No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Social Epidemiology of Overweight: A Substantive and Methodological Investigation
Abstract
The authors examine the relationship of social and cultural factors to overweight with data collected in a cross-national community survey in El Paso, Texas and Juarez, Mexico. Using regression analysis with interaction terms, they find that gender has different effects on overweight for Mexicans and Anglos and at different social class levels. Among the Mexicans, the overweight levels of men and women are fairly similar, with women being fatter than men. Among Anglos, on the other hand, the women are much thinner than the men. With increasing social class, overweight decreases for women, but social class had little effect on the overweight levels of men. They also examine a number of methodological issues in the measurement of overweight in terms of a body-mass index in which weight is divided by a function of height.
... Many researchers prefer to measure the degree of overweight by skin fold thickness or water displacement. However, in studies with large samples or where respondents are interviewed in their homes these complicated techniques are not practical, and the best approximation of the degree of overweight is based on the person's weight with reference to height (Ross 1983). Since I only had access to the data set, I had limited possibilities for operationalizing obesity. ...
... This is why BMI for children, also referred to as BMI-for-age, is gender and age specific. The use of self-reported data to compute the BMI should be accurate, as most of the evidence to date indicates that self-reported weights and scale weights are highly correlated (Ross 1983). ...
... Obesity, due to the many health risks with which it is related, is a serious health hazard. Often obesity and weight control are considered as individual problems, but there have also been many studies examining influences outside of the individual such as social class, race, or neighborhood (Ross 1983, Olvera-Ezzell 1994, Ross 2001). The information available in these areas is not as prevalent or as conclusive as the information about research regarding the individual causes. ...
... For example, non-Hispanic blacks are twice as likely as non-Hispanic whites to be obese according to national figures. Studies have also found significantly higher overweight and obesity rates among Hispanic-origin individuals than among whites (Flegal et al., 2002;Mokdad et al., 2003;Ross and Mirowsky, 1983). In addition, individuals with low education levels and limited incomes are more likely than those with higher education and incomes to be obese. ...
... Socioeconomic status (SES) has been linked to numerous health conditions (Adler and Newman, 2002;Williams and Collins, 1995), and obesity is no exception. Prior research has consistently found that education and income, common indicators of SES, are important correlates of obesity-although the magnitude or size of the associations may vary by race/ethnicity or sex (Ross and Mirowsky, 1983;Sundquist and Johansson, 1998;Zhang and Wang, 2004). SES may be related to BMI in various ways. ...
... Consequently, they exhibit stronger initiative towards engaging in fitness, weight loss, and slimming activities. As argued by Ross and Mirowsky (1983) and Ross and Bird (1994), women value and are more concerned about their Table 4 Estimates based on the matched samples. ...
... The empirical results on the correlation between body weight and couples' living arrangements are, by contrast, inconsistent. Some studies show an on average higher BMI of married people compared to unmarried ones (Heineck 2006;Statistisches Bundesamt 2006;Ross/Mirowsky 1983). Other studies are unable to identify any differences (Kittel et al. 1978;Register/Williams 1990) or ascertain higher weights among unmarried people than married ones (Noppa/Bengtsson 1980;Sund 1 The BMI value for the year 1978 is based on the 1978 German Microcensus and was provided to us courtesy of the Federal Statistical Offi ce (Statistisches Bundesamt 2010Bundesamt ). ...
This article examines the influence of intimate relationships on smoking habits and body weight. We differentiated between couples living apart together, cohabitating couples and married couples. The data basis is the Partnermarktsurvey, a German representative telephone survey of 2,002 people aged between 16 and 55 years. The results show that living in a relationship promotes smoking cessation, however only when the partners live together. This indicates that the positive protection effect of relationships on smoking habits is based on the mechanism of social control and social support, which is linked to the context of a shared household. In addition, we observed the homogamy in smoking habits of partners that arises as early as mate selection and is intensified through assimilation processes during the relationship. With regard to body weight, the study shows a weight gain over the course of a relationship which is, however, not greater among married and cohabitating couples than among couples living apart together.
... Social (as well as genetic) factors have been well demonstrated to influence body weight (Bombak 2014;Gard and Wright 2005;Bordo 2003;Bourdieu 1979Bourdieu /1984McLaren 2007;Ross and Mirowsky 1983). Recently, the social network perspective on social determinants of body weight has stimulated much research (e.g., Christakis and Fowler 2007;Cohen-Cole and Fletcher 2008;de la Haye et al. 2011;Fletcher et al. 2011;Kiernan et al. 2012;Hruschka et al. 2011;Leahey et al. 2011;Trogdon et al. 2008;Valente et al. 2009). ...
Combining the theory of social capital with work on three social factors, respectively, socioeconomic status (SES), gender, and lifestyle, this study examines four roles of accessed SES (network members’ SES) for body weight ratings: direct association, indirect association through lifestyle, mediating role in the relationship between SES and body weight ratings, and interaction with gender. Analyzing data from the 2004 U.S. General Social Survey, this study measures body weight ratings (visually evaluated by interviewers) and two indicators of accessed SES on the educational dimension (network members’ average education and proportion of network members with some college education or more). The results show evidence not for the direct role of accessed education but rather for its three other roles. More educated adults of both genders have access to more educated network members; those with more educated network members have a stronger athletic identity (a proximate indicator of lifestyle); and those with a more solid athletic identity have lower body weight ratings. Also, men with more educated network members have higher body weight ratings, but the opposite pattern applies to women. This study refines social capital theory and advances our understanding of network, socioeconomic, lifestyle, and gender disparities in body weight.
... Die empirischen Ergebnisse zum Zusammenhang zwischen Körpergewicht und partnerschaftlicher Lebensform sind dagegen uneinheitlich. Einige Untersuchungen zeigen einen im Durchschnitt höheren BMI von Verheirateten im Vergleich zu Unverheirateten (Heineck 2006;Statistisches Bundesamt 2006;Ross/Mirowsky 1983). Andere Studien können keine Unterschiede identifi zieren (Kittel et al. 1978;Register/Williams 1990) bzw. ...
Dieser Beitrag untersucht den Einfluss von Partnerschaft auf das Rauchverhalten und das Körpergewicht. Hierbei wird zwischen Partnerschaften ohne gemeinsamen Haushalt, nichtehelichen Lebensgemeinschaften und Ehen unterschieden. Datengrundlage ist der Partnermarktsurvey, eine für Deutschland repräsentative Telefonbefragung von 2.002 Personen im Alter von 16 bis 55 Jahren. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Leben in Partnerschaft einen Rauchausstieg fördert, allerdings nur, wenn die Partner zusammenleben. Dies weist darauf hin, dass der positive Protektionseffekt von Partnerschaft auf das Rauchverhalten auf dem Mechanismus der sozialen Kontrolle und sozialen Unterstützung beruht, der an den gemeinsamen Haushaltskontext geknüpft ist. Zusätzlich zeigt sich Homogamie im Rauchverhalten der Partner, die bereits bei der Partnerwahl entsteht und durch Anpassungsprozesse während der Partnerschaft verstärkt wird. Hinsichtlich des Körpergewichts zeigt sich eine Gewichtszunahme im Laufe der Partnerschaft, die in Ehen und nichtehelichen Lebensgemeinschaften nicht stärker ausfällt als in Partnerschaften ohne gemeinsamen Haushalt.
... The empirical results on the correlation between body weight and couples' living arrangements are, by contrast, inconsistent. Some studies show an on average higher BMI of married people compared to unmarried ones (Heineck 2006;Statistisches Bundesamt 2006;Ross/Mirowsky 1983). Other studies are unable to identify any differences (Kittel et al. 1978;Register/Williams 1990) or ascertain higher weights among unmarried people than married ones (Noppa/Bengtsson 1980;Sund 1 The BMI value for the year 1978 is based on the 1978 German Microcensus and was provided to us courtesy of the Federal Statistical Offi ce (Statistisches Bundesamt 2010Bundesamt ). ...
This article examines the influence of intimate relationships on smoking habits and body weight. We differentiated between couples living apart together, cohabitating couples and married couples. The data basis is the Partnermarktsurvey, a German representative telephone survey of 2,002 people aged between 16 and 55 years. The results show that living in a relationship promotes smoking cessation, however only when the partners live together. This indicates that the positive protection effect of relationships on smoking habits is based on the mechanism of social control and social support, which is linked to the context of a shared household. In addition, we observed the homogamy in smoking habits of partners that arises as early as mate selection and is intensified through assimilation processes during the relationship. With regard to body weight, the study shows a weight gain over the course of a relationship which is, however, not greater among married and cohabitating couples than among couples living apart together. © Federal Institute for Population Research 2013 - All rights reserved.
... wealthy white people (Ross and Mirowsky 1983). She later marveled that she would post on-line personal ads clearly stating she was looking for a "white, Jewish male" and only Hispanic, Catholic males responded to her ads. ...
... In a simple computational experiment, Hammond (2008) demonstrated that changing norms of body weight themselves could propagate obesity in itself, as the population becomes increasingly obese over time. Similarly, research indicates that as the population body mass index (BMI) has increased, cultural norms shift such as parents or caregivers do not recognize child obesity as readily (Carnel et al. 2005) therefore "normalizing" obesity and making behavior change more difficult (Ross and Mirowsky, 1983;Neumark-Sztainer et al. 2008). On the behavioral level, increased screen time may cause children to get less sleep (Owens et al.) thereby causing hormonal changes that make them more likely to get less physically active, eat more, and watch more TV (Taveras et al, 2006(Taveras et al, , 2008 Initiation and cessation thresholds are represented as opinion values, where the units of opinion are simply the degree to which an individual has a favorable association to the subject (e.g., consumption of calorie-dense soft drinks and fast food, a preference for sedentary forms of entertainment, and other obesogenic behaviors). ...
Complex adaptive systems-of-systems are inherently multi-scale across several dimensions, including temporal, geographical, and organizational. We present a multi-model paradigm integrating a community-scale individual-based model (IBM) to investigate the immediate effects of interventions with a population-scale system dynamics (SD) model to analyze long-term results of those interventions. The IBM incorporates actors embedded in a social network to simulate the spread of opinions relating to nutrition and physical activity (N&PA) behaviors such as dieting and exercise, and the effects of these opinions on individual actions and consequential body weights. The IBM network structure is composed of a mixture of scale-free and uniformly random connections to represent a social network of relationships and interactions within a community: opinions regarding obesogenic behaviors propagate among individuals on the network, or are influenced by media sources via advertising, public health campaigns, and counter-marketing. We analyze and compare effects of possible policy interventions, and illustrate a policy cocktail that addresses multiple aspects of the obesity problem, resulting in amplification of desirable results and a strong uncertainty reduction. The outputs of the IBM, seen as changes in obesogenic behaviors, are used by the SD model to calculate the resulting changes in mortality and morbidity over ensuing decades.
... In consonance with our findings a nationwide cross-sectional survey in Iran found that currently and formerly married individuals were more overweight or obese than those never married [41]. Several cross-sectional studies have reported similar relationships [42][43][44][45]. However, other studies have also reported inconsistent findings ranging from the lack of association [46,47] to a protective effect of marriage [48]. ...
This study evaluated the prevalence of general and abdominal obesity among students of the University for Development Studies, School of Medicine and Health Sciences (UDS-SMHS), Tamale, Ghana. Also, lifestyle risk factors for the two obesity indices were investigated. This study was conducted among a sample of 646 students. Anthropometric measures of weight, height, and waist circumference were appropriately assessed. The prevalence of general and abdominal obesity was 1.9% and 4.2%, respectively. Risk factors of general obesity were being female (crude OR = 6.9, 95% CI = 1.85-25.80, P = 0.0021), engaging in light PA (OR = 12.45, 95% CI = 2.96-52.41, P = 0.0006), being aged 28-37 years (OR = 5.37, 95% CI = 1.39-20.68, P = 0.0329), nonintake of coffee (OR = 4.1, 95% CI = 1.10-15.28, P = 0.0357), being married (OR = 5.7, 95% CI = 1.48-22.02, P = 0.0286), and being abdominally obese (OR = 02.7, 95% CI = 25.61-11.60, P < 0.0001). Risk factors for abdominal obesity were being female, being married, having general obesity, and nonintake of coffee. Abdominal obesity was more prevalent than general obesity. Risk factors included being female, married, and generally obese and nonintake of coffee.
... For most other groups of men and women, SES is negatively related to stress and health, but black men's SES is positively related to stress (Watkins et al. 2010; Williams 2003). In addition, higher income has been associated with higher BMI among black men (Robert and Reither 2004; Ross and Mirowsky 1983), whereas lower individual SES is associated with higher BMI in women (Robert and Reither 2004). Robert and Reither (2004), however, found that there was no race or SES difference in BMI between black and non-black men. ...
Over the last decade, obesity has increased significantly among men but few national studies have empirically examined racial and socioeconomic differences in obesity among men. In this paper, we utilized logistic regression to evaluate the potential associations that race and socioeconomic status may have with obesity among men in the National Survey of American Life: an in-person household survey of non-institutionalized U.S. blacks and whites who lived in communities where at least 10% of the community residents were black Americans. A greater proportion of black men were likely to be obese than white men, but no interaction among race, SES, and obesity was detected when potential confounding variables were included. There was not a relationship between SES and obesity for white men, but there was an apparent positive relationship between SES and obesity for black men that did not remain significant in adjusted models. No relationship was found between age and obesity among black men, though white men who were 55 and older were more likely than those 18–34 to be obese in confounder adjusted models. Among white men, no relationships were found between obesity and education, household income, or marital status. Black men in the lowest income category were less likely to be obese than those in the highest income category, in bivariate but not adjusted models. These findings suggest that the way racial, economic, stress and behavioral factors combine to affect obesity in black and white men may be different.
... BMI is often used as a measure of a person's percentage of body fat, which may lead to greater buoyancy. Although the BMI is a somewhat coarse measure of body fat because it is also sensitive to the weight of lean muscle mass, the BMI is moderately to strongly correlated with more sophisticated skin-fold measures of body fat (Davis, Shapiro, Elliot, & Dionne, 1993;Laws, King, Haskell, & Reaven, 1993;Neggers, Stitt, & Roseman, 1989;Roche, Siervogel, Chumlea, & Webb, 1981;Ross & Mirowsky, 1983). I also included weight as a separate variable. ...
Generally, Blacks are less likely than Whites to be proficient at swimming. Blacks also have higher rates of drowning and are underrepresented in competitive swimming and in occupations requiring swimming or water safety skill. In this study, physiological, demographic, and biodata measures were used with military academy cadets to determine the individual factors contributing to within-group swimming proficiency among Blacks as well as Whites. The best predictor of swimming skill was the age at which the cadets had learned to swim. Other items pointed to fitness, sociocultural, and learned or dispositional differences between better and poorer swimmers. Implications for increasing swimming proficiency among Blacks and for future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... A recent study using NHIS data found that differences between proxy-and self-reported health indicators narrowed substantially when respondent characteristics were taken into consideration [9]. Thus, our analyses controlled for basic sociodemographic variables that are known to be associated with body mass1011121314 and may also be associated with reporting status. Period of observation was grouped into four categories: 1976–84, 1985–88, 1989–92, and 1993–96. ...
Data from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) show a larger-than-expected increase in mean BMI between 1996 and 1997. Proxy-reports of height and weight were discontinued as part of the 1997 NHIS redesign, suggesting that the sharp increase between 1996 and 1997 may be artifactual.
We merged NHIS data from 1976-2002 into a single database consisting of approximately 1.7 million adults aged 18 and over. The analysis consisted of two parts: First, we estimated the magnitude of BMI differences by reporting status (i.e., self-reported versus proxy-reported height and weight). Second, we developed a procedure to correct biases in BMI introduced by reporting status.
Our analyses confirmed that proxy-reports of weight tended to be biased downward, with the degree of bias varying by race, sex, and other characteristics. We developed a correction procedure to minimize BMI underestimation associated with proxy-reporting, substantially reducing the larger-than-expected increase found in NHIS data between 1996 and 1997.
It is imperative that researchers who use reported estimates of height and weight think carefully about flaws in their data and how existing correction procedures might fail to account for them. The development of this particular correction procedure represents an important step toward improving the quality of BMI estimates in a widely used source of epidemiologic data.
... Most Mexican Americans in the United States are of low socioeconomic status (SES). In developed countries, SES is inversely correlated with prevalence of NIDDM (6)(7)(8) and obesity (9)(10)(11)(12). We have observed a similar relationship between SES, obesity, and NIDDM in Mexican-American women (1,13). ...
Mexican Americans have a threefold greater prevalence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) than non-Hispanic Whites. Moreover, Mexican-American diabetic people have more severe hyperglycemia and diabetic retinopathy than non-Hispanic White diabetic people. Mexican Americans are predominantly of low socioeconomic status (SES), and low-SES Mexican Americans have a higher prevalence of NIDDM than higher-SES Mexican Americans. Therefore, we hypothesized that among diabetic people, low SES would be associated with more severe hyperglycemia and retinopathy. Three hundred forty-three Mexican Americans and 79 non-Hispanic Whites with NIDDM were identified from the San Antonio Heart Study, a population-based study of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Hyperglycemia was assessed as the sum of the fasting, 1-h, and 2-h plasma glucose concentrations during a standard oral glucose tolerance test. Retinopathy was assessed by 7 standard stereoretinal photographs. SES was assessed with three indicators: Duncan's socioeconomic index, education, and income. Contrary to expectations, low SES was not associated with greater levels of hyperglycemia or grades of retinopathy.
... L'analyse du lieu de naissance a demontre que la prevalence de l'obesite etait la plus faible chez les sujets d'origine asiatique (comparativement a ceux d'origine canadienne: RP corrige de 0,36 [IC a 95 % de 0,27 a 0,47]). La prevalence etait plus elevee chez les anciens fumeurs que chez ceux qui n'avaient jamais fume (RP corrige de 1,20 [IC a 95 % de 1,18 'a 1,22]). Les personnes qui avaient plus de problemes de sante et celles qui jugeaient leur etat de sante moyen ou mediocre 'taient plus susceptibles d'tre obeses. ...
To determine the average body mass index (BMI) and the prevalence of overweight and obesity among people aged 20 to 64 years, to identify sociodemographic, lifestyle and health variables that correlate with overweight and obesity, and, through a comparison of the results with those from an earlier survey, to determine whether prevalence has changed over time.
Cross-sectional survey.
Ontario.
The 1990 Ontario Health Survey surveyed 61,239 people representative of the Ontario population. The authors' analyses were restricted to those aged 20 to 64 years, excluding pregnant women. In the multivariate analyses they included only people with no missing values for any of the variables in the models (n = 26,306).
BMI (weight in kilograms divided by height in metres squared) was used to measure healthy weight (BMI between 20 and 25), overweight (BMI greater than 25) and obesity (BMI greater than 27).
The prevalence of obesity among men and women was 33.6% and 22.8% respectively (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 1.78, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.63 to 1.95). There was a positive relation with age (adjusted OR 1.53 [95% CI 1.24 to 1.89] for age 25 to 29 years and 2.78 [95% CI 2.20 to 3.51] for age 50 to 54 years compared with age 20 to 24 years) and an inverse relation with education level (postsecondary education v. primary education: adjusted OR 0.65 [95% CI 0.54 to 0.79]). Analysis of birthplace showed that the prevalence of obesity was lowest among those born in Asia (compared with Canadian born: adjusted OR 0.36 [95% CI 0.27 to 0.47]). The prevalence was higher among former smokers than among those who had never smoked (adjusted OR 1.20 [95% CI 1.18 to 1.22]). People with more health problems and those who rated their health as fair or poor were more likely to be obese. The estimates of the prevalence of obesity were higher than those reported in the 1985 Health Promotion Survey for both sexes in all three age groups examined.
These self-reported data indicate that overweight and obesity remain important health problems in Ontario, and the prevalence appears to be increasing.
This paper argues that many of the foundations and trends that led to the rise in obesity and other diet-related health problems in Latin America began to develop in the late nineteenth century. The tendency towards presentism in the nutrition transition literature provides a much abbreviated and limited history of changes in diet and weight. Whereas medical and nutrition researchers have tended to emphasize the recent onset of the crisis, a historical perspective suggests that increasingly global food sourcing prompted changes in foodways and a gradual “fattening” of Latin America. This paper also provides a methodological and historiographic exploration of how to historicize the nutrition transition, drawing on a diverse array of sources from pre-1980 to the present.
Secular trends in the relationship of body mass index (BMI) and skinfold thickness to educational and income levels were examined for white and black women aged 18–34 y over the period 1960–80 with data from three successive national surveys: NHES Cycle I, NHANES I, and NHANES II. Statistical models were fitted to assess the variability in mean BMI over time within levels of education or income. Mean BMI and skinfold thickness were negatively associated with both education and income. Over the 20-y period mean BMI increased for both white and black women at all levels of income and education. Because the increase in mean BMI was greater at lower educational levels, the differentiation of BMI by educational level increased over time, yielding a stronger negative association. In contrast differentiation of BMI by income category decreased over time. Black-white differences in mean BMI at comparable educational and income levels persisted over this period.
A review of 144 published studies of the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and obesity reveals a strong inverse relationship among women in developed societies. The relationship is inconsistent for men and children in developed societies. In developing societies, however, a strong direct relationship exists between SES and obesity among men, women, and children. A review of social attitudes toward obesity and thinness reveals values congruent with the distribution of obesity by SES in different societies. Several variables may mediate the influence of attitudes toward obesity and thinness among women in developed societies that result in the inverse relationship between SES and obesity. They include dietary restraint, physical activity, social mobility, and inheritance.
While the Western world adheres to a beauty ideal that says women can never be too thin, the semi-nomadic Moors of the Sahara desert have for centuries cherished a feminine ideal of extreme fatness. Voluptuous immobility is thought to beautify girls' bodies, hasten the onset of puberty, heighten their sexuality and ripen them for marriage. From the time of the loss of their first milk teeth, girls are directed to eat huge bowls of milk and porridge in one of the world's few examples of active female fattening. Based on fieldwork in an Arab village in Niger, Feeding Desire analyses the meanings of women's fatness as constituted by desire, kinship, concepts of health, Islam, and the crucial social need to manage sexuality. By demonstrating how a particular beauty ideal can only be understood within wider social structures and cultural logics, the book also implicitly provides a new way of thinking about the ideal of slimness in late Western capitalism. Offering a reminder that an estimated eighty per cent of the world's societies prefer plump women, this gracefully written book is both a fascinating exploration of the nature of bodily ideals and a highly readable ethnography of a Saharan people.
This chapter uses social behavior metatheories to classify some of the wide range of sociological analyses that have examined obesity. The sociological analyses of group dieting move beyond individualized psychological and health perspectives for group engineering of weight loss, and provide greater understanding of group dynamics, strategies employed by dieting organizations, and ways in which dieting groups are situated within larger social values and structures. Sociological analysis has often examined changes in social problems as a process of medicalization. The structure and dynamics of social networks in which individuals are embedded present unique perspectives about obesity. The stigmatization of obesity may be overcome by the trading of other personal attributes in exchanges between obese individuals and others. The study of obesity offers many insights that can be applied in diverse ways to predict, explain, prevent, and manage body weight.
Objective:
This study assessed the prevalence of general and abdominal obesity and hypertension as well the weight management behaviours of type 2 diabetes mellitus patients.
Methods:
It included 378 diabetes patients seeking care from two hospitals in Ghana. Standard methods and tools were used to assess participants' weight, height, waist circumference (WC), blood pressure (BP) and fasting plasma glucose (FPG). Weight management behaviours were measured using a questionnaire.
Results:
The prevalence of general obesity, abdominal obesity and hypertension was 20.1%, 46.6% and 67.7% respectively. Abdominal obesity was more likely in participants who: skipped breakfast, engaged in exercise to lose weight and were generally overweight/obese. General overweight and obesity was more likely in participants who: reported receipt of weight management counselling, engaged in exercise to lose weight, had a weight management plan/goal, and were abdominally obese. Hypertension was less likely in participants who had: no formal education, diabetes for ≥5 years and modified their dietary habits to lose weight but more likely in those who skipped breakfast.
Conclusion:
Abdominal obesity, general overweight/obesity, and hypertension were frequent in this sample and were influenced by weight management behaviours.
La corpulencia como un hecho social entre La corpulencia como un hecho social entre La corpulencia como un hecho social entre La corpulencia como un hecho social entre La corpulencia como un hecho social entre los adultos chilenos del siglo XXI los adultos chilenos del siglo XXI los adultos chilenos del siglo XXI los adultos chilenos del siglo XXI los adultos chilenos del siglo XXI Claudia Giacoman Hernández Resumen La obesidad y la corpulencia, es decir, el volumen del cuerpo medido a través del índice de masa corporal (IMC), son fenómenos complejos y multidimensionales, donde la biología, lo psicológico, social y la cultura, se entrelazan para darle forma. En este artículo, a partir del análisis estadístico de las variables sociales vinculadas a la corpulencia en la población adulta chilena, buscamos demostrar que el volumen que un cuerpo adquiere está in-fluenciado por las características del orden social en el que se inserta, y que el papel que las variables sociales juegan en su definición varía según el género. Palabras claves índice de masa corporal, determinantes sociales, género Abstract Obesity and body size, measured by body mass index (BMI) are complex and multidimensional phenomena, where the biological, psychological, social and culture intertwine to shape it. In this article, from a statistical analysis of the social variables associated with BMI in the Chilean adult population, we show that the body size is influenced by the characteristics of social order in which it is inserted and that the role of social variables play in its definition varies according to gender.
Most religions have proscriptions or prescriptions regarding the consumption of food; yet little attention has been given to the relationship between religion and body weight. This paper explores two major questions: (1) Is religion related to body weight, especially the prevalence of obesity? (2) Does religion intensify, mitigate, or counterbalance the effects of body weight on well-being? Two data sources are used in this exploratory study. First, state-level ecological data on religion and body weight show that body weight is somewhat higher in states with a higher proportion of church and temple members. Second, a national sample of adults surveyed in 1986 is used for the bulk of the analysis (N=3,497). Three dimensions of religiosity (practice, identity, and comfort) and three measures of body weight (underweight, overweight, and overall body mass) are examined. Religious practice is associated with all measures of well-being and generally acts to counterbalance the negative effect of body weight on well-being. Obese persons are more likely to be depressed and have lower levels of health satisfaction despite their higher levels of religious practice.
Relatively little is known about factors that influence the extent to which self-perceptions of attractiveness diverge from the evaluations of other observers. Examined in this study are social factors that affect the self-evaluations of body weight provided by more than 6500 adolescents. Data are obtained from Cycle III of the National Health Examination Survey. Our findings suggest that adolescents tend to denigrate rather enhance their body image. This derogation is more pronounced for females than for males. The direction by which the derogation occurs varies by sex, with males viewing themselves as too thin and females rating themselves as overweight, and race, with blacks seeing themselves as too thin. Nevertheless, status characteristics are less powerful predictors of body image than parental assessments, which have a stronger effect on females than on males. This research demonstrates that social location and the views of significant others affect how adolescents see themselves. Implications of these findings and suggestions for further research are discussed.
This study seeks the relationship between socioeconomic status (S.E.S.), obesity and non‐insulin dependent diabetes mellitus within the Starr County population of South Texas. The study used data from the first phase of the Diabetes Alert Study, constituting a random sample of 1,926 adult individuals. The prevalence of obesity (Wt/Ht2>30) in this population was twice that of the U.S. population (20–22%), but less than a 30% rate was observed in extended families of diabetics in Starr County. An inverse relationship between socioeconomic status and obesity was found among women (p<0.01) but not men. There was a similar but statistically insignificant trend for diabetes and socio‐economic status in women, suggesting that this association might be secondary to that of obesity and S.E.S. Results support the idea that social and behavioural factors play a role in the occurrence of obesity in the population; but whatever these factors are, they are sex‐specific. The lack of association between S.E.S. and diabetes within this population does not support the role of social stratification in the taller stature of children from families of diabetic probands reported elsewhere.
Human predispositions to fatness and obesity are best understood in the context of cultural and biological evolution. Both genes and cultural traits that were adaptive in the context of past food scarcities play a role today in the etiology of maladaptive adult obesity. The etiology of obesity must account for the social distribution of the condition with regard to gender, ethnicity, social class, and economic modernization. This distribution, which has changed throughout history, undoubtedly involves cultural factors. A model of culture is presented that has advantages over an undifferentiated concept of the "environment" for hypothesis generation. Cultural predispositions to obesity are found in the productive economy, the mode of reproduction, social structure, and cultural beliefs about food and ideal body size. Cross-cultural comparison can contribute to an understanding of the prevalence of obesity in some modern affluent societies.
Some of the difficulties with obesity research concern inconsistencies in the definition of the construct, the methods by which it has been assessed, and the samples that have been employed. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether there were significant differences in the nature of the simultaneous relationships between a number of variables previously associated with obesity and body size when assessments were made by body mass index (BMI) or an estimation of fatness from skinfold thicknesses. In addition, comparisons were made when subjects were classified into obese and non-obese categories. Appropriate multiple regression and logistic regression analyses were used to analyze these data for a group of adult men and women sampled from the general population. These procedures allowed a comparison of results when the dependent variables were in their continuous versus their dichotomous form. Approximately 250 adult men and women participated in the study. Percent body fat was associated with less frequent leisure time exercise participation, slower walking speed, reduced levels of trait anxiety, and a greater tendency to diet. Among women, but not men, lower socioeconomic status was also related to fatness. However, several of these relationships were absent when BMI served as the measure of body size, and to a greater extent, when subjects were classified into obesity categories. The findings of this study underscore the importance of measurement techniques and classification procedures in determining the outcome of psychosocial and behavioural data in the area of obesity research.
How does the family affect the health of its adult members? It is in the family that the macro-level social and economic order affects individual physical and emotional well-being. This review presents a general model of understanding family and health that describes patterns of well-being, and then asks, "what explains these patterns?" Explanations are found in causal chains, conditional effects, and "structural amplification." The review summarizes and synthesizes ideas and findings about four factors: marriage and parenthood (which define the family), and the wife's or mother's employment and the family's social status (which connect it to the larger social order). Overall, the married are in better health than the nonmarried, but parents are not better off than nonparents. Women's employment and high family socioeconomic status tend to be associated with good physical and psychological health. Under what circumstances are these basic patterns found, and what explains these patterns—what links structure to individual health? Economic well-being and social support are considered as the basic explanations. Concluding comments point to the need for more studies of the impact of family on the sense of control, which could be an important link to health.
In order to investigate cultural differences in attitudes and behaviors related to eating, exercise and weight, we gave an anonymous questionnaire to 328 Southwestern adults, 42% of whom were Hispanic. The Hispanics tended to have a higher Body Mass Index (BMI) than the Anglos, reflecting a greater weight gain since age 20; similarly, males showed a greater BMI and weight gain than females. Anglos indicated that they exercised more than Hispanics, believed more in the ability to control one's weight through exercise and other means, believed more that thinner people have lower blood pressure, felt less that Americans are too concerned about weight, knew more about weight control and cared somewhat more about nutrition than did Hispanics. Women were somewhat more likely than men to eat in the presence of many antecedent cues and more likely to provide consequences for their eating behaviors. People who were older were likely to show more healthful scores on several measures of eating behaviors, less knowledge about weight control, less concern about nutrition, less confidence that obesity can be controlled, and more concern about its consequences. The results suggest that cultural and gender differences in attitudes and behaviors may have implications for obesity.
Definitions of cultureTime, culture and obesityEvolution of human culture and obesityEvolution of fat storage and fat distributionPlace, culture and obesityDifferences between societiesDifferences within societiesCulture and obesity in Western societies in the twentieth centuryObesity as a social and cultural issueResistance to the normalizing processBody maintenance, health and fitnessArenewed social and environmental orientation on obesityCultural competenceObesity and culture in the twenty-first centuryAcknowledgements
Two archival studies examined the impact of people's appearance on the status and type of civilian and military jobs they hold. Study 1 found that, although appearance was not related to job status, taller men had higher incomes. Additionally, appearance was significantly related to the type of jobs people held. Attractive women and tall men held jobs requiring traits more consistent with the attractiveness halo, while babyfaced women and short men held jobs more consistent with the babyface stereotype. These effects remained after controlling for job-relevant personality and educational variables, suggesting an unjustified bias toward people with certain appearances. Study 2 found that heavier men had lower job status, as reflected in military rank attainment. However, this relationship was eliminated when controlling for intelligence and dependability. Also, babyfaced men achieved higher status through being marginally more likely to win a military award. This unexpected effect was attributed to the contrast between heroic actions and the babyface stereotype. Finally, appearance affected the type of military experience men had. Heavier men were more likely to be in situations involving gunfire or casualties. These studies make an important contribution by extending laboratory findings to the real world, exploring the effects of appearance on job type as well as status, and providing evidence that appearance effects are not solely due to covariation with bona fide job qualifications.
Der Beitrag untersucht die Einflüsse einer Partnerschaft und des Partnermarkts auf das Körpergewicht. Datengrundlage ist der Partnermarktsurvey 2009, eine für Deutschland repräsentative Befragung der 16- bis 55-jährigen Bevölkerung, mit der erstmals die Partnermarktopportunitäten und -restriktionen, an denen sich die Motivation zur Gewichtskontrolle orientiert, unter Bezug auf die soziale Einbindung der Individuen erhoben wurden. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen sowohl eine negative Protektion, wonach eine Partnerschaft mit einer Zunahme des Körpergewichts einhergeht, als auch eine Selektion auf dem Partnermarkt, wonach niedrigeres Gewicht die Chancen verbessert, einen Partner zu finden. Eine neue Erkenntnis ist allerdings, dass der Gewichtsunterschied zwischen Personen mit und ohne Partner je nach der Konkurrenz auf dem Partnermarkt variiert: Je größer der Konkurrenzdruck auf dem Partnermarkt, umso stärker fällt der Gewichtsunterschied zugunsten der Partnerlosen aus. Eine weitere neue Erkenntnis ist, dass die BMI-Ähnlichkeit von Partnern nur auf der Partnerwahl beruht, nicht auf Anpassungsprozessen während der Partnerschaft. Da keine Anpassung des BMI an den des speziellen Partners stattfindet, hat die Partnerwahl keinen Einfluss auf das Körpergewicht.
Our finding that ethnicity is associated with smoking, relative weight, and physical activity, largely attributable to differences in social and health resources, has important implications for health promotion practice. Our research documents the importance of extending and adapting health promotion services to disadvantaged ethnic populations. Approaches which address increasing the social resources of these groups in concert with educational and behavior change interventions are needed. Policy efforts to address state and national 1990 health promotion and disease prevention objectives should be targeted to closing the gaps in behavioral risk, morbidity and mortality between minority groups and the general population. Further research is needed to gain a better understanding of the cultural values, beliefs and attitudes of the target population, to enable better marketing and delivery of programs and to improve their effectiveness.
Nine publications are reviewed concerning blood pressure (BP) levels among Amerindian tribes of the Amazon Basin. The lifestyle of these lowland peoples includes most known protective factors against hypertension, and relative isolation from Western society. The latter, however, is rapidly changing. Sampling, data, and analysis problems make current blood pressure data difficult to interpret, and provide a questionable baseline from which to document pressure change during rapid culture change for these groups. Ethnographic and epidemiological perspectives are offered for future blood pressure and health studies among native Amazonians.
Marital status is related to morbidity and mortality, with married people healthier and at lower risk of death than those who are unmarried (especially among men). However, the relationship between marital status and obesity is not well established. Role theory suggests through a marital causation model that people in the marital role are more likely to be obese, and through a marital selection model that people in the marital role are less likely to be obese because of stigmatization. The martial causation model was examined using data from the National Survey of Personal Health Practices and Consequences, a cross-sectional national telephone survey of 3025 adults age 20-64 in the United States. Sequential regression analyses revealed that married men were significantly fatter and more likely to be obese than never married or previously married men, even when demographic, social, and physical variables were controlled. By contrast, marital status was not significantly associated with fatness or obesity among women when other variables were controlled. The marital role appears to influence fatness and obesity among men, but not women.
To determine changes in health behaviors in the United States, the United Kingdom, and France over the previous two years.
Cross-sectional survey of nationally representative samples.
Surveys conducted between June and November 1988 on persons aged 16 to 50 years in the United States (n = 1,940), the United Kingdom (n = 1,833), and France (n = 2,294) regarding health behaviors, attitudes toward health, and changes in health practices during the previous two years.
Using Bonferroni's adjustment for multiple comparisons, residents of the United States had significantly (p < 0.05) higher Quetelet indices and reported higher egg and red meat consumption, but had lower alcohol consumption, than did residents of either the United Kingdom or France. Americans were also significantly more likely to report attitudes accepting personal responsibility for their health and much more often endorsed the role of health behaviors (e.g., exercise) for decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease. Changes in health behavior over two years were consistently more likely in the United States for weight loss, decreased alcohol consumption, decreased red meat and egg consumption, and increased exercise. Americans were also much more likely to have changed at least three health behaviors in the previous two years (United States 41.5%, United Kingdom 25.5%, France 13.8%, p < 0.002). A multivariate linear model confirmed the high likelihood of health behavior changes in the United States compared with the United Kingdom or France.
The findings confirm that changes in health behaviors are continuing to occur in the United States, but remain comparatively modest in the United Kingdom and France. These international variations in health behaviors parallel differential declines in mortality rates in ischemic heart disease.
Differences in the correlation between body mass index and education across four gender and race groups were investigated while simultaneously accounting for occupation, income, marital status, and age.
The study used analysis of covariance techniques to calculate average body mass and confidence intervals within education categories while simultaneously adjusting for the covariates: age, square of age, family income, marital status, and occupation.
Data were drawn from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES I), 1971-1975. NHANES I is a national probability sample designed to gather information on the non-institutionalised US civilians, ages 1-74 years.
Samples of 8211 white women, 1673 black women, 6188 white men, and 1023 black men were drawn from the NHANES I, 1971-1975.
Data in the female samples indicate a strictly inverse relation between body mass and years of schooling among white women and an inverted "U" association among black women, achieving a maximum around 8 to 11 years of schooling. In the male samples data indicate inverted "U" relations among both black and white men, reaching maxima between 12 and 15 years of schooling. The sides of the "U" curve are much steeper for black than for white men.
The four gender/race categories display four different body mass index and education associations. These four associations are only slightly altered by simultaneously adjusting for two additional measures of socioeconomic status: occupation and income.
Two related Tupí-Mondê-speaking tribes of the Aripuanã Indian Park of western Brazil are compared in terms of their recent contact with Western culture, subsistence patterns, general health, and blood pressure levels. Age, weight, height, sex, and tribal affiliation for Suruí and Zoró adults over age 18 are included in an analysis of covariance to test regression models of both diastolic and systolic blood pressure. Because of significant interaction effects between sex and other covariates, sex-specific models were developed. The relationship between body mass and blood pressure level in males conforms with Western data, but the direction and magnitude of effects for the age and body mass covariates in both sexes conflict with data from other modernizing societies. With age, weight/height ratio, and sex differences controlled for, Suruí males show a lower mean systolic blood pressure (SBP) level and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) level than Zoró males. Intertribal differences were smaller among females: Suruí females SBP and DBP differences were similar but did not reach significance. Other sex-specific differences include a greater inverse relationship between age and SBP level among the 104 male subjects than among the 98 female subjects (with similar trends in DBP) and a small but significant effect of the weight/height ratio on both SBP and DBP in males but not in females. Health status data for these groups suggest that hypothesized increases in mean blood pressure levels following the Suruí's acceptance of a Western diet and social stratification may be modified by their health status, particularly prevalent infectious disease.
There has been professional concern that the type of milk used for infant-feeding may lead to adiposity. Studies of the relationship between infant milk-feeding and adiposity, however, have led to inconsistent results. This study investigated the relationship of infant-feeding practices to three indicators of adiposity: body weight, body mass index (BMI) and sum of seven skinfolds. The sample includes children at 3 or 4 years of age, in three ethnic groups. Multivariate techniques assessed the relationship among practices of infant-feeding with three indicators of adiposity, while considering potential confounding variables. Although a weak bivariate relationship was detected between the duration of breastfeeding and body weight, none of the measures of infant-feeding were related to the three indicators of adiposity. Black-American girls had smaller skinfolds than Anglo- or Mexican-American girls, with no ethnic group differences among boys. Concerns about adiposity due to methods of infant-feeding can be allayed, at least among 3- or 4-year-old children.
Relationships between psychological factors and physical factors such as body mass, overweight, and blood pressure were examined in a sample of black and white adolescents enrolled in health science courses. Black female adolescents were significantly more overweight and obese than either other group. Psychological factors were not significantly associated with body mass (weight/height) for females. A small percentage of the variance in body mass for black (6%) and white (4%) males was explained by Trait Anger, the frequent experience of anger and the intensity of anger (S-Anger-Reaction/TP) in pressure situations. Trait Anger also significantly (p less than 0.01) discriminated between black male adolescents who were normal weight and those 20% overweight for age and height. The relationships between traditional risk factors and blood pressure among adolescents who were 20% underweight, normal weight, and 20% overweight for age and height suggest that few traditional risk factors contribute significantly to the prediction of blood pressure in overweight adolescents. In contrast, psychological measures of suppressed anger (Anger-In, Anger Expression) were significantly (p less than 0.001) associated with blood pressure among overweight adolescents. The findings regarding the associations between overweight and psychological factors are complex. Prospective studies using better measures of overweight are needed to clarify the processes involved.
An anthropological perspective on obesity considers both its evolutionary background and cross-cultural variation. It must explain three basic facts about obesity: gender dimorphism (women greater than men), an increase with modernization, and a positive association with socioeconomic status. Preindustrial diets varied in quality but shared a tendency to periodic shortages. Such shortages, particularly disadvantageous to women in their reproductive years, favored individuals who, for biological and cultural reasons, stored fat. Not surprisingly, the majority of the world's cultures had or have ideals of feminine beauty that include plumpness. This is consistent with the hypothesis that fat stores functioned as a cushion against food shortages during pregnancy and lactation. As obesity has increased, the traditional gap between males and females in its prevalence has narrowed. Under Western conditions of abundance, our biological tendency to regulate body weight at levels above our ideal cannot be easily controlled even with a complete reversal of the widespread cultural ideal of plumpness.
Secular trends in the relationship of body mass index (BMI) and skinfold thickness to educational and income levels were examined for white and black women aged 18-34 y over the period 1960-80 with data from three successive national surveys: NHES Cycle I, NHANES I, and NHANES II. Statistical models were fitted to assess the variability in mean BMI over time within levels of education or income. Mean BMI and skinfold thickness were negatively associated with both education and income. Over the 20-y period mean BMI increased for both white and black women at all levels of income and education. Because the increase in mean BMI was greater at lower educational levels, the differentiation of BMI by educational level increased over time, yielding a stronger negative association. In contrast differentiation of BMI by income category decreased over time. Black-white differences in mean BMI at comparable educational and income levels persisted over this period.
Physical characteristics may affect psychological well-being by way of the social meaning of the attribute and subsequent social evaluation by others (the social evaluation perspective), or through processes within the individual, not mediated by the reaction of others (the internal processes perspective). We examine the effect of three physical characteristics - exercise, overweight, and physical health - on psychological well-being. We find that exercise and good physical health improve psychological well-being, and that overweight is not associated with psychological well-being. The significant effect of physical health and the nonsignificant effect of overweight on psychological well-being are not conditional on gender, age, education, income, marital status, or religion. The effect of physical activity on psychological well-being is conditional on income: it is greatest in low and middle income groups and smallest in high income groups. We discuss the finding in terms of the social evaluation and internal processes perspectives, and we discuss the ways in which the effect of the body on the mind is internally mediated (through biological and psychological processes) and externally mediated (through social processes).
The results of the current study indicate that data obtained by the dietary recall correlate highly with the children's weighed food intake if a parent or the primary caretaker providing the child's food responds to the interview. Meredith et al. found parents to be poor reporters of children's consumption outside the home. It is encouraging to note that parents can be reliable reporters of their children's food intake in the home environment. When errors did occur, they were errors in portion size, as 96% of foods eaten by the children were correctly identified by the parents. Parents under-reported only 4% of the time. This slight tendency to under-report is consistent with other reports of the validity of the 24-hour dietary recall. In younger children, parents appear to be reliable reporters of their children's in-home dietary intake. As children become older, they appear to be able to recall their own intake both within and outside the home. There are several possible explanations for these findings. First, several factors could have influenced the accuracy of parental reports of the child's intake during the day that we weighed foods. Because food was weighed in the homes, the parents undoubtedly attended more closely to their child's diet. Additionally, the dietary recalls were collected at the end of the day of observation. This was closer in time than most 24-hour recalls and may have reflected less memory decay than usual. Also, since our sample was primarily middle-class families who were well educated, the correspondence between actual vs. reported dietary intake may have been artificially enhanced.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Using data on 19,405 adults from telephone interviews across the US, 1981-1983, we examined the sociodemographic characteristics, health-risk behaviors, body image, and dieting of overweight adults classified by the 1959 Metropolitan Life Insurance tables for weight and height. By self-report, 23% were overweight vs 29% in 1960-62. This modest decline in overweight remained after age-adjusting the 1981-1983 rate to the 1960 population. In 1981-1983, more blacks and Hispanics than whites were overweight [rate ratio (RR) = 1.43]. After adjustment for age and education, more over- than average-weight adults had uncontrolled hypertension, were binge drinking, and had a sedentary lifestyle. Among overweight men and women, 72% and 52%, respectively, were not dieting. Overweight adults acknowledging they were overweight were dieting more often than those without this perception (RR = 1.53). Results are discussed in light of research documenting weight gain and overweight as independent risk factors for cardiovascular disease incidence and mortality.
Does body weight affect self ratings of health? If yes, are health ratings affected by being overweight, underweight, or both? These questions are examined in this research note with data from a national sample of adults surveyed in 1986 (N = 3, 497). Obesity is associated with lower ratings of health among persons with similar levels of morbidity and functional limitation; being underweight does not independently influence health ratings. The effect of being overweight is similar for Black and White adults as well as for men and women. Finally, health ratings for older people were more positive than anticipated regardless of body weight.
Is being overweight distressing? If it is, is the distress due to negative appraisals by others, to the stresses of trying to fit norms of thinness by dieting, or to the health consequences of being overweight? If being overweight is stigmatizing, negative evaluations by others may be internalized as high levels of depression. This perspective predicts that being overweight has a direct effect on depression, and that the effect is greater in social groups where being overweight is less common, especially among women, Whites, younger people, the well-educated, and the well-to-do. Alternatively, overweight may not be distressing per se. Instead, attempting to fit norms of appearance that equate thinness with attractiveness by dieting is distressing. According to this perspective, the association between being overweight and depression is explained by dieting. Finally, this association may be due to the health consequences of being overweight. A random sample of 2,020 U.S. adults aged 18-90 were interviewed by telephone in 1990. Results showed that being overweight has no direct effect on depression in any social group except among the well-educated. Overweight persons are more likely to diet and to experience worse physical health, both of which are associated with depression. Combined, these explain the negative effects of being overweight on depression.
A new social desirability scale was constructed and correlated with MMPI scales. Comparison was made with correlations of the Edwards Social Desirability scale. The new scale correlated highly with MMPI scales and supported the definition of social desirability. Ss need to respond in "culturally sanctioned ways."
The study of human eating behavior provides a model for understanding the operation of a system of motivated behaviors involving the integration of physiological, sensory, cognitive, social and cultural inputs in a control system to which they are all essential. A review of current research in the area demonstrates the reciprocal relationship of these factors and indicates that eating must be examined at many different levels of analysis and with mul tiple methodologies. Work on eating and obesity suggests conceptual issues relevant to the use of the internal-external dichotomy in social psychology and has importance for research on stigmatiza tion and deviance, self perception, control and predictability, group processes, and individual differences. Research on eating behavior further demonstrates how conceptual analyses evolve in settings and for problems which were not specifically created to test theory.
CASUAL observation had suggested to us that obesity was less prevalent in high-ranking, so called "prestige" colleges than in public high schools. We therefore decided to investigate whether or not obesity affected college acceptance. If it did, it would have important implications for public-health programs directed at obesity. We chose for our investigation an outstanding high-school system and an Ivy League and a Seven Sister college.§ Our results did, indeed, indicate that there was less obesity in the colleges than in the high schools. No differences were found in academic criteria and application rates between obese and nonobese high-school students. . . .
This article reviews relevant epidemiological data on the prevalence of medically defined weight problems and of weight control efforts in the United States. It explores factors that may influence people to engage in weight control behavior in the first place and to choose dieting over other methods of reducing. It advances explanations to account for differences in the prevalence of dieting phenomena among various age and sex groups. Finally, it suggests several ways of improving the effectiveness and coverage of weight control programs.