Elements of Episodic Memory
... This can have farreaching implications for understanding how we process complex events, such as the order in which we extract meaning versus verbatim/exact details from written text (Kintsch & van Dijk, 1978;Moravcsik & Healy, 1995;Morrow et al., 1989Morrow et al., , 1997Perfetti, 2007;Radvansky & Dijkstra, 2007), spoken language (Johnson-Laird, 1983;Kintsch, 1988;Sachs, 1967;Wallace et al., 1998), images (e.g., of scenes; Ahmad et al., 2017;Melcher, 2006;Potter, 1976;Potter & Levy, 1969;Tatler et al., 2003), continuous or evolving sequences of events (e.g., films; Kurby & Zacks, 2008;Radvansky & Copeland, 2006;Richmond & Zacks, 2017; J. M. Zacks et al., 2006), and displays of emotion (Barrett, 2017;Gendron & Barrett, 2018). Perhaps of greatest importance, however, is understanding the rates and order in which we encode specific and gist representations of a core feature of episodic memories-the associative binding of multiple components of an episode (Tulving, 1983;Underwood, 1969;Zimmer et al., 2006), such as a person and the location where one encountered that person (e.g., Gruppuso et al., 2007). This associative binding is critical for successful memory. ...
... Here, we aimed to characterize how rapidly young and older adults can encode specific and gist representations of the associations between components of an episode that are core to episodic memory (Tulving, 1983;Underwood, 1969;Zimmer et al., 2006). To do so, we employed a modified variant of the associative specificity task of Greene and Naveh-Benjamin (2020), in which participants studied face-scene pairs (e.g., an old man paired with a park), simulating remembering people in different locations (e.g., Gruppuso et al., 2007), and later completed conjoint associative recognition tests (cf., Brainerd et al., 1999;Stahl & Klauer, 2008). ...
... Regarding the former, our results build on previous studies of item memory with young adults, studying words (e.g., Draine & Greenwald, 1998) or pictures of scenes (Ahmad et al., 2017;Melcher, 2006;Tatler et al., 2003), by showing that young and older adults encode gist representations of episodic associations (specifically those between faces and scenes) more rapidly than specific representations of those associations. These results extend support for fuzzy-trace theory (Brainerd & Reyna, 1990 to explaining the rate and order of encoding specific and gist representations of a core feature of episodic memory-the associative binding of multiple components of an episode (Tulving, 1983;Underwood, 1969;Zimmer et al., 2006)-among young adults (cf., Greene & Naveh-Benjamin, 2023e) and older adults alike. Regarding the second major finding, slower speed of processing of specific details during encoding may partially explain age-related declines in the representational specificity of episodic memories (Greene & Naveh-Benjamin, 2023a;cf., Salthouse, 1996). ...
How rapidly can we encode the specifics versus the gist of episodic memories? Competing theories have opposing answers, but empirical tests are based primarily on tasks of item memory. Few studies have addressed this question with tasks measuring the binding of event components (e.g., a person and a location), which forms the core of episodic memory. None of these prior studies included older adults, whose episodic memories are less specific in nature. We addressed this critical gap by presenting face–scene pairs (e.g., an old man with a park) at various encoding presentation rates to 80 young (M = 21.83 years) and 86 older (M = 68.62 years) adults. Participants completed associative recognition tests featuring old/intact (e.g., the old man with the same park), similar (e.g., the old man with a different park), and unrelated (e.g., the old man with a kitchen) pairs. Multinomial-processing-tree model analyses revealed that young and older adults encoded each pair’s gist representation more rapidly than its specific representation, supporting fuzzy-trace theory. No age-related differences in gist representations were obtained at any presentation rate, but older adults required more time to encode specific representations commensurate with those of younger adults. However, older adults’ abilities to retrieve these representations were cue-dependent, as they were more susceptible than younger adults to experiencing vivid false memories of similar lures. These phantom recollections were remediated with further increases in encoding time. Thus, slower speed of encoding partially underlies age-related declines in episodic memory specificity, but retrieval mechanisms also play a role.
... Engaging the retrieval state (Tulving, 1983) impacts processing and behavior (Long & Kuhl, 2019Smith, Moore, & Long, 2022), but the extent to which top-down factors -explicit instructions and goals -vs. bottom-up factors -stimulus properties such as repetition and similarity -jointly or independently induce the retrieval state is unclear. ...
... Despite evidence that a tonically maintained retrieval state (or mode; Tulving, 1983) impacts behavior (Long & Kuhl, 2019), the factors that govern how the retrieval state is engaged are unclear. Although considered a goal-driven, intentional state (Rugg & Wilding, 2000), the retrieval state may also be induced automatically (Duncan, Sadanand, & Davachi, 2012;Smith et al., 2022). ...
... Similarly, we find that retrieval state evidence is greater when participants make low compared to high confidence hits when directed to recognize old items (E1). These findings are consistent with the conceptualization of the retrieval mode as an intentional state that is a precursor to, but separate from, retrieval success (Tulving, 1983). The notion is that one must enter a retrieval state in order to interpret a stimulus as a retrieval cue (Rugg & Wilding, 2000). ...
Engaging the retrieval state (Tulving, 1983) impacts processing and behavior (Long & Kuhl, 2019, 2021; Smith, Moore, & Long, 2022), but the extent to which top-down factors – explicit instructions and goals – vs. bottom-up factors – stimulus properties such as repetition and similarity – jointly or independently induce the retrieval state is unclear. Identifying the impact of bottom-up and top-down factors on retrieval state engagement is critical for understanding how control of task-relevant vs. task-irrelevant brain states influence cognition. We conducted between-subjects recognition memory tasks on male and female human participants in which we varied test phase goals. We recorded scalp electroencephalography and used an independently validated mnemonic state classifier (Long, 2023) to measure retrieval state engagement as a function of top-down task goals (recognize old vs. detect new items) and bottom-up stimulus repetition (hits vs. correct rejections). We find that whereas the retrieval state is engaged for hits regardless of top-down goals, the retrieval state is only engaged during correct rejections when the top-down goal is to recognize old items. Furthermore, retrieval state engagement is greater for low compared to high confidence hits when the task goal is to recognize old items. Together, these results suggest that top-down demands to recognize old items induce the retrieval state independent from bottom-up factors, potentially reflecting the recruitment of internal attention to enable access of a stored representation.
Significance Statement
Both top-down goals and automatic bottom-up influences may lead us into a retrieval brain state – a whole-brain pattern of activity that supports our ability to remember the past. Here we tested the extent to which top-down vs. bottom-up factors independently influence the retrieval state by manipulating participants’ goals and stimulus repetition during a memory test. We find that in response to the top-down goal to recognize old items, the retrieval state is engaged for both old and new probes, suggesting that top-down and bottom-up factors independently engage the retrieval state. Our interpretation is that top-down demands recruit internal attention in service of the attempt to access a stored representation.
... Over time, various memory models, influenced by different analogies and metaphors, have guided empirical research in the field of memory. Spatial models were prominent in memory research for much of the twentieth century (Roediger, 1980;Draaisma, 2000), until around 1980 when a new metaphor emerged: the mental time travel metaphor (MTT) (Tulving, 1983(Tulving, , 1985Corballis, 1997, 2007;Gardiner, 2001;Tulving, 2002a,b;Tulving, 2005). On the one hand, the conceptualization of memory as a MTT capacity shifted the focus from the spatial nature of memory to its temporal dimension (see Trakas, 2022 for more details). ...
... MTT is fundamentally derived from the concept of TT, which not only predates the idea of MTT and is more familiar to us but has also been the subject of extensive scholarly discourse. MTT, in essence, posits a linkage between TT and memory, suggesting that memory can be regarded as a form of TT that occurs 1 While an explicit reference to mental time travel is only found in Tulving (1985), the idea that memory involves mentally traveling back in time is already mentioned in his earlier work, Elements of Episodic Memory (Tulving, 1983): ...
... Given the importance that this metaphor has acquired in the last years, particularly regarding theories that blur or do not clearly differentiate between imagination and memory (Michaelian, 2016;Addis, 2018Addis, , 2020, it becomes imperative to carefully examine what it really means to conceive memory as a form of mental time travel to the past. Secondly, the metaphor of MTT was originally introduced in the field of memory research for the purpose of understanding memory (Tulving, 1983(Tulving, , 1985; for more details, see Trakas, 2022). Restricting the scope of our analysis to past-focused MTT enables us to grasp-and potentially assess-the metaphor within the context of its primary intention: explaining the workings of memory. ...
Spatial models dominated memory research throughout much of the twentieth century, but in recent decades, the concept of memory as a form of mental time travel (MTT) to the past has gained prominence. Initially introduced as a metaphor, the MTT perspective shifted the focus from internal memory processes to the subjective conscious experience of remembering. Despite its significant impact on empirical and theoretical memory research, there has been limited discussion regarding the meaning and adequacy of the MTT metaphor in accounting for memory. While in previous work I have addressed the general limitations of the MTT metaphor in explaining memory, the objective of this article is more focused and modest: to gain a better understanding of what constitutes MTT to the past. To achieve this objective, a detailed analysis of the characteristics of MTT to the past is presented through a comparison with time travel (TT) to the past. Although acknowledging that TT does not refer to an existing physical phenomenon, it is an older concept extensively discussed in the philosophical literature and provides commonly accepted grounds, particularly within orthodox theories of time, that can offer insights into the nature of MTT. Six specific characteristics serve as points of comparison: (1) a destination distinct from the present, (2) the distinction between subjective time and objective time, (3) the subjective experience of the time traveler, (4) their differentiation from the past self, (5) the existence of the past, and (6) its unchangeability. Through this research, a detailed exploration of the phenomenal and metaphysical aspects of MTT to the past is undertaken, shedding light on the distinct features that mental time travel to the past acquires when it occurs within the realm of the mind rather than as a physical phenomenon. By examining these characteristics, a deeper understanding of the nature of mental time travel is achieved, offering insights into how it operates in relation to memory and the past.
... A recent study verified the earlier explored [49] parvalbumin (PV)-expressing GABAergic neurons as pacemakers of TR. In addition, the medial septal (MS) glutamatergic neurons were identified as tonic theta ON type [50]. Correspondingly, these MS glutamatergic neurons increase the excitation during the hippocampal theta state from the onset but do not follow TR; rather, there is a tonic drive to pacemakers in order to induce theta [50]. ...
... In addition, the medial septal (MS) glutamatergic neurons were identified as tonic theta ON type [50]. Correspondingly, these MS glutamatergic neurons increase the excitation during the hippocampal theta state from the onset but do not follow TR; rather, there is a tonic drive to pacemakers in order to induce theta [50]. Furthermore, this study also confirmed that MS pacemaker neurons follow Huygens synchronization [50]. ...
... Correspondingly, these MS glutamatergic neurons increase the excitation during the hippocampal theta state from the onset but do not follow TR; rather, there is a tonic drive to pacemakers in order to induce theta [50]. Furthermore, this study also confirmed that MS pacemaker neurons follow Huygens synchronization [50]. Accordingly, MS VGLUT2 expressing glutamatergic neurons at 20 Hz frequency, which is higher than theta range, were capable of inducing theta oscillation, and these results could substantiate how these types of neurons could induce TR turn-ON in a locomotion-dependent manner [50]. ...
This opinion manuscript outlines how the hippocampal theta rhythm could receive two novel peripheral inputs. One of the ways this could be achieved is through Piezo2 channels and atypical hippocampal-like metabotropic glutamate receptors coupled to phospholipase D containing proprioceptive primary afferent terminals. Accordingly, activated proprioceptive terminal Piezo2 on Type Ia fibers synchronizes to the theta rhythm with the help of hippocampal Piezo2 and medial septal glutamatergic neurons. Second, after baroreceptor Piezo2 is entrained to activated proprioceptive Piezo2, it could turn on the Cav1.3 channels, which pace the heart rhythm and regulate pacemaker cells during cardiac sympathetic activation. This would allow the Cav1.3 channels to synchronize to theta rhythm pacemaker hippocampal parvalbumin-expressing GABAergic neurons. This novel Piezo2-initiated proton–proton frequency coupling through VGLUT2 may provide the ultrafast long-range signaling pathway for the proposed Piezo2 synchronization of the low-frequency glutamatergic cell surface membrane oscillations in order to provide peripheral spatial and speed inputs to the space and speed coding of the hippocampal theta rhythm, supporting locomotion, learning and memory. Moreover, it provides an ultrafast signaling for postural and orthostatic control. Finally, suggestions are made as to how Piezo2 channelopathy could impair this ultrafast communication in many conditions and diseases with not entirely known etiology, leading to impaired proprioception and/or autonomic disbalance.
... The ability to journey through one's own subjective time, traveling backwards to remembered events as well as forwards to possible future events, is referred to as mental time travel. When looking backwards and consciously reconstructing personally experienced events, we engage in the form of memory known as episodic memory [1][2][3]. As such, recalling the past is often differentiated between 'knowing' vs 'remembering' [1], with episodic memory representing the latter. ...
... In contrast, semantic memory concerns the recall of factual information with no associated conscious experience, and so can be thought of as simply 'knowing'. Together, episodic memory and semantic memory make up the declarative, or explicit, memory system which concerns the encoding and storage of long-term memories that can be actively accessed [1,2]. As the major distinction between semantic and episodic memory is that episodic memory involves a conscious experience during recall, its characteristic phenomenology is intrinsic within its definition [3][4][5]. ...
Episodic memory describes the conscious reimagining of our memories and is often considered to be a uniquely human ability. As these phenomenological components are embedded within its definition, major issues arise when investigating the presence of episodic memory in non-human animals. Importantly, however, when we as humans recall a specific experience, we may remember details from that experience that were inconsequential to our needs, thoughts, or desires at that time. This ‘incidental’ information is nevertheless encoded automatically as part of the memory and is subsequently recalled within a holistic representation of the event. The incidental encoding and unexpected question paradigm represents this characteristic feature of human episodic memory and can be employed to investigate memory recall in non-human animals. However, without evidence for the associated phenomenology during recall, this type of memory is termed ‘episodic-like memory’. Using this approach, we tested seven Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius) on their ability to use incidental visual information (associated with observed experimenter made ‘caches’) to solve an unexpected memory test. The birds performed above chance levels, suggesting that Eurasian jays can encode, retain, recall, and access incidental visual information within a remembered event, which is an ability indicative of episodic memory in humans.
... In the present study, we concentrate on three key components of the memory-metamemory relation that previously have not been considered together. The components are: (a) metamemory for information held in working memory (WM), the temporary store of information useful for ongoing cognitive operations ; (b) metamemory for information held in episodic long-term memory (LTM), memories for past events occurring in specific times and places (Tulving, 1983); and (c) lifespan changes, from young childhood (beginning at age 6) to older adulthood (age 65-80), in metamemory for both WM and LTM. We provide a synthesis across these content areas, using recent advances (Mickes, 2015;cf., Fleming & Lau, 2014) in estimating the relation between individuals' observed memory performance and their subjective retrospective confidence in their memory decisions (i.e., the confidence-accuracy relation), applied to lifespan data (Forsberg, Guitard, Adams, et al., 2022;Forsberg, Guitard, Greene, et al., 2022) from a novel procedure (Forsberg, Guitard, & Cowan, 2021) that provides independent tests of WM and LTM in a shared paradigm. ...
... Among older adults, these high-confidence LTM errors are characterized by overconfidence in erroneous recognition responses to new, unstudied information, particularly on tests of episodic rather than semantic content (i.e., tests requiring the retrieval of a specific prior episode; Dodson, 2017;Dodson et al., 2007;. Because the LTM tests of the present study pertain to episodic memories (i.e., remembering specific items encountered in a specific time and place; Tulving, 1983), we hypothesized that older adults would be more prone to highconfidence LTM recognition errors than younger adults. A similar tendency toward high-confidence LTM errors may also be found among young children in the present study, particularly those aged 7 and younger (e.g., Winsor et al., 2021) but potentially also for children up to age 10 (e.g., Brewer & Day, 2005;Howie & Roebers, 2007). ...
The relation between an individual’s memory accuracy and reported confidence in their memories can indicate self-awareness of memory strengths and weaknesses. We provide a lifespan perspective on this confidence–accuracy relation, based on two previously published experiments with 320 participants, including children aged 6–13, young adults aged 18–27, and older adults aged 65–77, across tests of working memory (WM) and long-term memory (LTM). Participants studied visual items in arrays of varying set sizes and completed item recognition tests featuring 6-point confidence ratings either immediately after studying each array (WM tests) or following a long period of study events (LTM tests). Confidence–accuracy characteristic analyses showed that accuracy improved with increasing confidence for all age groups and in both WM and LTM tests. These findings reflect a universal ability across the lifespan to use awareness of the strengths and limitations of one’s memories to adjust reported confidence. Despite this age invariance in the confidence–accuracy relation, however, young children were more prone to high-confidence memory errors than other groups in tests of WM, whereas older adults were more susceptible to high-confidence false alarms in tests of LTM. Thus, although participants of all ages can assess when their memories are weaker or stronger, individuals with generally weaker memories are less adept at this confidence–accuracy calibration. Findings also speak to potential different sources of high-confidence memory errors for young children and older adults, relative to young adults.
... Our ability to consciously remember details about our past, including specific details about what, when, and where events occurred, is defined as episodic memory (Tulving, 1983). Research shows that even infants have a remarkable capacity to form and retain memories (Hayne, 2004), but there is a long developmental period of substantial improvements throughout childhood and adolescence. ...
... In contrast to semantic memory, which contains knowledge that is independent of when it was learned, Soar's episodic memory (Nuxoll & Laird, 2012;Derbinsky et al., 2012;Jones & Laird, 2019) contains memories of what has been experienced over time (Tulving, 1983). An episode is a snapshot of the structures in the topstate. ...
This is an updated introduction to the Soar cognitive architecture.
... However, I will also use a particular device to bring out the potential significance of the status of the Temporal Reasoning Condition. As I will argue, one specific way of approaching questions about the status of the Temporal Reasoning Condition is by asking whether nonhuman animals (henceforth I will typically simply refer to 'animals'; dogs in particu-2 The term 'episodic memory', as it is being used in the contemporary literature in both psychology and philosophy, was coined by Tulving (1972Tulving ( , 1983. For relevant work in philosophy, see Hoerl (2001), Martin (2001), Soteriou (2008), Michaelian (2016), Fernández (2019). ...
What is required for an individual to entertain a singular thought about an object they have encountered before but that is currently no longer within their perceptual range? More specifically, does the individual have to think about the object as having been encountered in the past? I consider this question against the background of the assumption that non-human animals are cognitively ‘stuck in the present’. Does this mean that, for them, ‘out of sight is out of mind’, as, e.g., Schopenhauer seems to have thought? I suggest an alternative answer, also drawing on some empirical work on animal cognition.
... Using memory means we have reached S3. One has to reverse engineer to understand S2 and S1, which means reconceiving classic delineations of memory systems (Nadel & Hardt, 2011;Sherry & Schacter, 1987;Tulving, 1983). A reorientation is as follows: In development, the NS aligns to spatiotemporal regularities of its encounter to maximize energy and resources. ...
Overview: The basic ideas presented here are: 1.that cognition is continuous with navigation (which means navigation itself can be understood as pre-reflective cognition); 2. that taking this seriously changes our understanding of landscape in ways that require non-binary vocabularies (i.e. using terms like 'mental' and 'physical' as dichotomies is no longer a productive strategy); and 3. the orientation and methods of cognitive neuroscience could be optimised by an ecological approach which looks at scales of complexity rather than stimulus-response and metricizes the experiment itself so it becomes part of the data and analysis.
... Episodic memory stores autobiographical events of personal experiences, including information about the content of an experience, its temporal context, and spatial context, and in daily life, it is mostly acquired incidentally, that is, without a voluntary effort to store it 1,2 . Episodic memory declines with aging; the main difficulties arise when establishing relationships between information, when dealing with visuospatial information, and when encoding incidentally 3,4 . ...
... Theoretical neuroscientists like Endel Tulving have attempted to understand consciousness through the perspective of conscious self-awareness and memory. For example, Tulving (1983) describes his theoretical position of self-knowing as autonoetic consciousness. Tulving defines this awareness of episodic events as a veridical part of one's own past existence. ...
This chapter is intended to provide an overview of considerations
for what may be regarded as a translational science of self and its
relevance to psychiatry. Conceptual issues are discussed from both
historical and theoretical perspectives to inform our current understanding
of the self. Evolutionary, neurobiologic, and clinical perspectives
inform the phenomenology and function supporting the act
of being a self in the world. A single paradigm for research on “self”
does not exist, as it is not necessarily a unitary phenomenon. Diverse
disciplines inform the study of the individual (qua self) and its varied
representations and relevance uniquely. However, conceptual convergence
in this scientific enterprise addressing self “issues” continues
to emerge along with signs of where a more advanced program for a
science of self may be heading. Implications for a critical interdisciplinary
analysis of self on the field of psychiatry and into the nature
of consciousness are provided.
... maximalist) approach to semantics and promoting the encoding of encyclopedic knowledge. According to the cognitivist perspective, the definition of lexical meaning requires a reference to our mental representations of concepts and to the encyclopedic knowledge they embody (Fauconnier 1997;Tulving 1983). Encyclopedic meaning arises in context(s) of use: the "selection" of actual situational meaning is informed and maybe even determined by contextual factors (Kecskes 2012;Evans 2006). ...
... Episodic memory is the conscious recollection of specific personal experiences in particular places and times, such as a conversation with a boss at work or a vacation with friends in Las Vegas. Episodic memory system enables us to mentally travel back in time to revisit and relive past experiences (Tulving, 1983). Episodic memory is often contrasted with semantic memory, which is knowledge about the world, such as the fact that there are many casinos in Las Vegas. ...
Episodic memory gives us the ability to mentally travel back in time to revisit and relive past experiences. In recent years, there has been an increased interest in the function of episodic memory. According to the orthodox view, episodic memory should be considered a part of a constructive system that simulates the future for sophisticated foresight and flexible planning. In this paper, I offer a novel alternative view. I argue that episodic memory provides invaluable information about the past behavior of others, allowing us to identify reliable and trustworthy partners while avoiding dealing with cheaters. Theoretical models demonstrate that cooperation in groups can be maintained if potential partners use information about an individual’s past behavior to guide their behavior toward that individual. In these reputation-based models of human cooperation, individuals with a history of cheating are ostracized, whereas those with a history of cooperative behavior flourish. Against this theoretical background, it is possible to see a function of episodic memory in facilitating information exchange about others, helping group members make effective partner choices, and avoiding the risk of interacting with cheaters. If correct, episodic memory may have played a significant role in the evolution of human cooperation.
... Keywords Diseased older adults, Episodic memory, Executive functions, Healthy older adults, Three-level metaanalysis, Exercise Episodic memory is a key cognitive process that allows us to represent past experiences and employ these representations to serve current and future goals [29,30]. It is one of the earliest memory systems that decline with increasing aging. ...
Background
Executive functions (EFs) and episodic memory are fundamental components of cognition that deteriorate with age and are crucial for independent living. While numerous reviews have explored the effect of exercise on these components in old age, these reviews screened and analyzed selected older adult populations, or specific exercise modes, thus providing only limited answers to the fundamental question on the effect of exercise on cognition in old age. This article describes the protocol for a systematic review and multilevel meta-analytic study aiming at evaluating the effectiveness of different types of chronic exercise in improving and/or maintaining EFs and long-term episodic memory in older adults.
Methods and analysis
The study protocol was written in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Several databases will be searched. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) conducted in older adults aged ≥ 60 years providing any kind of planned, structured, and repetitive exercise interventions, and EFs and/or episodic memory measures as outcomes, published in English in peer-reviewed journals and doctoral dissertations will be included. Two independent reviewers will screen the selected articles, while a third reviewer will resolve possible conflicts. The Cochrane risk-of-bias tool will be used to assess the quality of the studies. Finally, data will be extracted from the selected articles, and the formal method of combining individual data from the selected studies will be applied using a random effect multilevel meta-analysis. The data analysis will be conducted with the metafor package in R.
Discussion and conclusion
This review will synthesize the existing evidence and pinpoint gaps existing in the literature on the effects of exercise on EFs and episodic memory in healthy and unhealthy older adults. Findings from this meta-analysis will help to design effective exercise interventions for older adults to improve and/or maintain EFs and episodic memory. Its results will be useful for many researchers and professionals working with older adults and their families.
Systematic review registration
PROSPERO CRD42022367111.
... Human episodic memory involves the encoding of multiple events into narrative sequences, minimally including the identity and location of items and the order in which they appeared (i.e., 'what' , 'where' , and 'when' information) (Tulving, 1972(Tulving, , 1983Staniloiu et al., 2020). The requisite encoding occurs routinely as part of daily life without repetition or explicit rewards, such as a first time walk across a park (Dede et al., 2016); these features distinguish episodic memory from trial and error learning. ...
Context contributes to multiple aspects of human episodic memory including segmentation and retrieval. The present studies tested if, in adult male and female mice, context influences the encoding of odors encountered in a single unsupervised sampling session of the type used for the routine acquisition of episodic memories. The three paradigms used differed in complexity (single vs. multiple odor cues) and period from sampling to testing. Results show that males consistently encode odors in a context-dependent manner: the mice discriminated novel from previously sampled cues when tested in the chamber of initial cue sampling but not in a distinct yet familiar chamber. This was independent of the interval between cue encounters or the latency from initial sampling to testing. In contrast, female mice acquired both single cues and the elements of multi-cue episodes, but recall of that information was dependent upon the surrounding context only when the cues were presented serially. These results extend the list of episodic memory features expressed by rodents and also introduce a striking and unexpected sex difference in context effects.
... Numerosos estudios (e.g.Memon, et al., 2010;Satin y Fisher, 2019;Vallano, Evans, Schreiber y Kieckhaefer, 2015) han confirmado que la EC es un instrumento fiable y efectivo. Esta ventaja surge de que, a diferencia de lo que sucede en entrevistas estructuradas o de tipo interrogatorio, en la EC el entrevistador no guía el relato por medio de preguntas, sino que es el entrevistado quien tiene el rol principal y narra todo lo que recuerda, adaptándose mejor a los canales de recuperación de memoria del entrevistado(Arce y Fariña, 2012;Tulving, 1983;Tulving y Thomson, 1973).Sin embargo, especialmente cuando se evalúa a NNA, es necesario resaltar la obligación de proteger a la víctima de posibles daños provocados por su participación en el proceso legal, es decir, de sufrir victimización secundaria. En este sentido, debe tenerse en cuenta que las víctimas de acoso escolar han sufrido estos episodios en un importante contexto de socialización, el ámbito escolar, al cual deberán regresar una vez terminado el proceso judicial, por lo que el testimonio va a generar un elevado grado de estrés y ansiedad. ...
El acoso escolar o school bullying se ha identificado en las últimas décadas como un problema de gran magni-tud y en crecimiento que amenaza directamente la salud y el bienestar de los Niños, Niñas y Adolescentes (NNA). Esto ha llevado a los organismos nacionales e internacionales a establecer como objetivo prioritario su erradicación, tal y como propone la UNESCO (2019) y la Ley Orgánica N° 8/2021, en España, que incluye acoso escolar y ciberacoso en el objeto de la ley e indica la necesidad de que las administraciones educativas regu-len protocolos de actuación. En consecuencia, surge la necesidad de desarrollar técnicas válidas y fiables para facilitar la respuesta judicial en acoso escolar. En línea con la Justicia terapéutica, estas herramientas deben proteger a NNA, minimizar la posibilidad de victimización secundaria y promover su bienestar durante el proceso judicial. Por ello, planteamos el siguiente trabajo, en el que se describe el procedimiento para la obtención de la declaración de las víctimas de acoso escolar durante el proceso, especialmente en la evalua-ción forense. En base a la evidencia, se concluye que la técnica más eficaz para tal fin es la Entrevista Cogniti-va (Fisher y Geiselman, 1992), la cual, aplicada con orientación de Justicia Terapéutica, promueve el bienes-tar de NNA y les protege de ser victimizados durante el proceso. Se concluye acerca de las implicaciones del trabajo para las víctimas y los profesionales del proceso judicial.
... The etic and emic dynamic influences all stages of the question-answer process. The meanings assigned by respondents to words and concepts are deeply rooted in culture, as is the process of retrieving information, which is tied to specific events, locations or individuals (episodic memory) (Tulving 1983). This also applies to selecting and prioritising information during the judgemental stage, particularly when choices involve contrasting data. ...
Background: Despite the widespread recognition among authors and international agencies of the significance, essential nature, and rightful entitlement of children to directly voice their thoughts, research with young students is not as frequently undertaken as one might expect, particularly in the context of evaluating teachers’ performance. Interestingly, though, when researchers and evaluators have engaged young students in data collection, they have overlooked the use of questionnaires and rather favoured more qualitative and participatory data collection tools or closed-questions surveys. Objectives: In order to fill this gap, this article intends to make a case for a wider use of mixed quantitative and qualitative questionnaires with young students as a reliable tool to monitor teachers’ performance more systematically. Method: In particular, the article illustrates how to design and administer questionnaires to primary school students using a framework developed with contributions from four main sources: Gendall’s revisitation of Labaw’s theory of questionnaire design, the question answer process, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development stages, and lessons learnt from a questionnaire designed and administered by the author among Tanzanian primary school students. Results: This approach not only ensures that students respond thoughtfully and reach consensus through debating, but also provides deeper insights into the specific cognitive and emotional criteria valued by students. Conclusion: The article shows that the employment of questionnaires with young students is likely to yield valid and reliable data when three conditions are met: (1) questions are tailored to the respondents’ cognitive skills and cultural background; (2) questions cover content that is meaningful to the respondents; and (3) questionnaires are administered in settings in which respondents can freely interact with each other. Contribution: By establishing that the validity and reliability of data from questionnaires with young students hinge on considerations of cognitive skills, cultural background, meaningful content, and interactive administration, this article sets a foundation for enhancing the effectiveness of teacher evaluation methods in educational settings.
... Importantly this insight had a direct impact on memory, with better memory for linked relative to non-linked events. This memory boost for linked events aligns with previous findings (Cohn-Sheehy et al., 2021b;Grob et al., 2023a;Grob et al., 2023b;Wang et al., 2015) and supports the notion that the brain stores episodic memories as coherent narratives (Tulving, 1983), for which any element can cue the entire episode (Horner et al., 2015;Nakazawa et al., 2002). Crucially, while cTBS to the angular gyrus had no effect on basic insight, cTBS to the angular gyrus prior to gaining insight into the relationship of previously separate events specifically reduced this memory boost for linked events, particularly when electric field stimulation of the angular gyrus was strong. ...
Maintaining an accurate model of the world relies on our ability to update memory representations in light of new information. Previous research on the integration of new information into memory mainly focused on the hippocampus. Here, we hypothesized that the angular gyrus, known to be involved in episodic memory and imagination, plays a pivotal role in the insight-driven reconfiguration of memory representations. To test this hypothesis, participants received continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) over the left angular gyrus or sham stimulation before gaining insight into the relationship between previously separate life-like animated events in a narrative-insight task. During this task, participants also underwent EEG recording and their memory for linked and non-linked events was assessed shortly thereafter. Our results show that cTBS to the angular gyrus decreased memory for the linking events and reduced the memory advantage for linked relative to non-linked events. At the neural level, cTBS targeting the angular gyrus reduced centro-temporal coupling with frontal regions and abolished insight-induced neural representational changes for events linked via imagination, indicating impaired memory reconfiguration. Further, the cTBS group showed representational changes for non-linked events that resembled the patterns observed in the sham group for the linked events, suggesting failed pruning of the narrative in memory. Together, our findings demonstrate a causal role of the left angular gyrus in insight-related memory reconfigurations.
... The MD system can consist of both information regarding general knowledge about the world and information about specific episodes (BUENO; OLIVEIRA, 2004). This way, DM can further be divided into Semantic Memory (SM), which represents a person's knowledge about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings, as well as their rules and algorithms, thus constituting an organized knowledge of life in general and Episodic Memory (EM) (contextual recall of an experienced event, that is, where, how and when) (SQUIRE, 2004;TULVING, 1983). ...
... Such a finding led several researchers to distinguish explicitlike and implicit-like tasks (e.g., Eichenbaum, 1997), in order to suggest a similarity between animal and human findings. However, this position is still controversial for many cognitive psychologists, who traditionally have considered that explicit and/or autobiographical memory applies only in humans (e.g., Tulving, 1983;Davachi and Dobbins, 2008). ...
Proust was undoubtedly a pioneer in exploring cognitive processes engaged in memory. The analysis of the episode of the madeleine, as well as the study of Proust’s statements on the goals of his work, clearly reveal the visionary side of this author. Long before several concepts entered into mainstream scientific thought, Proust proposed, among other things, that recall was a reconstruction, that a sensory cue could provoke a memory recall, and that we should distinguish between voluntary and involuntary memory. Through numerous episodes of “involuntary reminiscence” scattered throughout his work, Proust illustrates a particular form of autobiographic memory recall: a recall that does not involve consciousness and whose starting point is an emotion provoked by a specific cue. This recall, which leads, according to Proust, to a more intense revival of the memory than voluntary recall, has only reached prominence in cognitive science more than 80 years later. Additionaly, Proust underlined the determinant role that emotion may have in this particular form of recall. On the other hand, studies on animals have shown that the presentation of a retrieval cue could induce emotional reactions followed by a facilitation of the memory retrieval associated with the cue. The existence of these data, which support Proust’s proposals, should encourage the neuroscience community to further explore, in humans and animals, this form of cue elicited emotion that initiated involuntary recall of autobiographical memory.
... Situationally induced social needs also exist; this section focuses on the situationally activated social needs by episodic recall, in a process known as priming. Generally, priming is understood as the facilitative effects of certain stimuli, events, or actions on subsequent associated responses (e.g., Molden & Dweck, 2006;Tulving, 1983). The methodological rationale for using priming effects is that such stimuli, events, or actions can activate people's stored knowledge, which shapes their behaviors and responses in a consistent manner (Higgins, 1996;Higgins & Eitam, 2014). ...
2024). "How do consumers make behavioral decisions on social commerce platforms? The interaction effect between behavior visibility and social needs" Information Systems Journal (ISJ) (Abstract The online phenomenon of social commerce (i.e., s-commerce) platforms has emerged as a combination of online social networking and e-commerce. On s-commerce platforms, consumers can observe others' behavioral decisions and can distinguish those made by their friends from those made by their followees (i.e., the people a focal consumer follows but who do not follow that consumer back). Given this distinction, our study examines how consumers' behavioral decisions-regarding, for example, purchases, ratings, or "likes"-are made on s-commerce platforms, with a focus on how they are influenced by prior decisions of friends and followees. Combining panel data from a large s-commerce platform and two controlled experiments, we identify a strong normative social influence pattern in which consumers tend to follow others' prior decisions to gain social approval. Because the occurrence of normative social influence depends on both consumer behaviors with high public visibility and strong consumer needs to establish social ties, the unique information concerning behavior visibility and consumers' social needs in the panel data allows us to identify normative social influence and to distinguish it from informational confounding mechanisms. Our panel data results show that on a friend network, where consumers' behavioral decisions are visible, females exhibit a greater tendency to follow others' prior decisions than males. We attribute this result to the stronger social needs of females. However, on a followee network, where behavioral decisions are invisible, these differences become less evident. Moreover, the two experiments demonstrate that making decision contexts private or activating social needs via a priming procedure can thwart (or even turn off) normative social influence. Our findings challenge prior research that identifies informational social influence as the predominant driver of conformity behaviors and thus have important implications for practice related to normative social influence, such as the development of techniques for satisfying consumers' different social needs depending on their gender or any other situational factors on s-commerce platforms.
... To remember the person to whom we said something, we rely on destination memory, a type of episodic memory recollected in the context of a particular time and place concerning oneself as a participant in the event (Tulving, 1983). The opposite processthe capacity to remember which person shared information with ushas been called source memory (Johnson et al., 1993). ...
... The supporting Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org theoretical framework is based on Tulving's encoding specificity principle (Tulving, 1983), which suggests that if a stimulus results in the retrieval of a learned item, it is assumed that it has been encoded, whereas if no retrieval occurs, it is assumed that it has not. Typically, verbal episodic memory tests with word lists assess learning ability, free recall memory after a certain time and finally recognition trials. ...
Introduction
Memory deficit is one of the most common and severe cognitive impairments in patients with multiple sclerosis and can greatly affect their quality of life. However, there is currently no agreement as to the nature of memory deficit in multiple sclerosis.
Methods
This cross-sectional study, carried out at the Dr. Josep Trueta and Santa Caterina hospitals in Girona (Spain), was designed to determine the semiology of verbal memory deficit in the different stages of the disease. To this end, a modification of Rey’s verbal auditory test was created by introducing two recognition trials between the five learning trials, thus monitoring what happens in terms of acquisition versus the retrieval of information during the learning phase. Linear regression models were used to evaluate verbal episodic memory performance between-groups adjusting results by age, sex, educational level, and the presence of anxiety and/or depressive symptoms.
Results
133 patients with multiple sclerosis, clinically isolated syndrome, and radiologically isolated syndrome and 55 healthy controls aged 18–65 years were assessed. It was observed that the memory processes of multiple sclerosis patients worsen with the progression of the disease. In this respect, patients in pre-diagnostic phases (radiologically isolated syndrome and clinically isolated syndrome) show no differences in verbal episodic memory compared to the healthy controls. Patients in the inflammatory stage (relapsing–remitting multiple sclerosis) show a previously learned information retrieval deficit, while patients in progressive stages (secondary progressive multiple sclerosis and primary progressive multiple sclerosis) do not even correctly acquire information.
Discussion
These results provide significant information to assist in understanding the nature of memory deficits in multiple sclerosis over the course of the disease. These results are discussed in terms of possible cognitive rehabilitation strategies depending on the evolutive stage and are related to neuropathological mechanisms involved in the progression of the disease.
... (1) just believing that the information provided by the partner is true or (2) the new information becomes part of episodic memory (as defined by Tulving, 1983). Believing that false information is true may also be related to source-monitoring errors; that is, the participant erroneously assumes that details mentioned by the partner were present in the original material (Oeberst and Seidemann, 2014). ...
Introduction
The memory conformity effect occurs when people witness a given incident and then talk to each other about it, and the statement of one person affects the memory account of another person with respect to that incident. The main objectives of this experiment were (1) to examine the effectiveness of a modified version of the MORI-v technique in inducing the memory conformity effect and (2) to investigate how the manner in which participants discuss the observed event influences the magnitude of this effect. In general, the modified online MORI-v technique consists of the following main elements: (1) original material, that is, two versions of a short film which are identical except for certain critical details; for example, in one version, a thief puts on a red cap, but in the other version it is black; (2) the collaborative recognition test, that is, a discussion about the original material which leads to mutual misinformation; and (3) an individual recognition test that checks the effect of the discussion on the memory account of the original material.
Methods
A total of 72 participants (36 pairs) aged 18–54 took part in the research. Participants were tested using the online MORI-v technique: They were familiarized with the original material on their computers at home, and then they talked about it via a video communication app and completed an individual recognition test on their computers. Importantly, the discussions were recorded and analyzed in detail after the experimental session.
Results and discussion
Using the online MORI-v technique, the effect of memory conformity was demonstrated, that is, in the individual recognition test, the proportion of correct answers to questions about discussed details (related to misinformation) was lower than the proportion of correct answers to questions about non-discussed details. It was also demonstrated that if one participant introduced misinformation during the discussion about a particular item and the other did not question it, the latter’s answer to that item during the individual recognition test was most often incorrect. However, if one participant introduced misinformation during the discussion about an item and the other questioned it, the latter’s answer about that item during the individual recognition test was most often correct.
... Warto również wspomnieć o funkcji pamięci znaczących dla jednostki żywych wspomnień określonych zdarzeń -te pojedyncze wydarzenia pomagają przewidywać kolejne w przyszłości, wpływają na nasze późniejsze zachowania, a nawet stanowią bazę doświadczeniową (Tulving, 1983). Większość badań dotyczących pamięci autobiograficznej pomija ich znaczenie. ...
The aim of the article is to present the concept and research on the development of autobiographical narrative in the course of a person’s life. Reference was made to basic concepts important for the analysis of the topic: the definition of narrative, constructionist assumptions, understanding the process of creating self-narrative and the definition of autobiographical narrative. The considerations also include the issue of autobiographical memory and the discussion on understanding autobiographical narrative as monolithic vs. polyphonic. The following subchapters discuss the predispositions and development of early narrative competences, the beginnings of constructing an autobiographical narrative, the mechanisms of shaping and changing the autobiographical narrative in adulthood, including the characteristic features of self-narratives in late adulthood. The review of research presented in the article documents the mechanisms of shaping the autobiographical narrative, the directions of its changes in the life course and selected relationships important for understanding the process of these changes (e.g. the issue of increasing the ability to reflect biographically with age, fulfilling the need for generativity, the effect of intentionally minimizing unpleasant feelings in senior age, the concept of gerotranscendence, etc.). The article ends with reflections on the importance of constructing an autobiographical narrative in the modern world, the availability of autobiographical reflection and its meaning-creating value.
... It has been considered that locomotion, running speed, and spatial location are all linked to TR [3], and the current novel proprioceptive Piezo2based synchronization into the turn-ON of TR would provide the peripheral input to these central hippocampal links. The coding of space and time dimensions of TR by these inputs are pivotal to serve episodic memory [51]; however, the exact mechanism of how TR serves memory function is not known [3]. ...
This opinion manuscript outlines how the hippocampal theta rhythm could receive two novel peripheral inputs. One of the ways this could be achieved is through Piezo2 channels and atypical hippocampal-like metabotropic glutamate receptors coupled to phospholipase D containing proprioceptive primary afferent terminals. Accordingly, activated proprioceptive terminal Piezo2 on Type Ia fibers synchronizes to the theta rhythm with the help of hippocampal Piezo2 and medial septal glutamatergic neurons. Second, after baroreceptor Piezo2 is entrained to activated proprioceptive Piezo2, it could turn on the Ca v 1.3 channels, which pace the heart rhythm and regulate pacemaker cells during cardiac sympathetic activation. This would allow the Ca v 1.3 channels to synchronize to theta rhythm pacemaker hippocampal parvalbumin-expressing GABAergic neurons. This novel Piezo2-initiated proton-proton frequency coupling through VGLUT2 may provide the ultrafast long-range signaling pathway for the proposed Piezo2 synchronization of the low-frequency glutamatergic cell surface membrane oscillations in order to provide peripheral spatial and speed inputs to the space and speed coding of the hippocampal theta rhythm, supporting locomotion, learning and memory. Moreover, it provides an ultrafast signaling for postural and orthostatic control. Finally, suggestions are made as to how Piezo2 channelopathy could impair this ultrafast communication in many conditions and diseases with not entirely known etiology, leading to impaired proprioception and/or autonomic disbalance.
... Episodic memory allows us to mentally travel in time and reexperience events tied to particular times and places 6 . However, these memories are not static and veridical replays of our past. ...
Episodic memory encompasses flexible processes that enable us to create and update knowledge by making novel inferences across overlapping but distinct events. Here we examined whether an ingroup source enhances the capacity to draw such inferences. In three studies with US-American samples ( N Study1 = 53 , N Study2 = 68, N Study3 = 68), we investigated the ability to make indirect associations, inferable from overlapping events, presented by ingroup or outgroup sources. Participants were better at making inferences based on events presented by ingroup compared to outgroup sources (Studies 1 and 3). When the sources did not form a team, the effect was not replicated (Study 2). Furthermore, we show that this ingroup advantage may be linked to differing source monitoring resources allocated to ingroup and outgroup sources. Altogether, our findings demonstrate that inferential processes are facilitated for ingroup information, potentially contributing to spreading biased information from ingroup sources into expanding knowledge networks, ultimately maintaining and strengthening polarized beliefs.
Traditional debates between semantic temporalists and eternalists appeal to the efficacy of temporal operators and the intuitive (in)validity of instances of temporal reasoning. In this paper, I argue that such debates are inconclusive at best and that under-explored arguments concerning perceptual experience, memory, and knowledge offer more productive means of advancing debates between temporalists and eternalists and rendering salient several significant potential costs and benefits of these views.
Previous studies found that episodic long-term memory (eLTM) enhances working memory (WM) performance when both novel and previously learnt word pairs must be retained on a short-term basis. However, there is uncertainty regarding how and when WM draws on eLTM. Three possibilities are (a) that people draw on eLTM only if WM capacity is exceeded; (b) that there is always a contribution of eLTM to WM performance, irrespective of whether prior knowledge is helpful or not; or (c) benefits of prior knowledge are specific to comparisons between conditions which are similarly ambiguous concerning whether LTM may be useful. We built on the assumption that under conditions of a contribution from LTM, these LTM traces of memoranda could benefit or hamper performance in WM tasks depending on the match between the traces stored in LTM and the ones to-be stored in WM in the current trial, yielding proactive facilitation (PF) and proactive interference (PI), respectively. Across four experiments, we familiarized participants with some items before they completed a separate WM task. In accordance with possibility (a) we show that there are indeed conditions in which only WM contributes to performance. Performance deteriorated with the addition of stimuli from eLTM when WM load was low, but not when it was high; and an exchange of information between LTM and WM occurred only when WM capacity was exceeded, with PI and PF effects affecting immediate memory performance in verbal and visual tasks only at higher set sizes.
本研究从记忆与遗忘的辩证关系出发，聚焦中国社交平台上的“数字死亡”，即个体用户的平台账号被关闭的现象。本文的经验材料包含131份网上发布的数字生命叙事和39份深度访谈，这些遭遇强制性删除后的个人书写和言说不仅将数字时代的记忆政治公之于众，也将其公共化。研究发现，封号作为事件侵入了个体的日常生活，带来了死亡般的沉痛和创伤，个体数字记忆被全面删除，（一部分）自我也被湮灭和剥离。诉诸书写是抵抗遗忘的方式，抗议平台加诸的越轨标签，被封号者的身份和主体性也在书写中得以重构和确认。从结果上看，通过删除制造遗忘的平台治理反而在社会实践中激发了积极的记忆铭刻，而删除给技术化的记忆结构所带来的长远影响则值得深思。
One interesting aspect of the imagery of episodic memory is the distinct visual perspectives that can be adopted when remembering the personal past. As Peggy St. Jacques (2024) notes, these distinct perspectives are typically associated with differences in phenomenological profile in episodic recall. We pick up on St. Jacques’ description of phenomenological differences between field and observer perspectives and outline new ways to think about how such differences might arise. Drawing on existing work in philosophy to highlight some of the different components that might contribute to the phenomenology of a mental state or process, we apply this to the case of observer memory. This approach may identify novel avenues of empirical research, which would help shed light on the differences in phenomenology reported in observer memory.
En la actualidad, uno de los retos que supone el consumo de series o películas provenientes de plataformas en línea es la traducción de palabras y expresiones de índole coloquial que aparecen en dicho contenido audiovisual, por lo que el tratamiento traductológico de estos elementos requiere de un alto grado de conocimiento de factores socioculturales en ambas lenguas de trabajo para lograr una traducción fiel y precisa en el encargo de traducción audiovisual. Acorde a PACTE (2018) estos conocimientos se encuentran implícitos en las subcompetencia lingüística (SL) y extralingüística (SE), y este conocimiento declarativo va de la mano del procedimental, que se manifiesta en la subcompetencia de transferencia, la traducción per se. El objetivo de esta investigación, de corte empírico-experimental, es analizar la correlación existente entre la SL y la SE, del modelo de Competencia Traductora de PACTE (2011), en el proceso de traducción de coloquialismos en textos audiovisuales en dos grupos de traductores con diferente formación traductológica. Dichos grupos están compuestos por 35 estudiantes de la Licenciatura en Traducción y 15 estudiantes de la Especialidad en Traducción e Interpretación, ambos programas de la Facultad de Idiomas – Campus Mexicali de la UABC. Para la medición de la SL en inglés, se solicitó resolver el examen Pre-TOEFL a ambas agrupaciones. Y en el caso de la SL en español, responder una adaptación del examen SIELE. Por otro lado, la medición de los conocimientos extralingüísticos fue posible gracias a la resolución del Examen de Habilidades y Conocimientos Básicos (EXHCOBA), cuyo propósito es medir el cúmulo de conocimientos que debe poseer un profesionista en cualquier área de profesionalización en México. Acto seguido, los grupos de estudio procedieron con un ejercicio de subtitulación, en el cual se solicita la traducción de diversos videoclips de temáticas variadas cuyo propósito es la traducción de diversas muestras del habla coloquial a nivel social, cultural y jergal en dirección directa e inversa. Por último, el Coeficiente de Pearson presenta una correlación significativa entre las SE, SL y de transferencia, con base en la triangulación de datos obtenidos por medio de los resultados de las pruebas mencionadas, confirmando la hipótesis que conduce este estudio “a mayor posesión de conocimientos extralingüísticos se obtienen mejores resultados en los encargos de traducción”. Además, el estudio propone la cognición situada y la adopción del paradigma socio-constructivista como metodologías en la enseñanza de la traducción audiovisual.
Despite advances in forensic sciences, there is a significant increase in the number of cases that remain unsolved—cold cases. Cold case investigations present numerous unique challenges above and beyond those of typical (i.e., timely) investigations. In cold cases, witness memory is likely to be weakened substantially due to the historical nature of the incident (e.g., the victim of historical sexual abuse) and subject to interference from different sources (e.g., conversations with others and previous interviews). Despite the numerous and challenging barriers present within cold case investigations, researchers have not systematically explored the barriers faced by cold case investigators or the best ways of obtaining detailed and accurate information from witnesses and victims of cold cases. Solving cold cases can prevent perpetrators from committing further crimes, help bring peace to the loved ones of deceased victims, and communicate to living victims that they are not forgotten. Our goal is to generate interest in a program of rigorous experimental and applied work in this neglected field. We also aim to provide preliminary resources and practical considerations for cold case investigators based on current best practices.
Peircean semiotics can improve our understanding of meaning-making in Episodic Memory (EM), also known as ‘autobiographical memory’. It has the potential to complement current hypotheses of EM’s phenomenology by shedding light on the cognitive role of interpretation on behalf of an interpreter, which is central to understanding episodic Mental Time Travel (MTT) beyond the classic computational terms of information processing. I make this case by examining subjective (lived) time in the work of Charles S. Peirce (1839–1914), father of Pragmaticism, and in the work of Endel Tulving (1927–2023), father of EM theory. As a result, I observe that both scientists emphasize that cognitive processes, different from unidirectional mechanical causation, are anticipatory and pragmatic. The first section sets the stage for the reader to understand the historical relevance of connecting Tulving with Peirce. With this aim, I briefly contextualize the psychological research of both scientists and highlight the overlap between their hypotheses. The second section applies Peirce’s concept of semiosis to Tulving’s views on MTT, chronesthesia, and autonoesis. The third section introduces Tulving’s famous triadic class-inclusion hierarchy, according to which memory systems are dynamically controlled by three different types of consciousness. If Peirce had lived to see this evidence-based hierarchy, I conclude, he could have framed it as the semiotic thresholds of self-control in the human mind.
Antecedentes:
La hipertensión arterial sistémica (HAS) es el principal factor de riesgo para el deterioro cognitivo; por otro lado, la memoria visuoespacial es más vulnerable al envejecimiento. Algunos fármacos antihipertensivos tienen un efecto neuroprotector, pero tal efecto puede enmascararse o bien no manifestarse por comorbilidad o por falta de control efectivo de la presión arterial.
Objetivo:
Evaluar las alteraciones en la memoria visuoespacial incidental de pacientes con HAS en relación con su tratamiento antihipertensivo y su control de la presión.
Método:
Se incluyeron 80 pacientes con HAS (46 mujeres), agrupados por su medicación en bloqueadores de los receptores de la angiotensina II (BRA) o inhibidores de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina (IECA). Se realizó un análisis de correlaciones múltiples para los puntajes obtenidos en la prueba de memoria visuoespacial incidental/intencional y un análisis de modelos mixtos (factores fijos: tratamiento, control de la presión y comorbilidad con diabetes; factores aleatorios: edad, escolaridad, meses desde el diagnóstico de HAS y coeficiente intelectual).
Resultados:
De los pacientes controlados, la mayoría de los que recibían BRA fueron eficientes y los que recibían IECA fueron deficientes. De los que recibían IECA, los descontrolados hipertensos fueron más eficientes que los normotensos. La memoria visuoespacial se correlacionó negativamente con la presión sistólica a pesar de no haber diferencias en MoCA y Raven.
Conclusiones:
La eficiencia en la memoria visuoespacial dependió de la interacción del tratamiento y el control de la presión. Ambos factores, tratamiento y control efectivo de la presión, deben considerarse en la evaluación del deterioro cognitivo asociado a la HAS.
Episodic memory shows the largest degree of age-related decline. Anodal transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) can enhance episodic memory in aging but there is also evidence of response variability even when using identical stimulation parameters. To explore which inter-individual factors (i.e. age, education, encoding performance, cognitive reserve, tDCS group and timing of tDCS application) may directly and/or indirectly modulate verbal memory recall, we used data from our previous tDCS studies that showed enhanced episodic memory recall in 80 healthy older adults. In these studies we used the same paradigm and stimulation parameters but tDCS was applied during different memory stages. Memory recall was tested 48 hours and 30 days after encoding. Univariate regression models showed that tDCS group (Anodal vs. Sham) predicted memory recall, indicating higher scores in the Anodal group than in the Sham group. Encoding performance predicted memory recall in both tDCS groups. Multiple regression models revealed that cognitive reserve, measured with a life experience questionnaire, predicted memory recall only for the Anodal group. Higher cognitive reserve was linked to better memory recall. Accounting for individual differences in cognitive reserve at baseline helps to explain tDCS responsiveness. This knowledge may contribute to optimize its use in older adults.
Place is everywhere as geography, location, territory, and landscape permeates everyday encounter. In contrast, memory is embedded in the physical setting as the burgeoning narratives of cities. In recent instances, literary settings of novels and characters are interpretations of actual life events. An immigrant from New York City returns to Lagos after a long period in Teju Cole’s Every Day is for the Thief (2007) and (2014) investigates the correlation of the past self within the present state of the setting. Exploring interrelated memories and places to revisit the sense of self, the present study aims to analyse how autobiographical memory distinguishes personal memory from social events and defines place attachment and identity in society. This article also explores the lack of conformity to the tendency to find the past self in different time and spatial aspects through which this research tries to bridge the past with the present using narrators’ autobiographical memories.
During goal-directed navigation, ‘what’ information, describing the experiences occurring in periods surrounding a reward, can be combined with spatial ‘where’ information to guide behavior and form episodic memories. This integrative process likely occurs in the hippocampus, which receives spatial information from the medial entorhinal cortex; however, the source of the ‘what’ information is largely unknown. Here, we show that mouse lateral entorhinal cortex (LEC) represents key experiential epochs during reward-based navigation tasks. We discover separate populations of neurons that signal goal approach and goal departure and a third population signaling reward consumption. When reward location is moved, these populations immediately shift their respective representations of each experiential epoch relative to reward, while optogenetic inhibition of LEC disrupts learning the new reward location. Therefore, the LEC contains a stable code of experiential epochs surrounding and including reward consumption, providing reward-centric information to contextualize the spatial information carried by the medial entorhinal cortex.
The hippocampus plays a critical role in the formation of declarative memories, and hippocampal damage leads to significant impairments in new memory formation. Drawing can serve as a form of multi-modal encoding that improves declarative memory performance relative to other multimodal encoding strategies such as writing. We examined whether, and to what extent, patients with hippocampal damage could benefit from the mnemonic strategy of drawing. Three patients with focal hippocampal damage, and one patient with both hippocampal and cortical lesions, in addition to 22 age-, sex-, and education-matched controls, were shown a list of words one at a time during encoding and instructed to either draw a picture or repeatedly write each word for 40 s. Following a brief filled delay, free recall and recognition memory for words from both encoding trial types were assessed. Controls showed enhanced recall and recognition memory for words drawn versus those that were written, an effect that was even more pronounced in patients with focal hippocampal damage. By contrast, the patient with both hippocampal and cortical lesions showed no drawing-mediated boost in either recall or recognition memory. These findings demonstrate that drawing is an effective encoding strategy, likely accruing from the engagement of extra-hippocampal processes including the integration of cortical-based motor, visual, and semantic processing, enabling more elaborative encoding.
Modern neuropsychology recognizes three main types of memories: episodic, procedural and semantic. These are independent but “work” in close connection, making it possible to construct external knowledge from external stimuli, which is then consolidated and recorded.
Particular weight is given to episodic-type memory, which is the model mainly considered by the solitonic systems proposed in this manuscript.
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