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Efficacy of a short-term intense piano training program for cognitive aging: A pilot study
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to evaluate the efficacy of a short-term intense piano training program on executive functions in healthy older adults. Thirty-four adult participants with little to no formal music training were recruited and completed a battery of standardized cognitive measures at three time points: pre-training, pre-training two (upon completion of a control time period), and post-training. The piano training program included 30 hours of focused music theory, finger dexterity exercises, bimanual coordination exercises, technical exercises, performance duets, and standard piano repertoire. Results of a Repeated Measures MANOVA show significantly enhanced verbal fluency and processing speed, post-training; however, no difference was found in verbal memory performance. Data suggest that a short-term intense piano training program may benefit cognitive performance in areas of verbal fluency and processing speed. Short-term intense music programs may be an appropriate structure for a cognitive training program with the added benefit of increased interest in continued music participation.
... In this regard, two common themes in the aging literature have emerged. Firstly, active music engagement, such as short-term musical interventions of piano playing (Bugos, 2019;Bugos & Kochar, 2017), music making (Jäncke, 2013), and singing (for a review, see Clements-Cortés, 2015), have been associated with cognitive improvements or maintenance in older adults (Chaddock-Heyman et al., 2021;Jäncke, 2013). Secondly, studies have commonly highlighted the efficacy of using music as a form of auditory and rhythmic entrainment in improving gait ability Thaut et al., 2015;Thaut & Koshimori, 2020) and aiding preventive measures, such as reducing incidences of falls (Ghai, Ghai & Schmitz, 2018;Rose et al., 2019;Särkämö, 2018). ...
... Besides, processing speed is reported to be significantly enhanced after a short-term intense piano training program (Bugos & Kochar, 2017) and only observed in older adults who participated in the instrument-only group as compared to the singing-only group (Mansens et al., 2018). Accordingly, the finding of enhanced processing speed as a result of active music-making could be reflective of better information processing abilities in older adults. ...
... Despite these promising behavioral outcomes associated with MBIs in older adults (e.g., Bugos & Kochar, 2017;Coubard et al., 2011;MacAulay et al., 2019), relatively fewer neuroimaging studies clarified the neural correlates (including structural and functional connectivity, changes in neuromodulation) underlying these improvements in the aging brain. ...
Bayesian inference has recently gained momentum in explaining music perception and aging. A fundamental mechanism underlying Bayesian inference is the notion of prediction. This framework could explain how predictions pertaining to musical (melodic, rhythmic, harmonic) structures engender action, emotion, and learning, expanding related concepts of music research, such as musical expectancies, groove, pleasure, and tension. Moreover, a Bayesian perspective of music perception may shed new insights on the beneficial effects of music in aging. Aging could be framed as an optimization process of Bayesian inference. As predictive inferences refine over time, the reliance on consolidated priors increases, while the updating of prior models through Bayesian inference attenuates. This may affect the ability of older adults to estimate uncertainties in their environment, limiting their cognitive and behavioral repertoire. With Bayesian inference as an overarching framework, this review synthesizes the literature on predictive inferences in music and aging, and details how music could be a promising tool in preventive and rehabilitative interventions for older adults through the lens of Bayesian inference.
... We could find six such studies with older adults (see Table 1). In addition, we included a seventh study by Bugos and Kochar (2017) in which older adults self-selected to a music training program but were followed for two weeks initially with no intervention to determine extent of cognitive change, before taking part in the music program for two weeks and tested again. Of these six studies, one study did not contain a control group and four did not have any form of training for the control group. ...
... Music training is thought to promote cognitive functioning among older adults because it engages multiple cognitive processes and supports the structural integrity of brain networks underlying those processes; networks and cognitive processes that would otherwise decline with age (Wan & Schlaug, 2010). For instance, music training might boost connectivity between the frontal cortex and cerebellum via the pontocerebellar tract (Bugos & Kochar, 2017). However, it is important to identify the specific characteristics of music training with older adults that cause neuropsychological changes in order to design interventions with maximum impact. ...
... Some interventions requested participants to practice daily in their own time (Bugos et al., 2007), for no less than 30 minutes a day in any one study, and their practice time was logged in personal diaries. However, others required no outside practice (e.g., Bugos & Kochar, 2017). In the two well-controlled studies with older adults (Alain, Moussard, Singer, Lee, Bidelman, & Moreno, 2019;Degé & Kerkovius, 2018) there was not a requirement to practice but there were some cognitive gains. ...
Aging is associated with a decline in social understanding and general cognition. Both are integral to wellbeing and rely on similar brain regions. Thus, as the population ages, there is a growing need for knowledge on the types of activities that maintain brain health in older adulthood. Active engagement in music making might be one such activity because it places a demand on brain networks tapping into multisensory integration, learning, reward, and cognition. It has been hypothesized that this demand may promote plasticity in the frontal and temporal lobes by taxing cognitive abilities and, hence, increase resistance to age-related neurodegeneration. We examine research relevant to this hypothesis and note that there is a lack of intervention studies with a well-matched control condition and random assignment. Thus, we discuss potential causal mechanisms underlying training-related neuropsychological changes, and provide suggestions for future research. It is argued that although music training might be a valuable tool for supporting healthy neuropsychological aging and mental wellbeing, well-controlled intervention studies are necessary to provide clear evidence.
... Piano performance requires complex fine motor control and integrates auditory feedback in a temporal context. Research studies have found that piano training enhances several executive functions such as working memory (Bugos et al., 2007;Guo et al., 2018), spatial reasoning (Rauscher and Zupan, 2000), verbal fluency (Bugos and Kochar, 2017), and cognitive control (Seinfeld et al., 2013) in adults and children. Preschool children who received piano training programs were shown to increase spatial-temporal reasoning (Rauscher and Zupan, 2000). ...
... In addition, data showed a trend with a pattern of increased processing speed for the GPI group. These data are consistent with previous experimental studies examining the impact of active music participation in healthy older adults (Bugos et al., 2007;Bugos and Kochar, 2017;Dege and Kerkovius, 2018). Results may be due to the high level of sensorimotor integration involved in percussion and piano training programs. ...
... Results of this research that showed a significant main effect of time to visual scanning/working memory, processing speed, and verbal fluency, suggesting benefits related to participation in all active music interventions. These data are consistent with previous benefits stemming from drumming programs (Dege and Kerkovius, 2018), piano training programs (Bugos et al., 2007;Bugos and Kochar, 2017), and music listening (Mammarella et al., 2007). However, given research that examined factors contributing to executive functions on the Trail Making Test (Salthouse, 2011), we believe that differences found post-training may be related to processing speed. ...
... Piano performance requires complex fine motor control and integrates auditory feedback in a temporal context. Research studies have found that piano training enhances several executive functions such as working memory (Bugos et al., 2007;Guo et al., 2018), spatial reasoning (Rauscher and Zupan, 2000), verbal fluency (Bugos and Kochar, 2017), and cognitive control (Seinfeld et al., 2013) in adults and children. Preschool children who received piano training programs were shown to increase spatial-temporal reasoning (Rauscher and Zupan, 2000). ...
... In addition, data showed a trend with a pattern of increased processing speed for the GPI group. These data are consistent with previous experimental studies examining the impact of active music participation in healthy older adults (Bugos et al., 2007;Bugos and Kochar, 2017;Dege and Kerkovius, 2018). Results may be due to the high level of sensorimotor integration involved in percussion and piano training programs. ...
... Results of this research that showed a significant main effect of time to visual scanning/working memory, processing speed, and verbal fluency, suggesting benefits related to participation in all active music interventions. These data are consistent with previous benefits stemming from drumming programs (Dege and Kerkovius, 2018), piano training programs (Bugos et al., 2007;Bugos and Kochar, 2017), and music listening (Mammarella et al., 2007). However, given research that examined factors contributing to executive functions on the Trail Making Test (Salthouse, 2011), we believe that differences found post-training may be related to processing speed. ...
Music training programs have been shown to enhance executive functions in aging adults; however, little is known regarding the extent to which different types of bimanual coordination (i.e., fine and gross motor) in music instruction contribute to these outcomes. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of bimanual coordination in music interventions on cognitive performance in healthy older adults (60–80 years). Participants (N = 135) completed motor measures and battery of standardized cognitive measures, before and after a 16-week music training program with a 3 h practice requirement. All participants were matched by age, education, and estimate of intelligence to one of three training programs: piano training (fine motor); percussion instruction (gross motor), and music listening instruction (MLI) (no motor control condition). Results of a Repeated Measures ANOVA revealed significant enhancements in bimanual synchronization and visual scanning/working memory abilities for fine and gross motor training groups as compared to MLI. Pairwise comparisons revealed that piano training significantly improved motor synchronization skills as compared to percussion instruction or music listening. Results suggest that active music performance may benefit working memory, the extent of these benefits may depend upon coordination demands.
... All the reviewed studies controlled for some potentially confounding variables (variously accounting for socioeconomic status, years of education, full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ), physical activity, general health, disease history, and symptoms of depression). Although evidence from intervention studies of a causal effect of musical training on older age cognitive function is still limited (Alain et al., 2019;Bugos & Kochar, 2017;Bugos et al., 2007;Degé & Kerkovius, 2018;Guo et al., 2021;Seinfeld et al., 2013), some larger scale randomized controlled trials are currently underway (Hudak et al., 2019;James et al., 2020). ...
... It is likely that our study was under powered to detect such an effect, with only 47 participants reporting musical instrument practice during older age, and only 39 participants continuing to play up to the age of 82. Results from intervention studies indicate that musically naïve older adults who take up musical training can experience some cognitive benefits, at least over the short term (Alain et al., 2019;Bugos & Kochar, 2017;Bugos et al., 2007;Degé & Kerkovius, 2018;Guo et al., 2021;Seinfeld et al., 2013). Further work is needed to test whether the same cognitive benefits are associated with continued musicianship throughout the lifespan. ...
Musical instrument training has been found to be associated with higher cognitive performance in older age. However, it is not clear whether this association reflects a reduced rate of cognitive decline in older age (differential preservation), and/or the persistence of cognitive advantages associated with childhood musical training (preserved differentiation). It is also unclear whether this association is consistent across different cognitive domains. Our sample included 420 participants from the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936. Between ages 70 and 82, participants had completed the same 13 cognitive tests (every 3 years), measuring the cognitive domains of verbal ability, verbal memory, processing speed, and visuospatial ability. At age 82, participants reported their lifetime musical experiences; 40% had played a musical instrument, mostly in childhood and adolescence. In minimally adjusted models, participants with greater experience playing a musical instrument tended to perform better across each cognitive domain at age 70 and this association persisted at subsequent waves up to age 82. After controlling for additional covariates (childhood cognitive ability, years of education, socioeconomic status, and health variables), only associations with processing speed (β = 0.131, p = .044) and visuospatial ability (β = 0.154, p = .008) remained statistically significant. Participants with different amounts of experience playing a musical instrument showed similar rates of decline across each cognitive domain between ages 70 and 82. These results suggest a preserved differentiation effect: Cognitive advantages (in processing speed and visuospatial ability) associated with experience playing a musical instrument (mostly earlier in life) are preserved during older age. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... Piano training studies in adults and children have found enhanced executive functions such as working memory (Bugos et al., 2007;Guo et al., 2021), spatial reasoning (Rauscher & Zupan, 2000), verbal fluency (Bugos & Kochar, 2017), and cognitive control (Seinfeld et al., 2013). Piano training is a complex multimodal activity with elements integral to a successful cognitive intervention such as task novelty, progressive difficulty, practice requirements, social elements, and ecological validity (James et al., 2020;Lesiuk et al., 2018). ...
... Piano training places high demands upon attention which may improve task-switching and processing speed. Results suggest that piano training transfers more broadly to cognitive processes, a finding consistent with experimental research on individualized and group-intensive piano programs (Bugos et al., 2007;Bugos & Kochar, 2017). Increases in processing speed may be due to sensorimotor practice with divided attention in fingering patterns, rhythmic/note challenges, and pedaling technique, as these skills facilitate information retrieval. ...
Objectives
Preliminary evidence suggests piano training may enhance areas of executive functions and psychosocial outcomes in aging adults. However, little is known regarding specific cognitive outcomes affected and whether or not enhancements are sustainable. We conducted a randomized controlled trial to evaluate the effects of piano training on cognitive performance, psychosocial well-being, and physiological stress and immune-function, in older adults.
Methods
Older adults (N=155, 60-80 years) completed an initial three-hour assessment of standardized cognitive and psychosocial measures. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups: piano training, computer-assisted cognitive training, or a no treatment control group. Training groups completed a 16-week program with two group training sessions per week for 90 minutes each session. All participants completed a standard battery of executive functions (working memory, processing speed, verbal fluency), psychosocial measures (musical and general self-efficacy, mood), and physiological measures (cortisol and immune-function) at pretesting, posttesting, and at a three-month follow-up time point.
Results
Results showed that piano training and computer-assisted cognitive training enhanced working memory and processing speed as compared to controls. Piano training significantly increased verbal fluency skills in category switching, as compared to computer-assisted cognitive training and no treatment controls. Participants in piano training demonstrated enhanced general and musical self-efficacy post-training; however, no significant differences were found for physiological measures.
Discussion
Piano training resulted in a unique advantage in category switching as compared to computer-assisted cognitive training and no treatment controls. Music training programs may mitigate or prevent cognitive deficits in verbal skills.
... To date, no music intervention studies have shown a clear improvement in the VFT. A 3-h concentrated group piano practice in older adults was reported to enhance both phonological and semantic VFT in a pilot study (Bugos and Kochar, 2017). However, the subsequent 16-week piano training intervention program did not improve the participants' performance on the VFT compared with participants who received percussion instruction or music listening instructions (Bugos, 2019). ...
Introduction
Previous studies have shown that musical instrument training programs of 16 or more weeks improve verbal memory (Logical Memory Test delayed recall), processing speed (Digit Symbol Coding Test), and executive function (Trail Making Test Part B) of musically untrained healthy older adults. However, it is unclear whether shorter-period instrument training can yield similar effects. We sought to (1) verify those results and (2) clarify if intervention effects could be detected using other measures such as reaction time.
Methods
Healthy older adults (mean age = 73.28 years) were pseudo-randomly assigned to an untrained control group ( n = 30) or an intervention group ( n = 30) that received a weekly 10-session musical instrument training program (using melodica). We conducted neuropsychological tests on which intervention effects or association with musical training were reported in previous studies. We newly included two reaction time tasks to assess verbal working memory (Sternberg task) and rhythm entrainment (timing task). Intervention effects were determined using a “group × time” analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Results
The intervention effects were detected on the reaction time in Sternberg task and phonological verbal fluency. Although intervention effects had been reported on Logical Memory test, Digit Symbol Coding Test and Trail Making Test in previous studies with longer training periods, the present study did not show such effects. Instead, the test-retest practice effect, indicated by significant improvement in the control group, was significant on these tests.
Discussion
The present results indicated the usefulness of working memory assessments (Verbal Fluency Test and Sternberg task) in detecting the effects of short-term melodica training in healthy older adults. The practice effect detected on those three tasks may be due to the shorter interval between pre- and post-intervention assessments and may have obscured intervention effects. Additionally, the findings suggested the requirement for an extended interval between pre- and post-tests to capture rigorous intervention effects, although this should be justified by a manipulation of training period.
... io/ sh27y/. Statistical power analysis (Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, & Buchner, 2007) informed by prior piano training research (e.g., Bugos & Kochar, 2017;Bugos et al., 2007) indicated that to detect a small effect size for a group × time interaction (f=.010, which is roughly equivalent to Cohen's d=0.20), a final n of 198 participants (n=99 per arm) would achieve 95% power with an alpha of 0.05. Power analyses further indicated that to examine the moderating effects of MCI on intervention efficacy, a final n of 168 would have 0.95 power at alpha 0.05 to detect medium effects (f=0.25, ...
Learning to play a musical instrument is commonly recommended to avoid cognitive decline and dementia, but experimental evidence is lacking. In this Keys to Staying Sharp study, we investigated the efficacy of piano training as compared to music listening instruction to improve auditory processing, cognition, and everyday function among older adults with and without mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Older adult participants with and without MCI (n=268) included 58% females; 16% identified as Black race and 8.2% reported Hispanic ethnicity. Education ranged from 11 to 20 years. Participants were randomly assigned to either piano training (n=133) or an active control group of music listening instruction (n=135). Group training sessions were led by an instructor for 90 min twice a week for 20 sessions. Measures of auditory processing (time compressed speech, words-in-noise, dichotic digits test, dichotic sentence identification, adaptive tests of temporal resolution), cognition (trail making test, digit coding, verbal fluency), and everyday function (timed instrumental activities of daily living, test of everyday attention) were administered at baseline and immediately post the intervention phase. Analyses were registered at Open Science Frameworkhttps://osf.io/sh27y/ on April 25, 2018. Relative to music listening, no significant effects of piano training on auditory processing, cognition, or everyday function were found (ps>0.265). Future research should continue to examine the connection of impaired auditory processing with subsequent dementia and investigate whether effectively enhancing auditory processing by intervention may reduce dementia risk.
... While research on music-based interventions for motor rehabilitation of older adults is scarce, there is growing evidence of the effectiveness of short-term musical training for cognitive rehabilitation in this population (Bugos et al., 2007;Seinfeld et al., 2013;Bugos, 2019;MacRitchie et al., 2020). Although a thorough review of the effectiveness of musicbased intervention in cognitive rehabilitation is beyond the scope of this paper (for further discussion, see Hegde, 2014;Sihvonen et al., 2017;Fusar-Poli et al., 2018;Koshimori and Thaut, 2019;Schneider et al., 2019;Mollica et al., 2021), it is of note that recent intervention studies have shown significant improvements in cognitive function in healthy older adults involved in piano training programs (Bugos and Kochar, 2017;Degé and Kerkovius, 2018;Bugos, 2019;Zendel et al., 2019;MacRitchie et al., 2020;Guo et al., 2021;Worschech et al., 2021). For instance, in MacRitchie et al. (2020), 15 older adults (aged 65 years or older) participated in a piano training program consisting of ten 60-min group lessons involving learning to play simple melodies and ensemble playing tasks. ...
... For example, research has demonstrated that multimodal learning is linked to neuroplastic benefits in the cerebellum, an area of the brain integrated with motor and cognitive ability and often implicated in atypical agerelated neurodegeneration (Bernard & Seidler, 2014;Sutcliffe et al., 2020). Another study by Bugos and Kochar (2017) used multimodal training methods to teach adult piano students and found that intense piano training in adults may increase connectivity between the frontal cortex and the cerebellum via the pontocerebellar tract. ...
In this literature review, the authors provide an overview of the research
on factors related to re-entry or nontraditional women students’ persistence in doctoral programs in counselling and clinical psychology. Re-entry women have a unique set of challenges beyond the challenges that regular graduate students face (e.g., role conflict, work commitments, and doubts related to abilities; Thomas, 2010). Furthermore, clinical and counselling psychology programs require practical training in addition
to the classes and research required for traditional doctorates. As a result of these additional stressors, re-entry women students are at a higher risk of dropping out (Gittings et al., 2018). The purpose of this literature review is to provide an updated synthesis of the research findings to date focusing on resiliency factors for re-entry women.
... The automatic classification of music styles using the minimum information length criterion has been studied in the literature [21], but there has been little research on identifying all playing instruments from a given set of music signals. The methods for recognizing plucked instruments, keyboard instruments, and percussion instruments are presented in literature [22]. The identification of a single piano note using an RBF neural network model was proposed in the literature [23]. ...
Currently, music recognition research is primarily focused on single note recognition, with some limitations in recognition accuracy and antinoise performance. This paper proposes a new algorithm for piano playing music recognition against the backdrop of intelligent interaction. The method of spectrum peak sorting is extended to the field of multifundamental frequency detection, and high and low channel processing is achieved. The statistical properties of spectral entropy of coefficients in compressed domain are used, resulting in more stable fingerprints. This statistical feature will not be destroyed after the original segment is processed, ensuring that the calculated feature maintains its high stability. This method can effectively improve the accuracy of fundamental frequency extraction by highlighting the peak characteristics of the periodic position of frame samples, avoiding the influence of half-frequency and frequency doubling, and thus avoiding the influence of half-frequency and frequency doubling. In comparison to traditional methods, achieve higher accuracy and fault tolerance. The feasibility and efficiency of the algorithm proposed in this paper are confirmed by a simulation experiment. This method’s overall performance meets certain practical requirements and achieves the expected results, laying the groundwork for future research in this field.
... While research on music-based interventions for motor rehabilitation of older adults is scarce, there is growing evidence of the effectiveness of short-term musical training for cognitive rehabilitation in this population (Bugos et al., 2007;Seinfeld et al., 2013;Bugos, 2019;MacRitchie et al., 2020). Although a thorough review of the effectiveness of musicbased intervention in cognitive rehabilitation is beyond the scope of this paper (for further discussion, see Hegde, 2014;Sihvonen et al., 2017;Fusar-Poli et al., 2018;Koshimori and Thaut, 2019;Schneider et al., 2019;Mollica et al., 2021), it is of note that recent intervention studies have shown significant improvements in cognitive function in healthy older adults involved in piano training programs (Bugos and Kochar, 2017;Degé and Kerkovius, 2018;Bugos, 2019;Zendel et al., 2019;MacRitchie et al., 2020;Guo et al., 2021;Worschech et al., 2021). For instance, in MacRitchie et al. (2020), 15 older adults (aged 65 years or older) participated in a piano training program consisting of ten 60-min group lessons involving learning to play simple melodies and ensemble playing tasks. ...
Research in basic and clinical neuroscience of music conducted over the past decades has begun to uncover music's high potential as a tool for rehabilitation. Advances in our understanding of how music engages parallel brain networks underpinning sensory and motor processes, arousal, reward, and affective regulation, have laid a sound neuroscientific foundation for the development of theory-driven music interventions that have been systematically tested in clinical settings. Of particular significance in the context of motor rehabilitation is the notion that musical rhythms can entrain movement patterns in patients with movement-related disorders, serving as a continuous time reference that can help regulate movement timing and pace. To date, a significant number of clinical and experimental studies have tested the application of rhythm-and music-based interventions to improve motor functions following central nervous injury and/or degeneration. The goal of this review is to appraise the current state of knowledge on the effectiveness of music and rhythm to modulate movement spatiotemporal patterns and restore motor function. By organizing and providing a critical appraisal of a large body of research, we hope to provide a revised framework for future research on the effectiveness of rhythm-and music-based interventions to restore and (re)train motor function.
... Increased cognitive function, specifically improvements in working memory, have been demonstrated by adults who experienced music lessons (Bugos et al., 2007). Older adults engaged in group piano instruction exhibited improved cognitive control, processing speed and verbal fluency, even after short, but intense, periods of piano training (Bugos & Kochar, 2017). ...
... Among older adults with higher SES, those learning to play a musical instrument reported a greater increase in the frequency of behaviors promoting physical activity and spiritual growth than older adults in the comparison condition (a U3A shared learning project) (Perkins and Williamon, 2014). Cognitive mechanisms were measured across several studies and found that for older adults, playing instruments was related to improvements in cognitive processing speed and attention, verbal fluency, executive function, visual scanning, and motor ability (Bugos et al., 2007;Bugos and Kochar, 2017), as well as letter fluency, learning, and short-term memory (Mansens et al., 2018). One study used fMRI in people with mild traumatic brain injuries following 8 weeks of piano lessons and found that there was a change to activation of the medial orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) (Vik et al., 2018). ...
Background: This scoping review analyzed research about how music activities may affect participants' health and well-being. Primary outcomes were measures of health (including symptoms and health behaviors) and well-being. Secondary measures included a range of psychosocial processes such as arousal, mood, social connection, physical activation or relaxation, cognitive functions, and identity. Diverse music activities were considered: receptive and intentional music listening; sharing music; instrument playing; group singing; lyrics and rapping; movement and dance; and songwriting, composition, and improvisation.
Methods: Nine databases were searched with terms related to the eight music activities and the psychosocial variables of interest. Sixty-three papers met selection criteria, representing 6,975 participants of all ages, nationalities, and contexts.
Results: Receptive and intentional music listening were found to reduce pain through changes in physiological arousal in some studies but not others. Shared music listening (e.g., concerts or radio programs) enhanced social connections and mood in older adults and in hospital patients. Music listening and carer singing decreased agitation and improved posture, movement, and well-being of people with dementia. Group singing supported cognitive health and well-being of older adults and those with mental health problems, lung disease, stroke, and dementia through its effects on cognitive functions, mood, and social connections. Playing a musical instrument was associated with improved cognitive health and well-being in school students, older adults, and people with mild brain injuries via effects on motor, cognitive and social processes. Dance and movement with music programs were associated with improved health and well-being in people with dementia, women with postnatal depression, and sedentary women with obesity through various cognitive, physical, and social processes. Rapping, songwriting, and composition helped the well-being of marginalized people through effects on social and cultural inclusion and connection, self-esteem and empowerment.
Discussion: Music activities offer a rich and underutilized resource for health and well-being to participants of diverse ages, backgrounds, and settings. The review provides preliminary evidence that particular music activities may be recommended for specific psychosocial purposes and for specific health conditions.
... Additionally, making music (e.g., playing the piano) is, in comparison to mere music listening, highly connected to intensive goal-directed training, conditions of high arousal and strong emotional experiences and, therefore, complies with conditions of adaptive brain plasticity (Patel, 2011;Altenmüller and Furuya, 2017). An alternative but not mutually exclusive explanation is that active music interventions may lead to beneficial effects in executive functions (Schellenberg, 2004;Bugos et al., 2007;Hanna-Pladdy and MacKay, 2011;Seinfeld et al., 2013;Bugos and Kochar, 2017) which may contribute to SIN performance. ...
Understanding speech in background noise poses a challenge in daily communication, which is a particular problem among the elderly. Although musical expertise has often been suggested to be a contributor to speech intelligibility, the associations are mostly correlative. In the present multisite study conducted in Germany and Switzerland, 156 healthy, normal-hearing elderly were randomly assigned to either piano playing or music listening/musical culture groups. The speech reception threshold was assessed using the International Matrix Test before and after a 6 month intervention. Bayesian multilevel modeling revealed an improvement of both groups over time under binaural conditions. Additionally, the speech reception threshold of the piano group decreased during stimuli presentation to the left ear. A right ear improvement only occurred in the German piano group. Furthermore, improvements were predominantly found in women. These findings are discussed in the light of current neuroscientific theories on hemispheric lateralization and biological sex differences. The study indicates a positive transfer from musical training to speech processing, probably supported by the enhancement of auditory processing and improvement of general cognitive functions.
... Increased cognitive function, specifically improvements in working memory, have been demonstrated by adults who experienced music lessons (Bugos et al., 2007). Older adults engaged in group piano instruction exhibited improved cognitive control, processing speed and verbal fluency, even after short, but intense, periods of piano training (Bugos & Kochar, 2017). ...
It is important that the philosophies of equitable co-existence that emerge in the lived contexts of music-making by professional musicians be applied into music education, not least due to today’s prevailing worldviews that are increasingly favouring an uncomfortable opposition of nature and reason. In this article, I draw on the philosophies of Zygmunt Bauman that urge us to seek ways of being for one another before seeking to be with the other. I adopt a qualitative instrumental case study methodology with an aim to analyse a slice of musical life and experience from the careers of professional migrant musicians living in Brisbane, Australia. The study is undertaken in the context of Lullaby Land, a compact music ensemble of four members including myself.
Drawing on semi-structured interviews and rehearsal commentaries as well as my own reflexive insights as participant-researcher, I thematically analyse the data and derive implications for diversity and inclusivity in musicmaking from the professional context of Lullaby Land. The analysis revealed patterns of meaning across three key themes: Culturally contingent differences are central to musicians’ identity and are to be celebrated; learning stems from qualities of respect and empathy; music is a powerful language of belonging and a means of active self-representation in a foreign land. I then extrapolate the above themes that have been identified from a professional music-making context into a model for intercultural higher music education.
The model proposed here is grounded on understanding how we, as a collective humanity that today grapples with issues of ethics and politics in diversity in multifarious ways, can adopt a philosophy of being for one another before being with one another. The theorised model is predicated on action and features a series of verbs—narrate, empathise, celebrate, explore, connect, and crystallise—that culminate in ethical learning. I offer this model as a counter- narrative to the widespread ethos of inaction on the one hand, and of oversimplification of subtle differences that constitute the bedrock of diversity, on the other. Theoretically, the model presents a recontextualisation of professional musicians’ lived experiences within the systematic constructs of higher music education, thereby calling for meaningful correspondences between these two entangled spheres of operation in the broader field of music research. The model is yet to be trialled in a pedagogical context, however, I propose that it would hold relevance for both music educators and music professionals who engage with cultural diversity in their practices.
... Participation in choirs by sufferers of stroke or Parkinsons disease provide opportunities to build confidence in a group setting (Fogg-Rogers et al., 2016). Group instrument lessons for healthy older adults have been shown to have benefits for general cognition, mood and quality of life (Bugos et al, 2007;Bugos & Kochar, 2017;Creech et al, 2014, MacRitchie et al., 2016. At Western in 2019, Jennifer MacRitchie, Roger Dean and Kate Stevens, in collaboration with Andrea Creech at Laval University in Canada, are embarking on an ARC funded project "Maintaining active minds and bodies through older adult music education" (see Appendix). ...
... Older adults experience a myriad of psychosocial benefits from learning to play a musical instrument, even beginning as novices and training over relatively short-term periods (Jutras, 2006;Bugos et al., 2007;Taylor and Hallam, 2008;Seinfeld et al., 2013;Varvarigou et al., 2013;Creech et al., 2014;Roulston et al., 2015;Bugos et al., 2016;Bugos and Kochar, 2017). A recent scoping review of eleven studies found a correlation between music playing and cognitive benefits for older adults (Schneider et al., 2018). ...
Given emerging evidence that learning to play a musical instrument may lead to a number of cognitive benefits for older adults, it is important to clarify how these training programs can be delivered optimally and meaningfully. The effective acquisition of musical and domain-general skills by later-life learners may be influenced by social, cultural and individual factors within the learning environment. The current study examines the effects of a 10-week piano training program on healthy older adult novices' cognitive and motor skills, in comparison to an inactive waitlisted control group. Fifteen participants completed piano training led by a music facilitator in small groups (max n = 4 per lesson class; two experimental, two waitlisted control groups). Data was collected using an explanatory sequential design: quantitative data from a battery of cognitive and motor tests was collected pre/post-test on all participants, with further post-test data from the waitlisted control group (n = 7). Qualitative data included weekly facilitator observations, participant practice diaries, and an individual, semi-structured, post-experiment interview. Bayesian modelling demonstrated moderate evidence of a strong positive impact of training on part A of the Trail Making test (TMT), indicating improved visuo-motor skills. Moderate evidence for negative impacts of training on part B of the Trail Making Test (and difference score delta) was also found, suggesting no benefit of cognitive switching. Qualitative results revealed that the group learning environment motivated participants to play in musical ensembles and to socialize. Motivation was optimal when all participants were happy with the chosen repertoire (participants reported they were motivated by learning to play familiar music) and when the facilitator observed that groups had formed cohesive bonds. Informed by these factors, exploratory analyses demonstrated strong evidence that a participant's lesson class had an impact on post-test scores (TMT part A). These results not only demonstrate the extent of cognitive benefits of a short-term piano training intervention for older adults, but also the importance of considering the group dynamics in the learning environment.
... In experimental work, Bugos, Perlstein, McCrae, Brophy, and Bedenbaugh (2007) found that older adults who received piano lessons performed better than a no-treatment control on the TMT. Similarly, Bugos and Kochar (2017) found that older adults who had short-term piano lessons also improved on category switching in a verbal fluency task. ...
Learning and performing music draw on a host of cognitive abilities, and previous research has postulated that musicians might have advantages in related cognitive processes. One such aspect of cognition that may be related to musical training is executive functions (EFs), a set of top-down processes that regulate behavior and cognition according to task demands. Previous studies investigating the link between musical training and EFs have yielded mixed results and are difficult to compare. In part, this is because most studies have looked at only one specific cognitive process, and even studies looking at the same process have used different experimental tasks. Furthermore, most correlational studies have used different “musician” and “non-musician” categorizations for their comparisons, so generalizing the findings is difficult. The present study provides a more comprehensive assessment of how individual differences in musical training relate to latent measures of three separable aspects of EFs. We administered a well-validated EF battery containing multiple tasks tapping the EF components of inhibition, shifting, and working memory updating (Friedman et al. in Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137, 201–225, 2008), as well as a comprehensive, continuous measure of musical training and sophistication (Müllensiefen et al., in PLoS ONE, 9, e89642, 2014). Musical training correlated with some individual EF tasks involving inhibition and working memory updating, but not with individual tasks involving shifting. However, musical training only predicted the latent variable of working memory updating, but not the latent variables of inhibition or shifting after controlling for IQ, socioeconomic status, and handedness. Although these data are correlational, they nonetheless suggest that musical experience places particularly strong demands specifically on working memory updating processes.
Music Culture is one of the subjects for which many students are not particularly motivated, thus the interest of this research was establishing possible factors that are in positive correlation with motivation for this subject. Major problem of this research was to determine correlation of certain variables with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation for Music Culture teaching, as well as what are the best predictors of this motivation. The differences between the students show that intrinsic motivation is higher with female respondents (F (1.311) = 5.39, p < .05), that it declines with age (F (2.313) = 11.97, p < .01) and that it is higher in classes where democratic educational style is applied (r = .274). Only the scale of learning presented appeared as a significant predictor of intrinsic motivation (β = .513, p < .001), while the scale of self-esteem (β = .316; p < .001) and sub-scale of performance goals focused on achieving success (β = .388; p < .001) appeared as significant predictors of extrinsic motivation. A positive correlation was also noticed between singing activity during the lesson and intrinsic motivation and between listening to music and extrinsic motivation as well as negative correlation regarding presentations and intrinsic motivation.
Active music interventions represent one promising nonpharmacological intervention; however, the effects of these interventions are not well understood. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of active music interventions on cognitive function and neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with dementia. Four independent database searches revealed 747 independent studies that were filtered by article type, topic, and relevancy, based on inclusion criteria. Nine randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were selected for inclusion and were assessed for quality using the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. Results of the meta-analyses revealed those receiving an active music intervention scored significantly higher than controls on the Mini-Mental State Exam and reported fewer neuropsychiatric symptoms as denoted by the Neuropsychiatric Inventory, post-intervention. There is a need for additional RCTs with consistent standardized cognitive measures to compare dosage, duration, and intervention type (e.g., instrumental or vocal) across domains. Future research is necessary to distinguish the benefits of active music interventions on cognitive function and neuropsychiatric symptoms (e.g., agitation, depression) in patients with dementia.
Lisa Lehmberg and Victor Fung present a groundbreaking look at quality of life via the music participation of older adults in diverse US senior centers. The state of musical activities in senior centers pre- and mid-pandemic is elucidated through original research conducted in senior centers across six states. Featured are older adults' stories told in their own words; insights from senior center activity leaders, manage-ment, and staff; and data, analyses, and syntheses from the authors' senior center visits and a survey of center managers. The authors document the adjustment process undergone by these centers during the pandemic and leading into a new normal. Recommendations are offered for policy makers, school and community music educators, music activity leaders, older adults, caregivers, and service providers to enhance the quality of life of older adults. The critical role that music plays in supporting their quality of life is emphasized.
The aging population has led to increased interest in the effects of various lifestyle choices that can mitigate or prevent the cognitive decline that accompanies natural aging, one of which is the contribution of music training and active musicianship. While there is mounting evidence that engagement in musical activity does mitigate some of the cognitive problems experienced in old age, the research has yet to be reviewed in the context of modern theories of cognitive aging. In this chapter, we explore how modern theories of cognitive aging account for the benefit of musical training on the aging brain. We review evidence from behavioral and neuroimaging research with an emphasis on the role of music training in cognition.
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is commonly associated with motor symptoms; however, many patients with PD exhibit decline in executive functions. Executive functions refer to a broad array of generalized cognitive abilities such as cognitive control and working memory. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the impact of a novel intense group piano training program on executive functions in patients with PD. Forty-five patients with PD were assigned to an intense group piano training program or a waitlist control group. Group intensive piano training consisted of basic piano technique, finger dexterity exercises, basic piano repertoire, and music theory, presented over a 10-day period (30 hrs of training). Participants completed a battery of standardized cognitive measures of processing speed, cognitive control, and verbal fluency, pre- and post-training. Results of an independent samples Mann–Whitney test on composite cognitive and psychosocial variables revealed significantly enhanced Stroop performance and musical self-efficacy. Intensive piano training may serve as an effective cognitive and psychosocial intervention for those with PD.
Background:
The prevalence of dementia, the most expensive medical condition (Kirschstein, 2000 and Hurd et al., 2013 [1,2]), and its precursor, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) are increasing [3]. Finding effective intervention strategies to prevent or delay dementia is imperative to public health. Prior research provides compelling evidence that central auditory processing (CAP) deficits are a risk factor for dementia [4-6]. Grounded in the information degradation theory [7, 8], we hypothesize that improving brain function at early perceptual levels (i.e., CAP) may be optimal to attenuate cognitive and functional decline and potentially curb dementia prevalence. Piano training is one avenue to enhance cognition [9-13] by facilitating CAP at initial perceptual stages [14-18].
Objectives:
The Keys To Staying Sharp study is a two arm, randomized clinical trial examining the efficacy of piano training relative to music listening instruction to improve CAP, cognition, and everyday function among older adults. In addition, the moderating effects of MCI status on piano training efficacy will be examined and potential mediators of intervention effects will be explored.
Hypotheses:
We hypothesize that piano training will improve CAP and cognitive performance, leading to functional improvements. We expect that enhanced CAP will mediate cognitive gains. We further hypothesize that cognitive gains will mediate functional improvements.
Method:
We plan to enroll 360 adults aged 60 years and older who will be randomized to piano training or an active control condition of music listening instruction and complete pre- and immediate post- assessments of CAP, cognition, and everyday function.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of an intense piano training program on general self-efficacy, musical self-efficacy, and physiological stress in older adults. Self-efficacy refers to perceived beliefs regarding the performance of domain-specific tasks or activities, which contribute to psychological and physical health. A key challenge is to identify activities that promote self-efficacy in the aging population. Seventeen healthy community-dwelling older adults (60–85 years) with little to no previous musical training participated in a within subjects experimental design. Measures of self-efficacy and cortisol levels were administered over three time points: an initial pretesting session, a second pre-testing following a two-week no treatment control period, and a post-testing
session upon the completion of piano training. Intense piano training consisted of 30 hours of training (3 hours per day) in which high levels of achievement were required. Results of a three-way Repeated Measures ANOVA over all time points with pairwise comparisons revealed significantly (p < .05) enhanced musical self-efficacy post-training, F (2, 32) = 11.5, p < .001, d = .79. No significant changes in general self-efficacy or cortisol levels were found. These results suggest that domain-specific self-efficacy may increase as a result of short-term intense music training; however, short-term music training may not be sufficient to transfer to general self-efficacy.
Unlabelled:
Despite their widespread use in research and clinical practice, the cognitive abilities purportedly assessed by different verbal fluency task variants remain unclear and may vary across different healthy and clinical populations. The overarching aim of this study was to identify which cognitive abilities contribute to phonemic, semantic, excluded letter, and alternating verbal fluency tasks and whether these contributions differ across younger and older healthy adults.
Method:
Ninety-six younger (18-36 years) and 83 older (65-87 years) healthy participants completed measures of estimated verbal intelligence, semantic retrieval, processing speed, working memory, and inhibitory control, in addition to phonemic, semantic, excluded letter, and alternating fluency tasks. Eight hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted across the four fluency variants and two age groups to identify which cognitive variables uniquely contributed to these fluency tasks.
Results:
In the younger group, verbal intelligence and processing speed contributed to phonemic fluency, semantic retrieval to semantic fluency, processing speed and working memory to excluded letter fluency, and semantic retrieval to alternating fluency. In contrast, in the older group, verbal intelligence contributed to phonemic fluency, no cognitive variables contributed to semantic fluency, inhibition to excluded letter fluency, and verbal intelligence to alternating fluency.
Conclusions:
Our findings highlight that both lower and higher order cognitive skills contribute to verbal fluency tasks; however, these contributions vary considerably across fluency variants and age groups. The heterogeneity of cognitive determinants of verbal fluency, across variants and age, may explain why older people performed less proficiently on semantic and excluded letter fluency tasks while no age effects were found for phonemic and alternating fluency. Interpretation of verbal fluency performances need to be tailored according to which verbal fluency variant and age group are used.
The present study tried to specify how much processing speed, working memory capacity, and inhibition capability contribute to the effects of aging on language performance. An individual-differences approach was used to examine the component processes that predict performance in language comprehension and verbal long-term memory tasks. A total of 151 participants aged 31-80 completed language processing tasks and a battery of tasks designed to assess processing speed, working memory, and resistance to interference. Latent-construct structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationships of these factors and age to different types of language tasks. The best fit model showed first that all the significant relationships between age and language performance are mediated through reductions in speed, resistance to interference, and working memory; this confirms the validity of the general factor approach of agerelated differences in cognitive performance. The best fit model, however, also showed that the contribution of speed and resistance to interference is indirect and mediated by working memory, which appears to play a crucial role in explaining age-related differences in language performance.
Interest in studying the effects of extensive music training on nonmusical perceptual and cognitive abilities has grown in recent years. Here, we present evidence that formal music instruction is associated with superior verbal and visual memory. Participants included 15 highly trained pianists and 21 individuals with little or no formal music training. The groups were comparable in terms of age, gender distribution, and socioeconomic status. Musicians showed superior immediate and delayed recall of word lists and greater use of a semantic clustering strategy during initial list-learning than nonmusicians. They also exhibited superior learning, delayed recall, and delayed recognition for visual designs. Group differences in delayed free recall of both words and designs persisted after controlling statistically for estimated Full Scale IQ. These results suggest that extensive music training is associated with a generalized enhancement of auditory and visual memory functions.
We report on the development of a new cognitive screening test administered over the telephone. The Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status correlates very highly with the Mini-Mental State Examination in Alzheimer's disease. It has high sensitivity and specificity to the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and high test-retest reliability in this population. The instrument is acceptable to patients and has a sufficient range to be useful in follow-up and field research studies of AD and possibly other disorders associated with cognitive impairment.
(C) Lippincott-Raven Publishers.
A total of 54 participants (age M = 20.9; education M = 14.9; initial Full Scale IQ M = 111.6) were administered the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) at baseline and again either 3 or 6 months later. Scores on the Full Scale IQ, Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Perceptual Reasoning, Processing Speed, and General Ability Indices improved approximately 7, 5, 4, 5, 9, and 6 points, respectively, and increases were similar regardless of whether the re-examination occurred over 3- or 6-month intervals. Reliable change indices (RCI) were computed using the simple difference and bivariate regression methods, providing estimated base rates of change across time. The regression method provided more accurate estimates of reliable change than did the simple difference between baseline and follow-up scores. These findings suggest that prior exposure to the WAIS-IV results in significant score increments. These gains reflect practice effects instead of genuine intellectual changes, which may lead to errors in clinical judgment.
Researchers have designed training methods that can be used to improve mental health and to test the efficacy of education programs. However, few studies have demonstrated broad transfer from such training to performance on untrained cognitive activities. Here we report the effects of two interactive computerized training programs developed for preschool children: one for music and one for visual art. After only 20 days of training, only children in the music group exhibited enhanced performance on a measure of verbal intelligence, with 90% of the sample showing this improvement. These improvements in verbal intelligence were positively correlated with changes in functional brain plasticity during an executive-function task. Our findings demonstrate that transfer of a high-level cognitive skill is possible in early childhood.
As the population ages, the need for effective methods to maintain or even improve older adults' cognitive performance becomes increasingly pressing. Here we provide a brief review of the major intervention approaches that have been the focus of past research with healthy older adults (strategy training, multi-modal interventions, cardiovascular exercise, and process-based training), and new approaches that incorporate neuroimaging. As outcome measures, neuroimaging data on intervention-related changes in volume, structural integrity; and functional activation can provide important insights into the nature and duration of an intervention's effects. Perhaps even more intriguingly, several recent studies have used neuroimaging data as a guide to identify core cognitive processes that can be trained in one task with effective transfer to other tasks that share the same underlying processes. Although many open questions remain, this research has greatly increased our understanding of how to promote successful aging of cognition and the brain.
Magnetic resonance imaging has shown that the left planum temporale region of the brain is larger in musicians than in non-musicians. If this results from a change in cortical organization,, the left temporal area in musicians might have a better developed cognitive function than the right temporal lobe. Because verbal memory is mediated mainly by the left temporal lobe, and visual memory by the right,, adults with music training should have better verbal, but not visual, memory than adults without such training. Here we show that adults who received music training before the age of 12 have a better memory for spoken words than those who did not. Music training in childhood may therefore have long-term positive effects on verbal memory.
The present research addresses whether music training acts as a mediator of the recall of spoken and sung lyrics and whether presentation rate is the essential variable, rather than the inclusion of melody. In Experiment 1, 78 undergraduates, half with music training and half without, heard spoken or sung lyrics. Recall for sung lyrics was superior to that for spoken lyrics for both groups. In Experiments 2 and 3, presentation rate was manipulated so that the durations of the spoken and the sung materials were equal. With presentation rate equated, there was no advantage for sung over spoken lyrics. In all the experiments, those participants with music training outperformed those without training in all the conditions. The results suggest that music training leads to enhanced memory for verbal material. Previous findings of melody's aiding text recall may be attributed to presentation rate.
The hypothesis that music training can improve verbal memory was tested in children. The results showed that children with music training demonstrated better verbal but not visual memory than did their counterparts without such training. When these children were followed up after a year, those who had begun or continued music training demonstrated significant verbal memory improvement. Students who discontinued the training did not show any improvement. Contrary to the differences in verbal memory between the groups, their changes in visual memory were not significantly different. Consistent with previous findings for adults (A. S. Chan, Y. Ho, & M. Cheung, 1998), the results suggest that music training systematically affects memory processing in accordance with possible neuroanatomical modifications in the left temporal lobe.
To determine the size of the impairment across different cognitive domains in preclinical Alzheimer's disease (AD), a meta-analysis based on 47 studies involving 9,097 controls and 1,207 preclinical AD cases was conducted. There were marked preclinical deficits in global cognitive ability, episodic memory, perceptual speed, and executive functioning; somewhat smaller deficits in verbal ability, visuospatial skill, and attention; and no preclinical impairment in primary memory. Younger age (< 75 years) and shorter follow-up intervals (< 3 years) were associated with larger effect sizes for both global cognitive ability and episodic memory. For global cognitive ability, studies that used population-based sampling yielded larger effect sizes; for episodic memory, larger differences were seen in studies that preidentified groups in terms of baseline cognitive impairment. Within episodic memory, delayed testing and recall-based assessment resulted in the largest effect sizes. The authors conclude that deficits in multiple cognitive domains are characteristic of AD several years before clinical diagnosis. The generalized nature of the deficit is consistent with recent observations that multiple brain structures and functions are affected long before the AD diagnosis.
Amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) represents a high-risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is characterized by a selective decline in episodic memory. Although by definition aMCI is not associated with impaired verbal fluency performance, we examined relative differences between fluency tasks because AD is characterized by poorer semantic than phonemic fluency. Phonemic and semantic fluency trials were administered to 46 healthy controls, 33 patients with aMCI, and 33 patients with AD. Results revealed a progressive advantage (controls > aMCI > AD) in semantic, relative to phonemic fluency. Difference scores between tasks distinguished each group from the others with medium to large effect sizes (d) ranging from 0.49 to 1.07. Semantic fluency relies more on semantic associations between category exemplars than does phonemic fluency. This aMCI fluency pattern reflects degradation of semantic networks demonstrating that initial neuropathology may extend beyond known early changes in hippocampal regions.
This study evaluates transfer from domain-specific, sensorimotor training to cognitive abilities associated with executive function. We examined Individualized Piano Instruction (IPI) as a potential cognitive intervention to mitigate normal age-related cognitive decline in older adults. Thirty-one musically naïve community-dwelling older adults (ages 60-85) were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 16) or control group (n = 15). Neuropsychological assessments were administered at three time points: pre-training, following six months of intervention, and following a three-month delay. The experimental group significantly improved performance on the Trail Making Test and Digit Symbol measures as compared to healthy controls. Results of this study suggest that IPI may serve as an effective cognitive intervention for age-related cognitive decline.
The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of Suzuki violin instruction on verbal memory performance, memory strategy usage, and visual processing speed performance in child musicians and non-musicians, ages 8–12. Thirty-five participants, 18 musicians with four or more years of musical training and 17 non-musicians, completed measures of music aptitude, motor speed, music reading, intelligence, verbal memory, and processing speed. Results indicate significantly (p < .05) enhanced performance by musicians compared to non-musicians in verbal memory performance, including distraction list items, short-delay free recall trials, semantic clustering scores, and overall processing speed. These data support the hypothesis that Suzuki violin instruction leads to the development of semantic and syntactical knowledge to categorize words assisting in memory retrieval. Results underscore the role of auditory skills in early music instruction, the impact of musical training in cognitive development, and importance of providing musical training at an early age.
This study investigated whether musical training and bilingualism are associated with enhancements in specific components of executive function, namely, task switching and dual-task performance. Participants (n = 153) belonging to one of four groups (monolingual musician, bilingual musician, bilingual non-musician, or monolingual non-musician) were matched on age and socioeconomic status and administered task switching and dual-task paradigms. Results demonstrated reduced global and local switch costs in musicians compared with non-musicians, suggesting that musical training can contribute to increased efficiency in the ability to shift flexibly between mental sets. On dual-task performance, musicians also outperformed non-musicians. There was neither a cognitive advantage for bilinguals relative to monolinguals, nor an interaction between music and language to suggest additive effects of both types of experience. These findings demonstrate that long-term musical training is associated with improvements in task switching and dual-task performance.
The purpose of this research is to examine the effects of music instruction on information processing speed. We examined music's role on information processing speed in musicians (N = 14) and non-musicians (N = 16) using standardized neuropsychological measures, the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT) and the Trail Making Test (TMT). Results of a One Way ANOVA indicate significantly (p < .05) enhanced performance by musicians compared to non-musicians on the PASAT and TMT (Part A and B). These results suggest that musical training has the capacity to enhance processing speed of auditory and visual content. Implications for music educators stemming from these findings include the need for inclusion of rhythmic sight-reading exercises and improvisational activities to reinforce processing speed.
Patterns of verbal fluency deficits have been explored across different neurodegenerative disorders. This study sought to investigate the specific pattern of verbal fluency performance in cerebral small vessel disease (SVD), which is the most common cause of vascular cognitive impairment, and compare this with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Participants with SVD (n = 45), AD (n = 24) and healthy controls (n = 80) completed assessments of semantic and phonemic fluency. Mixed-model analyses of covariance were used to compare performance on the different fluency tasks between the groups, and a discriminant function analysis was conducted to examine group differentiation. The SVD group was impaired in both fluency tasks when compared to the controls. In contrast, the AD group displayed impairment in semantic fluency only. Discriminant function analysis revealed that fluency scores correctly classified 80% of SVD patients and 92% of AD patients. The pattern of performance observed in the SVD group may reflect deficits in executive function and processing speed impacting equivalently on semantic and phonemic fluency. The differences between the SVD and AD groups highlighted in this study may be useful for distinguishing between these conditions. (JINS, 2014, 20, 1-9).
The main features of a psychological examination for trauma cases are that it (1) points out existing abnormalities and deficiencies, (2) provides a systematic search for suspected contradictions and inconsistencies, and (3) allows for the differential diagnosis of acquired deficiencies (as a result of the accident) and constitutional deficiencies (existing before the accident). The author lists the necessary conditions for adequately testing these three points. The tests for differentiating acquired and constitutional deficiencies are usually categorized on the basis of whether they are dependent on the memory of the subject. Some types of tasks for differentiating these two types of deficiencies are (1) the solution of rolled-up figures, (2) copying of complex figures, (3) reproduction from memory of complex figures, and (4) classification of figures and memory of their position. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The revision of the Wechsler-Bellevue Adult Intelligence Scale retains the type of item categories but has numerous changes in the items. Standardization is based on a stratified sample of 1700 adults ages 16 to 64. Additional norms are given for ages above 64 based on a different group of subjects. Reliabilities for verbal, performance and full scale IQ's are .96, .93, and .97, and for the subtests range from .65 to .96. Manual includes directions for administering, IQ tables, and scaled score tables. Officially the title is to be abbreviated WAIS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Clustering and switching strategies during phonemic and semantic verbal fluency tasks as defined by Troyer et al. (1997), Abwender et al. (2001), and Lanting et al. (2009) were compared using archival data to determine which scoring procedures best differentiate healthy older adults (n = 26) from individuals with early-stage Alzheimer's disease (AD, n = 26). Total word production showed the largest group difference, especially for semantic fluency. The AD group produced fewer switches when compared to the healthy control group, whereas the groups did not differ in cluster size. The AD group also accessed fewer novel semantic subcategories, presumably due to reduced access to semantic memory storage rather than lower processing speed. Clustering and switching scores on the phonemic task did not add information above total words produced, consistent with previous research indicating these variables are most informative in relation to semantic fluency.
Physical activity has been recognized as an important protective factor reducing disability and mortality and therefore it is focus of many health promotion activities at all ages. More recently a growing body of literature is focusing whether physical activity could also have a positive impact on brain aging with exploring healthy brain aging as well as on cognitive impairment and dementia. An increasing number of prospective studies and randomized controlled trials involving humans take place both with older adults with normal cognition as well as with mild cognitive impairment or dementia. However, the body of evidence is still sparse and many methodological issues make comparisons across studies challenging. Increasingly research into underlying mechanisms in relation to physical activity and brain aging identify biomarker candidates with especially neuroimaging measurements being more used in trials with humans. Whilst the evidence base is slowly growing more detailed research is needed to address methodological issues to finally achieve clinical relevance. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Imaging Brain Aging and Neurodegenerative disease.
College students with 5 or more years of music training recalled significantly more words from a 16-item word list than did students with 0-4 years of training. The superior recall of the extensively trained students linked to better application of a semantic-clustering strategy across a series of 3 test trials. Music education and language experience may have similar influences on the development of verbal memory.
The purpose of this investigation was to replicate the statistical approach used in a previous investigation (Toronto study) within a French population to determine the best predictive model for Alzheimer's disease (AD).
Data from neuropsychological tests from two prospective studies were entered into a regression model.
Replication of the statistical approach in the Montpellier sample produced a three-test model with a specificity of 99% and sensitivity of 73%. This model consisted of a delayed auditory verbal recall test, a construction test, a category fluency test and provides probability estimates for the transition to dementia in individual cases.
The models derived from these two longitudinal studies provide an empirical basis for the selection of tests for the definition of mild cognitive impairment of the Alzheimer type (MCI-A). The small set of tests derived are suitable for use in general practice.
This report presents data from a nonpatient sample considering the test-retest reliability and task comparability of the Rey-Osterrieth/Taylor
Complex Figures and the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test. These tasks were presented to normal comparison subjects as a component
of a large Department of Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study on anticonvulsant effects in a manner typical of routine clinical
use. The results suggest a high degree of reliability for the Rey-Auditory Verbal Learning Test, supporting its use for test-retest
situations. However, cautions are discussed for the use of the Rey-Osterrieth-Taylor Complex Figure comparisons.
Exposure to some music, in particular classical music, has been reported to produce transient increases in cognitive performance. The authors investigated the effect of listening to an excerpt of Vivaldi's Four Seasons on category fluency in healthy older adult controls and Alzheimer's disease patients. In a counterbalanced repeated-measure design, participants completed two, 1-min category fluency tasks whilst listening to an excerpt of Vivaldi and two, 1-min category fluency tasks without music. The authors report a positive effect of music on category fluency, with performance in the music condition exceeding performance without music in both the healthy older adult control participants and the Alzheimer's disease patients. In keeping with previous reports, the authors conclude that music enhances attentional processes, and that this can be demonstrated in Alzheimer's disease.
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of age, sex, and education on category and letter verbal fluency task performance. A secondary goal was to examine whether resting EEG theta power in bilateral frontal and temporal lobes impacts age-associated decline in verbal fluency task performance. A large sample (N = 471) of healthy, normal participants, age 21-82, was assessed for letter fluency (i.e., FAS), and for category fluency (i.e., Animal Naming), and with a 32-channel EEG system for 'eyes-open' resting theta power. The effects of age, sex, and education were examined using analyses of variance. Correlation analyses were used to test the impact of theta power on age and fluency performance by controlling for the effects of theta when examining the relationship between the other two variables. The results indicated that performance on both fluency tests declined linearly with age, but that the rate of decline was greater for category fluency. These age changes were not associated with education level, and there were no sex differences. While theta power was negatively associated with age and positively associated with Animal Naming performance, it did not moderate the relationship between the two. The differential age-associated decline between category and letter fluency suggests separate neurobiological substrates underlying the two domains of performance, which is not related to theta activity.
Verbal fluency tests are employed regularly during neuropsychological assessments of older adults, and deficits are a common finding in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Little extant research, however, has investigated verbal fluency ability and subtypes in preclinical stages of neurodegenerative disease. We examined verbal fluency performance in 107 older adults with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI, n=37), cognitive complaints (CC, n=37) despite intact neuropsychological functioning, and demographically matched healthy controls (HC, n=33). Participants completed fluency tasks with letter, semantic category, and semantic switching constraints. Both phonemic and semantic fluency were statistically (but not clinically) reduced in amnestic MCI relative to cognitively intact older adults, indicating subtle changes in the quality of the semantic store and retrieval slowing. Investigation of the underlying constructs of verbal fluency yielded two factors: Switching (including switching and shifting tasks) and Production (including letter, category, and action naming tasks), and both factors discriminated MCI from HC albeit to different degrees. Correlational findings further suggested that all fluency tasks involved executive control to some degree, while those with an added executive component (i.e., switching and shifting) were less dependent on semantic knowledge. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of including multiple verbal fluency tests in assessment batteries targeting preclinical dementia populations and suggest that individual fluency tasks may tap specific cognitive processes.
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