Malwina Szpitalak

• Ph.D.
• Jagiellonian University

The Continued Influence Effect (CIE) refers to the persistent impact of misinformation on beliefs or reasoning, even after its retraction. Traditional accounts attribute CIE to memory failures – either in updating mental models or retrieving corrections. In contrast, newer theories propose that CIE persists despite successful encoding and retrieval...

The continued influence effect (CIE) refers to continued reliance on misinformation, even after it has been retracted. There are several techniques to counter it, such as forewarnings or presenting alternative explanations that can replace misinformation in knowledge or mental models of events. However, the existing research shows that they general...

The continued influence effect (CIE) refers to continued reliance on misinformation, even after it has been retracted. There are several techniques to counter it, such as forewarnings or presenting alternative explanations that can replace misinformation in knowledge or mental models of events. However, the existing research shows that they general...

The continued influence effect (CIE) refers to continued reliance on misinformation, even after it has been retracted. There are several techniques to counter it, such as forewarnings or presenting alternative explanations that can replace misinformation in knowledge or mental models of events. However, the existing research shows that they general...

Three experiments investigated the mechanisms, correlates, and methods of immunization against interrogative suggestibility (IS). IS involves reliance in memory reports on suggestions contained in misleading questions (Yield) and the tendency to change answers under negative feedback about the quality of previous testimony (Shift). All three studie...

The memory conformity effect occurs when people witness a given incident (e.g. a crime) then talk to each other about it, and the statement of one person affects the memory account of the other person with respect to this incident. The aim of this article is to improve the quality of witness testimony by verifying the effectiveness of three methods...

This paper presents the outcomes of a study focused on the Polish adaptation of the Survey of Scientifically Unaccepted Beliefs (SSUB; Irwin & Marks, 2013), designed to gauge individual differences in paranormal beliefs. Notably, the Polish version exhibited robust internal consistency, evidenced by Cronbach's alpha coefficients of 0.87 for the New...

Full-text access to a view-only version: https://rdcu.be/dwKM1 . . . . . . . . . . . People often continue to rely on certain information in their reasoning, even if this information has been retracted; this is called the continued influence effect (CIE) of misinformation. One technique for reducing this effect involves explicitly warning people th...

Introduction The memory conformity effect occurs when people witness a given incident and then talk to each other about it, and the statement of one person affects the memory account of another person with respect to that incident. The main objectives of this experiment were (1) to examine the effectiveness of a modified version of the MORI-v techn...

The aim of the present study is to examine beliefs about hypnosis in a Polish sample, with a focus on possible misconceptions. The research included groups with different backgrounds regarding hypnosis: 1st- and 5th-year psychology students, psychotherapists using hypnosis, people interested in paranormal phenomena, and people from the general popu...

The manuscript describes an experimental investigation of a technique that might reduce memory conformity: the reinforced self‐affirmation procedure (RSA). While previous studies have already demonstrated the RSA's effectiveness in reducing other memory distortions (e.g., the misinformation effect and interrogative suggestibility), this has not bee...

Ludzie często polegają w rozumowaniu na błędnych informacjach, nawet jeśli informacje te zostały poddane korekcie lub wycofane – jest to tzw. efekt przedłużonego wpływu dezinformacji (continued influence effect; CIE). Jedną z technik przeciwdziałania temu zjawisku jest wyraźne ostrzeganie ludzi, że mogą zostać wprowadzeni w błąd. W niniejszym wystą...

Sensory processing sensitivity is a relatively new theoretical construct. Its main components include deeper processing of stimuli as well as a stronger response to environmental impacts, both positive and negative. The effect of misinformation, which involves the inclusion of misinformation in the witness's memory reports, can be modified by varie...

The misinformation effect consists in the inclusion in witness testimonies of false information from sources other than the given event. Given that this is a serious threat for the quality of witness testimony, it is surprising that so little research has explored whether the influence of misinformation on remembering can be reduced. In this articl...

Efekt przedłużonego wpływu dezinformacji (continued influence effect; CIE) polega na wykorzystywaniu w rozumowaniu pewnych informacji mimo że zostały one skorygowane lub wycofane. Z perspektywy praktycznej istotna jest kwestia technik przeciwdziałania wpływom dezinformacji. Jedną z takich technik jest inokulacja, polegająca na „zaszczepieniu” przec...

The continued influence effect of misinformation (CIE) is a phenomenon in which certain information, although retracted and corrected, still has an impact on event reporting, reasoning, inference, and decisions. The main goal of this paper is to investigate to what extent this effect can be reduced using the procedure of inoculation and how it can...

The continued influence effect (CIE) is a phenomenon in which certain information, although retracted and corrected, still affects one’s reports, reasoning and decisions. A practical example of such phenomenon is the widespread myth that vaccines cause autism – therefore CIE research is of great practical importance as it provides insight into the...

The misinformation effect occurs when an eyewitness includes information in his or her account that is incongruent with the event he or she witnessed, and stems from being exposed to incorrect external sources. This is a serious threat to the quality of witness testimony and to the correctness of decisions reached by courts. However, few methods ha...

The two experiments presented in this study investigate the impact of memory training on the misinformation effect. This effect is particularly important in the forensic context as exposing a witness to misinformation may adversely affect the content of their testimony. During the training, the participants were acquainted with seven (Experiment 1)...

Celem artykułu jest przybliżenie problematyki postrzegania zaburzeń psychicznych i jego wpływu na zdrowie psychiczne osób chorych. Przybliżono pokrótce zarys historycznego interpretowania i postrzegania zaburzeń psychicznych od starożytności aż po czasy obecne. Następnie przedstawiono sytuację aktualną, rozpoczynając od analizy postaw dyskryminując...

The continued influence effect (CIE) is a phenomenon of the continuous influence of misinformation on the inferences of an individual, despite the misinformation being retracted. The aim of this article is to present this phenomenon, compare it to the misinformation effect (PME) known in Polish literature and indicate the practical implications of...

Interrogative suggestibility, as measured with Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales, consists of an individual's tendency to yield to misleading questions (Yield) and to change answers after negative feedback (Shift). This study aimed to determine whether reinforced self-affirmation (RSA), a technique that aims to boost self-confidence in order to incr...

Podstawowym celem prezentowanego badania było przygotowanie polskiej adaptacji kwestionariusza Interpersonal Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (IERQ) autorstwa Hofmann, Carpenter i Curtiss (2016). Kwestionariusz służy do pomiaru sposobu, w jaki ludzie wykorzystują relacje międzyludzkie do regulowania własnych emocji. W badaniu wzięło udział 400 osób...

The manuscript describes an experimental investigation of one possible technique that may reduce memory conformity: the reinforced self‐affirmation procedure (RSA). While previous studies have already demonstrated the RSA's effectiveness in reducing other memory distortions (e.g., the misinformation effect and interrogative suggestibility), this ha...

The article covers the issue of juvenile delinquency and social maladjustment. The aim of this paper is to present, on the basis of literature review, a picture of child crime in Poland, as well as to present the psychological determinants of crime and social maladjustment among children. The article discusses the definition of a juvenile in the co...

The observation inflation effect consists in the fact that observing an action being performed can create false memories that this action has actually been performed by the observer. The present study examined the relationship between this effect and interrogative suggestibility. A procedure based on the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale was used to...

The term ‘workaholism’ was first coined by Wayne Oates (1971), and since then it has been conceptualized in a variety of ways. Most researchers agree, however, that a defining feature of workaholism is that it involves an inner compulsion to work, in which people constantly think about work (Beiler-May et al. 2017). Conclusions on workaholism are o...

This paper presents the results of a study on the Polish version of the Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale (GCBS), which was designed to measure individual differences in conspiracist thinking (Brotherton, French, & Pickering; 2013). The Polish version of the scale had excellent internal consistency as measured by Cronbach alpha: .93. The Polish ve...

Research suggests that placebo can reduce the misinformation effect. We aimed to examine for the first time whether placebo administered in the guise of caffeine can reduce the misinformation effect. One hundred and twenty- -three healthy volunteers were randomly assigned to four groups in a 2 Placebo (Present, Not Present) × 2 Narrative (Misleadin...

The memory misinformation effect consists in the inclusion in witness testimonies of information from sources other than the given event. In the present article, research which aims to make people resistant to misinformation is presented. It is based on reinforced self-affirmation (RSA), a method designed to enhance participants’ self-confidence an...

The misinformation effect is one of the major threats for the quality of witness testimony. It involves including of information that is inconsistent with the course of an event, and which originates from sources other than the event itself, into a witness's report of the event. In the present article research is presented aiming at reducing the te...

Descriptions of data files. (TXT)

Questions on the final memory test. (PDF)

Raw data for Experiment 1. (CSV)

Postevent material with misinformation. (PDF)

Raw data for Experiment 2. (CSV)

The study examines whether the need for cognitive closure affects eyewitnesses' memory reports, eyewitnesses' compliance with misinformation and, in particular, their tendency to make false confessions. It derives its procedures from the false confession paradigm presented by Kassin and Kiechel (1996) and the misinformation schema empirically utili...

Misinformation can cause people to falsely believe that they saw nonexistent details and lead people to have false memories. in the real world, when witnesses talk with one another, are interrogated with leading questions or suggestive techniques, when they see the media report about an event, misinformation can cause contamination of memory (loftu...

The purpose of the present research was to examine the indirectly generated tainted truth effect (TTE). The TTE refers to decreased accuracy on a memory test among persons who are erroneously warned about nonexistent misinformation in material that describes an event. It was expected that the TTE would occur even without an explicit warning about m...

Despite ongoing social changes in Poland, the attitudes toward samesex marriage or parenting are predominantly unsupportive, especially among older and religious citizens. Previous studies have shown that women reveal more supportive attitudes toward homosexuality than men. At the same time, they also prove to be more religious and involved in the...

The term “memory distrust” describes a phenomenon in which individuals have a profound distrust of their own memory ability. This article presents the results of research on the Polish version of an instrument that was developed to measure trait memory distrust, the Squire Subjective Memory Questionnaire (SSMQ). A total of 1193 individuals were rec...

This cross-sectional clinical study was designed to explore the relationships between family functioning, coping styles, and neck pain and neck disability. It was hypothesized that better family functioning and more effective coping styles would be associated with less pain and pain-related disability. It also was hypothesized that these relationsh...

Results of regression analyses testing for interactions between age and predictors (dependent variable: Neck Disability Index)—non-significant results. (DOCX)

Results of regression analyses testing for interactions between age and predictors (dependent variable: Visual Analogue Scale (pain))—non-significant results. (DOCX)

Multiple hierarchical-stepwise regressions for Neck Disability Index as the dependent variable and family functioning (Self-Estimating Questionnaire) as predictors—non-significant results. (DOCX)

Multiple hierarchical-stepwise regressions for Visual-Analogue Scale (pain) as the dependent variable and family functioning (Self-Estimating Questionnaire) as predictors—non-significant results. (DOCX)

Intercorrelations among the subscales of the Family Questionnaire. (DOCX)

Multiple hierarchical-stepwise regressions for the Visual-Analogue Scale (pain) as the dependent variable and family functioning (Family Questionnaire) as predictors—non-significant results. (DOCX)

Multiple hierarchical-stepwise regressions for Visual-Analogue Scale (pain) as the dependent variable and coping styles (CISS) as predictors—non-significant results. (DOCX)

Intercorrelations among the subscales of the Self-Estimating Questionnaire. (DOCX)

Intercorrelations among the subscales of the Diadic Relationship Scale. (DOCX)

Multiple hierarchical-stepwise regressions for Neck Disability Index as the dependent variable and family functioning (Family Questionnaire) as predictors—non-significant results. (DOCX)

Multiple hierarchical-stepwise regressions for Neck Disability Index as the dependent variable and family functioning (Diadic Relationship Scale) as predictors—non-significant results. (DOCX)

Multiple hierarchical-stepwise regressions for Neck Disability Index as the dependent variable and coping styles as predictors—non-significant results. (DOCX)

Multiple hierarchical-stepwise regressions for Visual-Analogue Scale (pain) as the dependent variable and family functioning (Diadic Relationship Scale) as predictors—non-significant results. (DOCX)

In this study, we aimed to determine whether reinforced self-affirmation (RSA), consisting of positive feedback about one’s memory skills and reflecting on one’s achievements, can reduce vulnerability to interrogative suggestibility. We used the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS) to assess two kinds of suggestibility: the tendency to yield to su...

The misinformation effect occurs when an eyewitness includes information in their account that is incongruent with the event they witnessed, and stems from being exposed to incorrect external sources. Yet little research has been undertaken on techniques that could protect eyewitnesses from the influence of misinformation, despite the dangerous con...

Misinformation encountered after witnessing an event is known to influence subsequent memory reports about this event. In most research, misleading information was introduced impersonally, for example, by means of a written description, but it is now well established that delivering it in a social interaction is effective as well. Less is known abo...

The misinformation effect is regarded by many to be fully memory-related. The paper presents results demonstrating that it may occur without memory distortions or source monitoring errors. Three experiments were conducted, in which the participants were allowed to access the original and post-event source while answering. All experiments used a dis...

Prezentacja poruszać będzie problematykę występowania efektu dezinformacji u dzieci w wieku przedszkolnym. Wyjaśnione zostaną zagadnienia efektu dezinformacji i sugestialności dziecięcej jak również przedstawione zostaną konsekwencje ich znajomości i nieznajomości w postępowaniu przygotowawczym i procesie sądowym. Szczególny nacisk położony będzie...

Objective The main goal of this paper is to discuss the behavioural causes of workaholism. Review Definitions of workaholism have been presented, along with its status in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Health Related Problems, and the behavioural causes behind workaholism. The behavioural theories of workaholism have...

The misinformation effect refers to the distortion of memory reports about an event caused by misinformation presented to subjects concerning this event. It was hypothesized that mental warm-up would reduce vulnerability to misinformation but mental fatigue would enhance it, because mental warm-up would improve the memory of the original event, whe...

Background. The aim of the study was to explore the relationships among pain, motion of the cervical spine, duration of the current episode or number of previous episodes and psychological factors in patients with chronic cervical derangement syndrome. Material and methods. 63 patients with cervical radiculopathy who achieved centralization of symp...

Background: The study analyzed correlations between selected variables in cervical derangement syndromes. Material and methods: We analyzed data from 63 patients regarding pain (VAS, McGill Pain Questionnaire), mobility (CROM goniometer), dizziness, nausea, the duration of the current episode, and the number of previous episodes (history). Stude...

Psychosocial and social theories of mood disorders indicate that factors connected with women's gender roles could create a higher risk of depression. The fact that social role is an important factor associated with depressive disorders suggests that not only a biological but also a psychological gender influences the vulnerability to depression. G...

Abstract This research explores the relationships between relaxability and various aspects of suggestibility and influenceability. The Jacobson Progressive Muscle Relaxation procedure was used to induce relaxation. Tests of direct suggestibility, relating to the susceptibility of overt suggestions, and indirect suggestibility, referring to indirect...

Purpose: Psychometric validation of the authorized Polish version of the Neck Disability Index (NDI). Methods: Ninety-five patients with neck pain were enrolled. Reliability was assessed through Cronbach's alpha, split-half reliability, intra-class correlation (ICC) and agreement between measures with limits of agreement using the interval of 48...

In a typical experiment on the misinformation effect, subjects first watch some event, afterwards read a description of it which in the experimental group includes some incorrect details, and answer questions relating to the original event. Typically, subjects in the misled experimental group report more false details than those from the control gr...

The main aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of reinforced self-affirmation and reinforced failure on the memory misinformation effect. The misinformation effect consists in the witness including some incorrect details into their testimony, stemming from sources other than the original event. In the reinforced self-affirmation...

This paper gives an account of research aimed at testing the influence of motivation on susceptibility to misinformation. To accomplish this, the moment of motivating the study participants was manipulated. In some of the groups this moment was at the beginning of the study, just before the original material was presented to the participants, while...

The aim of this paper is to present the misinformation effect, which is a phenomenon involving the contamination of eyewitness testimony with information from sources other than the memory of the witnessed event. Theories based on memory-related, as well as non-memory-related processes are discussed, with particular attention devoted to the practic...

The main aim of the re search pre sented in this ar ti cle was to ver ify how many sub jects among those who suc cumbed to mis in for - ma tion were aware of the dis crep an cies be tween the orig i nal event and the mis in for ma tion. The pres ence of such sub jects sup - ports the hy poth e sis that the mech a nisms of the mis in for ma tion ef...

The main aim of this research was to explore the impact of warnings on the misinformation effect. The subjects listened to a recording and afterwards read a description of it which included, for the misinformed group, some details inconsistent with the recording. They then answered questions about the recording. The results obtained demonstrated va...

The article presents experiments exploring the memory misinformation effect. Subjects heard a recording and afterwards read a description of it, which included, in the misled group, some details inconsistent with the recording; finally thay answered questions about the recording. The aim of the research was to replicate the tainted truth effect, co...