εξω...

2016) Fundamentals of Strategy, (Greek Edition) ed. Kritiki, Athens, pp. 469-473 FAGE INTERNATIONAL S.A. Η Εταιρεία Η ΦΑΓΕ, αποτελεί μια από τις κορυφαίες εταιρείες γαλακτοκομικών προϊόντων διεθνώς με ηγετική παρουσία στην ελληνική αγορά, αλλά και σε τμήματα-κατηγορίες γιαουρτιού σε μεγάλες ξένες αγορές. Η ΦΑΓΕ ξεκίνησε το 1926 τη δραστηριότητά της...

2016) Fundamentals of Strategy, (Greek Edition) ed. Kritiki, Athens, pp. 461-464 Η GE ΣΤΗΝ ΨΗΦΙΑΚΗ ΕΠΟΧΗ Εισαγωγή Η General Electric Co., ή, GE, ήταν η 8η μεγαλύτερη σε πωλήσεις επιχείρηση στις ΗΠΑ, 27η στον κόσμο και η 9η στον κόσμο μεταξύ των «πιο θαυμαστών εταιρειών» (the most admired company)κατά το 2015, σύμφωνα με το περιοδικό Fortune. Η εται...

2016) Fundamentals of Strategy, (Greek Edition) ed. Kritiki, Athens, pp. 482-485 ΜΙΝΕΡΒΑ ΑΝΩΝΥΜΗ ΕΤΑΙΡΕΙΑ ΕΛΑΙΟΥΡΓΙΚΩΝ ΕΠΙΧΕΙΡΗΣΕΩΝ Εισαγωγή Η Μινέρβα Α.Ε. είναι μια από τις ιστορικές εταιρείες του κλάδου του τυποποιημένου ελαιόλαδου στην Ελλάδα, με τις ρίζες της στην αρχή του εικοστού αιώνα, όταν ξεκίνησε με αρχική της δραστηριότητα τις εισαγωγές...

Research summary: Reorganization has been proposed as a key dynamic capability. This study compares the performance outcomes of two forms of reorganization, differing in their pervasiveness: organizational restructuring and organizational reconfiguration. Our dynamic panel data analysis of large U.S. corporations between 1985 and 2004 finds contras...

This entry introduces the concept of ‘emergent’ strategy, associated particularly with Mintzberg, Henry (born 1939), contrasting it with the more traditional strategy design approach. It identifies five implications of emergent strategy: reduced investment in formal strategic planning; the merging of strategy formulation and strategy implementation...

Research summary: We develop and test a set of hypotheses on investors' reactions to a specific form of impression management, public presentations of overall strategy by Chief Executive Officers (CEOs). Contrary to expectations from a “cheap talk” perspective, we suggest that such strategy presentations convey valuable information to investors, es...

This study examines when "incremental" change is likely to trigger "discontinuous" change, using the lens of complex adaptive systems theory. Going beyond the simulations and case studies through which complex adaptive systems have been approached so far, we study the relationship between incremental organizational reconfigurations and discontinuou...

This paper addresses the ‘massification’ of strategy. The primary sense of massification reflects the recovery of Latour's ‘missing masses’ in strategy research, in other words the growing recognition of material artefacts. But there are two contingent senses of massification as well. First, many of these material artefacts are mass-produced (e.g....

Introduction Anthony Giddens’ (1984) structuration theory has an obvious appeal for strategy-as-practice researchers. Of course, Giddens is a practice theorist himself; for him, understanding people’s activity is the central purpose of social analysis. Giddens makes a direct appeal, therefore, offering concepts of agency, structure and structuratio...

This paper examines how material artefacts contribute to sustaining managerial attention to strategic issues over time. We focus on a set of eight strategic issues that succeeded variously in holding senior management’s attention in an industry association over a period of four years. The eight issues were defined as strategically important to the...

This paper examines the development of Strategy in the period 1960-2000, focusing particularly on the practice innovations of strategic planning and strategic management. The diffusion of these innovations is first explored quantitatively using a vocabularies of practice perspective. They are then more extensively explored through qualitative analy...

This proposed symposium responds to the Academy’s 2015 theme of “Opening Governance” by exploring how organizations can, and do, open up their processes of strategy-making. Open strategy has two dimensions: (1) greater internal and external transparency and (2) greater inclusiveness of various actors in strategy-making. More open strategy processes...

Taking perspectives from papers published previously in Organization Studies, we argue for progress in strategy-as-practice research through more effective linking of local' strategizing activity with larger' social phenomena. We introduce a range of theoretical approaches capable of incorporating larger-scale phenomena and countering what we term...

In this paper, we develop themes from complexity and chaos theory that help to explain the technological change process. We apply two quantifiers, correlation dimensions and Lyapunov exponents, to examine the signs and degrees of chaotic technological dynamics. To illustrate our ideas, we study the development of electronic displays from 1976 to 20...

This review argues for progress in Strategy-as-Practice research through more effective linking of 'local' strategizing activity with 'larger' social phenomena. Starting particularly from papers in Organization Studies, we introduce a range of theoretical approaches capable of incorporating larger-scale phenomena and countering what we term 'micro-...

This panel will discuss tendencies promoting more open strategizing processes in a variety of contexts. Openness here refers both to greater transparency (internal and external), and to wider inclusion of stakeholders (internal and external). Panelists will draw on their empirical research across a range of sectors and types of organizations, inclu...

This symposium will address the recent trend in the strategy literature to take more micro perspectives on strategy, examining the impact of individuals’ cognitions, dispositions and activities in the strategy process. These perspectives include Behavioral Strategy, Behavioral Theory of the Firm, Cognitive approaches, Microfoundational approaches a...

Strategy workshops, also known as away days, strategy retreats and strategic ‘off-sites’, have become widespread in organizations. However, there is a shortage of theory and evidence concerning the outcomes of these events and the factors that contribute to their effectiveness. Adopting a design science approach, in this paper we propose and test a...

This article reviews research in Strategy-as-Practice (SAP) and suggests directions for its development. The power of this perspective lies in its ability to explain how strategy-making is enabled and constrained by prevailing organizational and societal practices. Our review shows how SAP research has helped to advance social theories in strategic...

This paper takes the long view on the development of strategy as a profession, from the 1950s to today. We identify strategy as a structurally precarious profession, subject to cyclical demand and shifts in organizational power. This precariousness has increased with the secular shift towards more open forms of strategy‐making, with more transparen...

This paper comments on Fauré and Rouleau (2011) and draws out implications for practice-theoretic research in organizations more generally. In particular, it points to the potential for the transdisciplinary application of practice theory, allowing issues, insights and methods to be transferred between all the organization disciplines, not just ac...

In this commentary on the special issue remarks are provided on the importance of the strategy, structure, ownership and performance (SSOP) research programme as an exemplar of policy-relevant 'phenomenon-based' research, some key findings are summarised and implications for the three main bodies of theory at issue are discussed. Finally, suggestio...

- This paper addresses three weaknesses in the literature on new organizational forms: the limited mapping of the extent of contemporary organizational change; confusion about how contemporary changes link together; and the lack of systematic testing of the performance consequences of this kind of change. Drawing on a large-scale survey of organiza...

This Dialog responds to a growing debate about the relevance of business schools generally and the value of strategy theory and research for strategic management practice. The authors propose that academic theory and management practice can be better connected through management education. The academy researches practice, derives theory, and return...

This conclusion to the Dialog proposes a strategy-as-practice based approach to bringing strategy research and education closer to practice. Strategy-as-practice rejects the choice, proposed in the previous articles, between theory and practice. The authors argue for strategy research based rigorously on sociological theories of practice. Such rese...

Richard Rumelt, Dan Schendel, and David Teece are clear: "The foundation of strategic management as a field may very well be traced to the 1962 publication of Chandler's Strategy and Structure" For these three doyens of strategy, Alfred Chandler was a fundamental influence on the shape of the strategic-management discipline that emerged in the 1960...

This Essai argues for the distinctive position of Strategy-as-Practice research outside the immediate family of Strategy Process. Strategy-as-Practice's fascination with the phenomenon of strategy itself takes it beyond traditional Process perspectives. Relying on the 'sociological eye', Strategy-as-Practice treats strategy like any other practice...

This article introduces this Business History special issue on the managerial revolution and the seven selected contributions. It argues for the central importance of the managerial revolution for business historians and the value of careful business history in appreciating the empirical complexity of both the original managerial revolution and the...

This article argues that the prevailing dichotomization of organizational studies into voluntarist and deterministic orientations is too simple, and that this simplicity has dangerous consequences for accounts of strategic choice. Determinism has been equated exclusively with the operation of environmental constraint, with the implication that the...

This article analyses the processes of market-driven change in two professional service sectors, Research and Development (R&D) and the National Health Service. Building on these sectors’common experiences, the article proposes a general model of market-driven change in professional services, highlighting the complex and multi-level nature of the p...

Strategic management is taught in business schools as a fundamental aspect of management. It has also come to be regarded as a significant area of academic research over the past three decades. However, in that time research in strategy has largely migrated to a concern with strategy as that which organizations have, rather than strategy as that wh...

We began this book by inviting readers to consider strategy in a different way – as a practice – something people do, rather than something organizations have. Building on this foundation, we mapped in some detail the domain of the Strategy as Practice perspective, arguing that strategic activities carried out by organization members (i.e. the doin...

Richard Whittington is Professor of Strategic Management at the Saïd Business School and Millman Fellow at New College, University of Oxford. His current research interests are in the practice of strategy, particularly how practice is changing and how it is learnt. He is author or co-author of eight books, including Strategy as Practice: Research D...

Strategy workshops, the practice of taking time out from day-to-day routines to deliberate on the longer-term direction of the organisation, are a common practice, yet surprisingly little is known about them. This article presents the first substantial exploration of the role of workshops in strategy development through a large-scale UK survey of m...

This paper identifies a practice turn in current strategy research, treating strategy as something people do. However, it argues that this turn is incomplete in that researchers currently concentrate either on strategy activity at the intra-organizational level or on the aggregate effects of this activity at the extra-organizational level. The pape...

This paper explores the contradictory pressures for standardisation and customisation in reorganisation processes. Taking a ‘practice lens’ (Orlikowski, 2000), it examines eight on-going reorganisations, from both private and non-private sectors, using photography, observation and extensive interviews. This practice lens goes both outside and insid...