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Différences de sexe et rôle de l’internalisation des règles sur la propension des enfants à prendre des risques à vélo
Abstract
L’objectif de cette étude est d’explorer les différences de sexe et l’effet de l’internalisation des règles routières sur
la propension des enfants à prendre des risques à vélo. La perception du risque accidentel pour soi, l’internalisation des
règles routières relatives aux comportements cyclistes et la propension à prendre des risques à vélo de 145 enfants (86 garçons
et 59 filles) de 9 à 12 ans ont été mesurées par un autoquestionnaire. Les résultats montrent des différences de sexe sur
l’internalisation des règles routières, la perception du risque et la propension à prendre des risques à vélo. De plus, les
résultats montrent que l’internalisation des règles routières est un meilleur prédicteur de la propension à prendre des risques
à vélo que le sexe biologique.
The objective of this study is to explore gender differences and effect of internalization of traffic rules on children’s
propensity to take risks as cyclists. Risk perception, internalization of traffic rules, and self-reported risk-taking propensity
as cyclist were measured in a questionnaire among 145 children (86 boys and 59 girls) aged 9 to 12. The results show gender
differences in cycling rules internalization, risk perception, and risk-taking propensity as cyclist. Furthermore, the results
show that internalizing traffic rules is a better predictor than biological sex of the propensity to take risks as cyclist.
Mots clésEnfant–Cycliste–Sexe–Internalisation–Propension à la prise de risque
KeywordsChildren–Cyclist–Gender–Internalization–Risk-taking propenstity
... Enfin, il semble que le rapport à la règle soit différent selon le sexe des enfants. Les garçons se conforment moins aux règles (divergence entre leurs discours et leurs comportements) que les filles, ces dernières faisant preuve d'une meilleure internalisation des règles que les garçons, justifiant davantage leurs comportements par la règle apprise [19,64]. Dans un autre domaine qui est celui des risques quotidiens et domestiques, il a été montré que les accidents impliquant des enfants peuvent être largement expliqués par le non-respect des règles parentales [72,73]. ...
... De manière générale, les garçons sont perçus par les adultes comme de plus grands preneurs de risques que les filles et sont autorisés à prendre de plus grands risques que les filles [124,33]. Sur la route, des études montrent que les comportements des filles sont plus conformes que ceux des garçons et que les filles connaissent mieux les règles de sécurité que les garçons [19,64]. Cette conformité aux stéréotypes de genre -elle-même également liée à la recherche de sensations -est alors un meilleur prédicteur des comportements à risque que le sexe biologique [68,61] : la conformité au stéréotype masculin conduit à une plus grande prise de risques que la conformité au stéréotype féminin [126]. ...
... Concernant la mobilité, entre 1 et 14 ans[1], les garçons représentent 64% des tués, et ont des accidents plus fréquents et plus graves que les filles. Des études indiquent d'ailleurs, qu'à pied ou à vélo, les garçons ont des comportements moins sécuritaires pouvant conduire à des accidents[61,27,26,64,65]. Ces résultats sont issus de données déclaratives recueillies par questionnaire ou entretien. ...
... Plus récemment, dans le cadre d'une étude menée sur la propension à la prise de risque dans les comportements cyclistes déclarés par 145 enfants de dix ans (86 garçons et 59 filles) (Granié, 2011), nous avons mesuré le niveau d'internalisation des règles cyclistes grâce à l'échelle EPCUR, adaptée aux comportements cyclistes. Il est demandé aux sujets d'estimer leur propension à s'engager dans 12 comportements cyclistes « si rien ni personne n'interdisait ce comportement ». ...
... Dans la recherche que nous avons menée sur 145 enfants (86 garçons et 59 filles) de six classes de CM2, nous avons interrogé par l'intermédiaire des Echelles EPCUR adaptés aux comportements cyclistes leur propension à prendre des risques, leur perception des risques et leur internalisation des règles associées (Granié, 2011). Les résultats montrent que les filles d'âges scolaires ont tendanciellement moins de propension que les garçons à s'engager dans des comportements risqués à vélo. ...
... Dans une autre recherche que nous avons déjà évoquée, nous avons également analysé le rôle du sexe sur les relations entre l'internalisation des règles concernant le comportement cycliste et la propension à prendre des risques à vélo (Granié, 2011). L'analyse de régression des données obtenues par questionnaire sur 145 enfants (86 garçons et 59 filles) âgés de 9 à 12 ans montre que les filles présentent davantage d'internalisation des règles relatives aux comportements à risque à vélo et ont tendance à présenter une moins grande propension à la prise de risque à vélo. ...
La particularité de ce travail de recherche est d’avoir tenté d’utiliser de front deux démarches. La première démarche, relevant de la recherche fondamentale, est axée sur l’étude des processus – socialisation, sexuation, internalisation, catégorisation, entre autres –, dans une visée de modélisation théorique. La deuxième démarche, relevant de la recherche appliquée, se centre sur l’étude des productions psychologiques et comportementales de ces processus – connaissances, représentations, comportements – et de leurs facteurs, dans une visée de prévention et d’éducation.
Cette habilitation à diriger les recherches est présentée en quatre grands chapitres : le comportement piéton comme terrain d’étude du processus de socialisation ; la socialisation routière : acculturation et conformité aux règles ; l’identité sexuée : développement et incidences sur la prise de risque ; les effets du milieu de vie sur la socialisation.
... Les observations en situation naturelle ou en laboratoire montrent que les garçons s'engagent dans des comportements plus risqués que les filles (Coppens & Gentry, 1991 ;Ginsburg & Miller, 1982 ;Morrongiello & Dawber, 1999 ;Rosen & Peterson, 1990), même lorsqu'ils sont impliqués dans la même activité que celles-ci (Galligan & Kuebli, 2011 ;Granié, 2007Granié, , 2011Morrongiello & Dawber, 1998 ;Rivara et al., 1982). Les jeunes conducteurs mâles rapportent plus de comportements risqués au volant (Harré et al., 1996) et plus d'attitudes risquées (Harré et al., 2000). ...
... Genre et rapport à la règle : la prise en compte de l'internalisation 24 Des travaux de ces cinq dernières années cherchent à montrer comment les différences de sexe dans les comportements routiers peuvent être expliquées par des différences dans la conformité engagée(Kochanska, 2002) et l'internalisation des règles(Granié, 2010b) -c'est-à-dire la transformation des règles sociales en comportements autorégulés(Grolnick et al., 1997) -. Deux études analysant les différences de sexe dans les comportements à risque dans l'espace routier montrent, pour l'une, que les filles préscolaires manifestent à la fois une plus grande connaissance des règles relatives aux comportement piéton, davantage de conformité à celles-ci et une plus grande internalisation que les garçons du même âge(Granié, 2007) et, pour l'autre, que les filles de 9-12 ans présentent davantage d'internalisation des règles relatives aux comportements à risque à vélo et ont tendance à présenter une moins grande propension à la prise de risque à vélo(Granié, 2011). Comme cela avait été montré chez les adultes piétons(Yagil, 1998(Yagil, , 2000, l'internalisation est plus importante chez les filles, ce qui suggère des plus hauts niveaux de motivation normatives(Tyler, 1990) chez ces dernières que chez les garçons. ...
Accident data shows males, whatever their age, are significantly more involved in road crashes as e result of a larger involvement in a wide range of risky and physically dangerous activities. This paper takes stock of knowledge that enables to understand the effect of gender on road crashes in a psychosocial developmental approach, pointing out the effects of gender stereotype compliance on relation to risk and compliance with rules, particularly in terms of internalization. It proposes trail of changes for road safety education to better develop rule internalization while taking into account gender stereotypes.
... For firefighters, one such possible benefit is gaining social prestige by conforming to the image of the occupation (Douesnard and Saint-Arnaud, 2011). Several authors have also shown that drivers or pedestrians who conform to masculine stereotypes report more accident risk behaviors (Granié, 2009;Granié, 2011;Guého, 2015;Douesnard and Saint-Arnaud, 2011;Ozkan andLajunen, 2005, see Granié et al., 2019, for a review) and that risk-taking is performed in order to show one's abilities and is derived from masculinity. ...
This article discusses the influence of the gendered perception of the firefighting profession as an explanatory factor for workers' risk behaviors. We hypothesize that the masculine perception of the firefighting profession will affect perceptions of risk behaviors, feelings of self-efficacy in driving, and reported risk behaviors in occupation-related risk activities and in driving. Gendered perceptions of the profession, risky behaviors in the context of occupational and non-occupational driving, perceptions of the risks and benefits of risky behaviors in occupational and physical activities and self-efficacy as regards risky behaviors as a driver were measured by an online questionnaire that was administered to 501 firefighters (146 professionals and 355 volunteers) in a Département in South-East France. The results confirmed our hypothesis that risky behaviors when engaged in physical activities, firefighting activities and occupational driving are more prevalent among firefighters, both male and female and of whatever age, who have a higher masculine perception of their occupation. The results also show that younger and professional firefighters reported more physical risk behavior. These different practices may show a greater internalization of masculine social norms on the part of firefighters who are professionals or who have less experience.
... Bernhoft and Carstensen (2008) used a survey approach, finding male cyclists in Denmark tended to act less cautiously, but also felt safer than their female counterparts. Similarly, French studies show that male cyclists tended to overestimate their ability more so than females whereas females tend to overestimate their carefulness more than males (Felonneau, et al., 2013) and that cyclist risk-taking behaviour seems to be gender specific even at an early age (Granié, 2011). Gender differences and their associated risks may help to explain the disparity in ridership currently experienced in cities (Garrard, Handy, & Dill, 2012), as well as the implementation of the appropriate designs and facilities. ...
In the literature, a crash-based modeling approach has long been used to evaluate the factors that contribute to cyclist injury risk at intersections. However, this approach has been criticized as crashes are required to occur before contributing factors can be identified and countermeasures can be implemented. Moreover, human factors related to dangerous behaviors are difficult to evaluate using crash-based methods. As an alternative, surrogate safety measures have been developed to address the issue of reliance on crash data. Despite recent developments, few methodologies and little empirical evidence exist on bicycle-vehicle interactions at intersections using video-based data and statistical analyses to identify associated factors. This study investigates bicycle-vehicle conflict severity and evaluates the impact of different factors, including gender, on cyclist risk at urban intersections with cycle tracks. A segmented ordered logit model is used to evaluate post-encroachment time between cyclists and vehicles. Video data was collected at seven intersections in Montreal, Canada. Road user trajectories were automatically extracted, classified, and filtered using a computer vision software to yield 1514 interactions. The discrete choice variable was generated by dividing post-encroachment time into normal interactions, conflicts, and dangerous conflicts. Independent variables reflecting attributes of the cyclist, vehicle, and environment were extracted either automatically or manually. Results indicated that an ordered model is appropriate for analyzing traffic conflicts and identifying key factors. Furthermore, exogenous segmentation was beneficial in comparing different segments of the population within a single model. Male cyclists, with all else being equal, were less likely than female cyclists to be involved in conflicts and dangerous conflicts at the studied intersections. Bicycle and vehicle speed, along with the time of the conflict relative to the red light phase, were other significant factors in conflict severity. These results will contribute to and further the understanding of gender differences in cycling within North America.
... • inhibition des comportements dangereux à vélo par internalisation des règles (Granié, 2011) ...
La recherche en psychologie du développement amène à se poser deux séries de questions face à l’enfant usager de l’espace routier : ‒les incapacités de l’enfant à gérer le trafic sont-elles structurelles – dues à son immaturité psychologiques – ou fonctionnelles – dues à son manque d’expérience – et, dans ce cas, sont-elles éducables et dans quelles conditions ? ‒les capacités cognitives à l’½uvre suffisent-elles à comprendre le comportement dans l’espace routier ? C’est dans ce double axe de réflexion que nous présenterons les connaissances actuelles issues de la recherche sur l’enfant piéton. Ceci permettra de cerner les influences sociales, notamment parentales et scolaires, sur le développement dès l’enfance de la représentation du danger, sur les comportements de prise de risque et sur la construction des règles de sécurité routière.
... These findings suggest that girls and boys have different motives for obeying safety rules. Furthermore, in a study among children aged 9 to 12 (Granié, 2011), it has been shown that girls differ from boys on cycling rules internalization, risk perception, and risk-taking propensity as cyclist. Among adolescents, it has been proved that sex-stereotype conformity has an effect on the internalization of traffic rules and risky behavior (Granié, 2009). ...
Gender differences are well known in accidentology and manifest themselves very early on in different types of accidents. Boys and men have more frequent and serious accidents than girls and women, and risk exposure does not appear to be the only explanatory variable. This phenomenon can notably be explained by greater risk-taking among boys and men. Numerous psychologists ascribe the male-female difference in risk-taking to gender roles and gender stereotypes. It was not until recently that the effects of sex-stereotype conformity were taken into account in explaining differences between males and females in risky behaviors as driver or pedestrian. In this paper, are exposed our previous studies on gender conformity effect on pedestrian, cyclist and driver behaviors, in a developmental perspective, from childhood to adulthood. Gender stereotype conformity is a better predictor of declared injury-risk behaviors than sex as early as in childhood and that, among adolescents, sensation seeking could be consider as mediator between masculinity, femininity and risk-taking as pedestrian. Furthermore, gender stereotype conformity explains behavioral compliance of children and adults with pedestrian rules, and that rule internalization and perception of intentionality are mediator factors to explain gender influence on injury-risk behavior, as pedestrian, cyclist and driver, from childhood to adulthood. From these results, means to act in education and prevention actions are discussed to minimize gender differences in injury-risk behaviors and in accidentology.
... These are very consistent with the pattern of exposure, in other words with the pattern of cycling according to age and gender as revealed by the French national transport survey [12]: women account for between 15% and 25% of sports cycling trips and between 30 and 44% of non-sports cycling trips. The higher incidence in males may also be due to stronger risk-taking behaviour in comparison with females [13,14]. The higher incidence of bicycle injuries among men than women has also been observed in other countries [15][16][17]. ...
Bicycle use has increased in some of France's major cities, mainly as a means of transport. Bicycle crashes need to be studied, preferably by type of cycling. Here we conduct a descriptive analysis.
A road trauma registry has been in use in France since 1996, in a large county around Lyon (the Rhône, population 1.6 million). It covers outpatients, inpatients and fatalities. All injuries are coded using the Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS). Proxies were used to identify three types of cycling: learning = children (0-10 years old); sports cycling = teenagers and adults injured outside towns; cycling as means of transport = teenagers and adults injured in towns. The study is based on 13,684 cyclist casualties (1996-2008).
The percentage of cyclists injured in a collision with a motor vehicle was 8% among children, 17% among teenagers and adults injured outside towns, and 31% among those injured in towns. The percentage of serious casualties (MAIS 3+) was 4.5% among children, 10.9% among adults injured outside towns and 7.2% among those injured in towns. Collisions with motor-vehicles lead to more internal injuries than bicycle-only crashes.
The description indicates that cyclist type is associated with different crash and injury patterns. In particular, cyclists injured in towns (where cycling is increasing) are generally less severely injured than those injured outside towns for both types of crash (bicycle-only crashes and collisions with a motor vehicle). This is probably due to lower speeds in towns, for both cyclists and motor vehicles.
On the road, men and young drivers are more often involved in serious and fatal crashes than women and older drivers worldwide. Among the various factors considered, traffic offences constitute an explanatory variable for these gender and age differences, on which it would be possible to act. The literature suggests that risky and offending driving behaviours could be motivated by the search for a sense of belonging and social status, but also by the affirmation of values relating to competence, power, independence and masculinity, which support positive self-esteem, especially among men and young people. Indeed, these different values would be symbolically linked to risky and offending behaviours on the road, and theses links would be shaped by culture but also by socialisation, which can operate differently depending on the social affiliations of the individual. To our knowledge, few studies have proposed to directly test the mediating role of these different values in explaining gender and age differences that characterize risky and offending driving behaviours. Moreover, while several studies show that risky and offending behaviours among men and young drivers are regulated by social norms, to our knowledge no study has yet investigated the existence of such norms from the perspective of the sociocognitive approach to social norms, which makes it possible to consider the social value that individuals attribute to behaviour. In this sense, our work proposes (a) to explore the role of adherence to certain values (notably the dimensions of individualism-collectivism, Schwartz' personal values, masculinity-femininity) in the occurrence of risky and offending behaviours among drivers; (b) to test the mediating and/or moderating role of these values in gender and age differences in these behaviours; (c) to confirm the normativity of these behaviours among men (vs. women) and young (vs. older) drivers by identifying the dimensions of social value that underlie it; (d) explore and consider the multidimensionality of risky and offending driving behaviours as well as the possible context-dependent aspect of some of the previous relationships (considering the salience of the gender group, for example). A total of 6 studies were carried out. The main results indicate that (a) adherence to values oriented toward the pursuit of high social status is particularly associated with risky and offending driving behaviours; (b) these values partially mediate gender and age differences observed in risky and offending driving behaviours; (c) risky and offending behaviours related to speed are more socially valued among men (vs. women) and young (vs. older) drivers; (d) among men (vs. women), this last observation could be explained by the attribution of low social desirability to compliant and cautionary behaviours, while it could be explained by the attribution of a higher social status to risky and offending behaviours among young (vs. older) drivers; (e) several tools - such as those used to measure individualism-collectivism - have psychometric properties and share relationships with other constructs that call into question the validity of their theoretical models. The theoretical implications of these results are mainly discussed in terms of (a) the empirical relationships between the different models and constructs used; (b) their interest in understanding risky and offending
behaviours more broadly. Applied perspectives for behavior change in the field of road safety are also discussed.
Résumé
Introduction
La crise sanitaire qu’a connue la France depuis le début de l’année 2020 a justifié la mise en place de nouvelles règles nécessitant des changements de comportements. Le contexte de mise en place de ces règles sanitaires, instituées très récemment et pour un temps limité, pose la question de leur perception et de leur respect dans la population.
Objectif
À partir de la psychologie sociale du développement, l’objectif de cet article est d’explorer les motivations à la conformité à ces règles sanitaires, mesurées ici au travers du port du masque, et d’étudier leur relation au vécu du contexte sanitaire et à la motivation à la conformité à d’autres règles légales, appréhendées ici au travers des règles de sécurité routière.
Méthode
Le recueil par questionnaire, effectué pendant le deuxième confinement auprès d’un échantillon de 4999 personnes représentatives de la population, a permis de mesurer le vécu du contexte sanitaire, l’internalisation des règles et leurs justifications, l’utilité des règles et la perception du système légal.
Résultats
Les résultats montrent les liens entre la règle, le type d’arguments utilisé pour la justifier pour le port du masque et pour les règles routières respectivement, ainsi que les liens entre l’internalisation et la perception du système légal. Ils montrent également que les femmes utilisent davantage les arguments moraux et prudentiels pour justifier leur internalisation des règles et qu’elles ont internalisé les règles routières (mais pas le port du masque) davantage que les hommes.
Conclusion
Ces résultats montrent que la perception de la règle du port du masque semble davantage liée à la perception générale qu’ont les individus du système légal et d’autres règles légales de santé publique impliquant le rapport à autrui que du contexte de mise en place de ces règles.
Cette thèse étudie l’évolution de l’usage du vélo au sein de la région Île-de-France,en s’intéressant particulièrement à la pratique dans les secteurs de la proche banlieue parisienne. En étudiant l’évolution des déplacements réalisés à vélo d’après les enquêtes EGT de 1976, 1983, 1991, 2001 et 2010, ce travail montre que la géographie de l’usage de ce mode s’est inversée au cours de ces décennies. L’usage du vélo, accompagné par de nouvelles pratiques de ce mode, a fortement augmenté dans Paris alors qu’il a baissé en proche et grande périphérie jusqu’en 2001. L’enquête de 2010 atteste d’une reprise de la pratique dans l’ensemble de la région, notamment dans les secteurs proches de Paris, alors que la pratique poursuit sa croissance intra-muros. Les études qualitatives ont permis de découvrir que les communes proches de Paris sont traversées par des dynamiques centrifuges amorcées depuis la capitale avec plusieurs années de décalage. Les politiques publiques, les actions militantes en faveur du vélo, ainsi que la mobilité résidentielle sont les trois principaux facteurs qui ont été identifiés, permettant d’expliquer le décalage spatial du retour du vélo en Île-de-France
Cycling in public spaces is both a mobility and a physical activity underpinned by considerable issues, but women practice significantly less, particularly during adolescence. A few studies have sought to study this phenomenon but mainly on the basis of social psychology theories. Based on 84 semi-structured biographical interviews conducted in France, this article aims to discuss their findings using gender, mobility and socialization sociology. We first show how a ‘feminine’ socialization to risk taking, body aesthetics, sport, street and mechanics is an obstacle to cycling during adolescence, especially in the working-class environment and all the more so in spatial contexts with strong norms of male appropriation of public space. We then show how the fact of having cyclists in one's social environment and a sporting inclination plays an important role in limiting the risk of abandonment. By highlighting processes of reinforcement of gendered bodily and spatial inclinations, our results shed light on the links between the socio-construction of inequalities in accessing public space and of inequalities in accessing physical activities. Furthermore, they encourage the study of bicycle socialisation in an intersectional way and suggest the interest of studying the links between urban, ecological, health, sport and mobility socialisations.
In French cities like Grenoble, cycling is an increasingly popular form of urban mobility. Yet a lack of disaggregated modal data makes it unclear who does and who does not have access to biking. An intersectional analysis of 19 narrative and semi-structured interviews with policymakers, residents with different identities, and bike service providers demonstrate that some people perceive unique barriers to biking, related to their identities. For example, this study finds that racism, financial precarity, a lack of accessible information about services, and spatial inequalities may prevent some people from biking despite Grenoble's advanced cycling infrastructure and services and that these barriers may compound for certain people, reinforcing the preliminary body of research on intersectional barriers to urban biking. The study further finds that the lack of disaggregated demographic data on urban mobility in France might be preventing inclusive bike policy. The paper concludes by arguing that local policymakers would benefit from applying an intersectional analysis in understanding who is and is not biking, to promote everyday biking in a more inclusive way.
Au cours de ce chapitre, nous verrons que les différences de sexe dans la mortalité routière peuvent s'expliquer par un rapport différencié au risque : la surreprésentation des hommes dans l'accidentalité s'expliquerait en partie par le fait que les hommes sont plus enclins à prendre des risques que les femmes. S'il existe des différences biologiques entre hommes et femmes qui peuvent expliquer leurs rapports différenciés au risque, nous verrons que ceux-ci peuvent également être liés à certaines attentes sociales que la socialisation entretient et diffuse.
TRB 2014 article and poster session
L'objectif de cet article est de faire un état des lieux des courants de recherche sur le comportement de l'enfant piéton en milieu urbain et de pointer le poids de la socialisation au risque dans la construction de ces comportements. Sont ainsi abordées notamment la différenciation entre règles institutionnelles et normes sociales et la catégorisation des règles comportementales sur lesquelles s'appuie l'enfant lors de ses déplacements dans la ville. A titre d'exemple, sont évoquées les résultats de recherches sur les facteurs psychosociaux explicatifs des différences de sexe dans l'accidentologie routière. En conclusion, des pistes d'action en termes d'éducation routière, découlant de la prise en compte de la construction sociale des comportements de l'enfant piéton, sont relevées. Enfant - Piéton - Socialisation- Règle - Genre. Numéro spécial l'enfant dans la ville. Convergences disciplinaires et perspectives de recherche
Determines whether a broader measure of road traffic violations would fully mediate the relationship between mild social deviance and accident rates. Ss were 417 female and 413 male 17–40 yr olds. Self-reports of violations (using the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire), mild social deviance and accident rates were collected, together with information about age, sex and annual mileage. A series of Poisson regressions were computed to investigate the relationship between these predictor variables and accident rates. The data confirmed the relationship between mild social deviance and accident rates. This relationship appeared to be mediated by the propensity to commit driving violations and unspecified factors associated with age. The results of the analysis are discussed with reference to the appropriateness of various intervention strategies to promote safer driving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Group-administered questionnaires were used to examine the social judgments of 139 9th- and 12th-grade students regarding drug usage. Ss were divided into groups on the basis of self-reported drug use. Low-drug-use and high-drug-use Ss of both grades tended to view drug use as a matter of personal discretion or prudence rather than an issue of morality or social convention. High-drug-use Ss were more likely than low-drug-use Ss to view drug use as a personal rather than prudential issue and to view the behavior as less harmful and less wrong. They were also more likely to view themselves as the only authority with regard to drug use and less likely to view parents or the law as authorities. There were no significant age effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors conducted a meta-analysis of 150 studies in which the risk-taking tendencies of male and female participants were compared. Studies were coded with respect to type of task (e.g., self-reported behaviors vs. observed behaviors), task content (e.g., smoking vs. sex), and 5 age levels. Results showed that the average effects for 14 out of 16 types of risk taking were significantly larger than 0 (indicating greater risk taking in male participants) and that nearly half of the effects were greater than .20. However, certain topics (e.g., intellectual risk taking and physical skills) produced larger gender differences than others (e.g., smoking). In addition, the authors found that (a) there were significant shifts in the size of the gender gap between successive age levels, and (b) the gender gap seems to be growing smaller over time. The discussion focuses on the meaning of the results for theories of risk taking and the need for additional studies to clarify age trends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The impact of the individuals' life condition on the relation between moral judgement and (delinquent) behaviour was investigated in a sample of 162 adolescents and young adults. The sample consisted of two groups: homeless youth and institutional youth, i.e. youth with a history of residential care. The difference in life conditions between both groups is characterised by a lack of stable social relationships and speci® c survival demands for the homeless youth group. Homeless youth reported much more delinquent behaviour than institu-tional youth, but this difference could not be attributed to the level of moral judgement. However, while for institutional youth a conventional level of moral reasoning was associated with lower levels of delinquency in four domains of deviant behaviour, including violence and vandalism, no such association was found for homeless youth. In the latter group, important predictor variables explaining delinquent behaviour, besides being male, were: a restrictive and affectionless parenting style, predominance of individuation over attachment and a passive coping style. It is concluded that delinquent behaviour in homeless youth appeared to be caused by a lack of stable social relationships, as well as a by a lack of moral internalisation, with affect and cognition not being integrated. One of the long-term goals in the study of moral development is to understand and predict moral behaviour, including delinquency. Empirically, the relationship be-tween moral judgement competence and delinquency ª has become an established ® ndingº (Gregg et al., 1994). Theoretically, the relationship between moral judge-ment competence and moral behaviour is complex (Salzstein, 1994; Smetana, 1994). The present study on the relationship between moral judgement competence and delinquent behaviour focuses on the life condition of participants, differentiat-0305-7240/99/010063-1 7 $7.00 Ó 1999 Journal of M oral Education Ltd
Motivationally distinct forms of child compliance, mutually positive affect, and maternal control, observed in 3 control contexts in 103 dyads of mothers and their 26–41-month-old children, were examined as correlates of internalization, assessed using observations of children while alone with prohibited temptations and maternal ratings. One form of compliance (committed compliance), when the child appeared committed wholeheartedly to the maternal agenda and eager to endorse and accept it, was emphasized. Mother-child mutually positive affect was both a predictor and a concomitant of committed compliance. Children who shared positive affect with their mothers showed a high level of committed compliance and were also more internalized. Differences and similarities between children's compliance to requests and prohibitions (“Do” vs. “Don't” demand contexts) were also explored. Maternal “Dos” appeared more challenging to toddlers than the “Don'ts.” Some individual coherence of behavior was also found across both demand contexts. The implications of committed compliance for emerging internalized regulators of conduct are discussed.
The present study focuses on the effect of the elements of religiosity and faith on pedestrian behavior. The sample consisted of 1047 pedestrians who were observed at two busy urban intersections. The observations were conducted in three separate intervals at two busy intersections in Ramat-Gan (secular area) and Bnei-Brak (ultra-orthodox area) during the afternoon hours. Five activities were the focus of the observation: running a red-light, crossing where there is no crosswalk, walking along the road, failing to check for traffic prior to crossing, and taking a child’s hand when crossing. A Chi square test for independence was used to estimate the effect of location, gender and age. In the case of two-by-two cross-tabulation, Φ, the non-directional measure of association for categorical variables, was calculated. Findings indicate that males committed significantly more violations than females, and there is a negative correlation between age and frequency of violations. The younger the individual, the more frequently s/he commits a violation. Beyond age and gender as behavioral determinants, pedestrians in the orthodox environment committed violations about three times more frequently than those in the secular environment. Part of the robust difference found between the secular and the ultra-orthodox pedestrians, may be due to the fact that the age-related trend does not exist in Bnei-Brak. Age was related to the violation rate in Ramat-Gan, but not in Bnei-Brak. The following discussion relates to ideological, psychological and practical explanations of these findings.
The study examined pedestrians’ self-reported road-crossing behavior in relation to beliefs regarding the consequences of the behavior incorporated in the health belief model, instrumental and normative motives for compliance with safety rules, and situational factors. A questionnaire was administered to 205 students at two Israeli higher education institutions. The results show that crossing against a `Don’t walk' sign is predicted by perceived consequences of the behavior, as well as by normative motives. The results revealed consistent gender differences: women’s perception of their susceptibility to an accident resulting from an unsafe crossing is higher than that of men; women also report more than men that they are motivated by normative and instrumental considerations. Nevertheless, for women unsafe crossing is predicted only by instrumental motives, whereas for men both normative and instrumental motives predict unsafe crossing behavior. Among the situational variables, the presence of other pedestrians is related to the self-reported crossing behavior of women, whereas traffic volume is related to that of men. The results are discussed with regard to similarities and differences between pedestrians and drivers in compliance with safety laws.
The first part of the CVA study describes cyclists injured or killed in an accident. It is based on the Rhône Road Trauma Registry. Study period: 1996-2006. This study uses a categorisation of injured cyclists in 3 groups : injured children / teens and adults injured in towns / teens and adults injured outside towns. This allows a generalisation of the results.
The results of a 10 year study of bicycle fatalities and an eight year study of serious non-fatalities are reported for urban Brisbane (population 1,000,000). There were 845 serious non-fatal bicycle accidents and 46 fatalities during the study. Boys were involved in 86% of accidents. Boys have an accident rate of 134.21 per 100,000 population at risk and a fatality rate of 5.06 per 100,000 at risk. Serious bicycle accidents have increased by 50% in this decade; but considering fatal cases alone, no secular trend was evident over the 10 year period of the study. This suggests that an increase in the overall rate of bicycle accidents has been in part compensated by less serious injuries. In 70% of fatalities children had head injuries, and 87% of fatalities followed a collision between a cyclist and a motor vehicle or a train. Bicycle accidents on the roads most commonly occur to boys aged between 12 and 14 years on a straight road at "mid-block" between 3 and 5 pm in clear weather conditions and in daylight. It is concluded that injuries and fatalities after bicycle accidents can be reduced by protecting children's heads, separating child cyclists from other road traffic, or educating and training both cyclists and other road users in safe behaviour. The compulsory use of helmets and the restriction of access to the roads by child cyclists to reduce injuries are, however, still controversial in many areas.
While there are almost 1,000 bicyclist deaths in the United States every year, there has been little formal analysis of the fatal risk patterns of bicyclists. In large part, this is because there has been little information available on riding exposure. The purpose of this article is to determine and quantify the relative risks of death for bicyclists according to age, gender, and daylight conditions. Relative risks are estimated by comparing data on the characteristics of fatally injured bicyclists with estimates of riding exposure from a recent national survey of bicyclists in the United States. The results suggest substantially higher fatality risks for males, for bicyclists over the age of 44, and for bicyclists who ride after dark. Discussion of the results includes implications regarding differences in the fatal and nonfatal injury risks associated with bicycle use.
Assessed for age and sex differences in school-age children's reporting of injury-risk behaviors, ratings of injury-risk in various play situations, attributions for injuries (self, other, bad luck), and beliefs about their vulnerability to injury in comparison to their peers (more, less, comparable vulnerability).
We used a structured interview and drawings that depicted children showing wary or confident facial expressions when engaged in injury-risk play activities.
Children's reported risk taking could be predicted from their risk appraisals, beliefs about the likelihood of injury, and attributions of injuries to bad luck, and these factors resulted 80% correct assignment of cases by sex in a discriminant analysis. The wary affect display resulted in higher injury-risk ratings than the confident display, with this effect being greater for girls than boys.
Cognitive-based factors differentiate boys from girls and contribute to sex differences in children's injury-risk behaviors.
Relations among moral reasoning, domain judgment and engagement in risky behaviors were assessed with 68 students attending a Just Community school and 122 comparison students from the larger high school with which the alternative school is affiliated. Risky behaviors were perceived as personal decisions, rather than as ones of morality or convention. Engagement and domain judgment of risky behavior interacted; with increasing substance involvement, students were more likely to view the decision to use drugs and alcohol as a personal decision than as either a moral or conventional decision. Domain judgments of risks appeared to moderate the relation between moral reasoning and engagement in risky behavior, suggesting that moral education interventions must encourage youth to explore their views that much of their behavior is only their own business.
The present study (a) examined the question of whether gender differences in hypothetical risk decisions might be socially facilitated by the presence of gender-homogenous groups and (b) investigated the conscious and non-conscious motivators of risk-taking through the application of both explicit and implicit measures of risk attitude. Using hypothetical choice dilemma items, no gender difference was found at an individual level; however, when placed in-groups, males expressed a stronger pro-risk position than females. While males self-reported a stronger pro-risk position than did females on two explicit measures of risk-attitude, no gender differences were found on two parallel implicit measures. However, a newly developed implicit measure of risk-attitude showed its utility in the form of convergent, predictive and incremental validity with respect to a behavioural outcome.
This study aims to explore the effect of gender role conformity on perception and display of risky pedestrian behaviours among adults. Masculinity and femininity levels were measured among 258 adults (104 men and 154 women). Effects of conformity to masculine and feminine gender role were observed on self-reported frequency of 16 pedestrian behaviours and on danger perception, risk perception and normative beliefs linked to these behaviours. Results show gender difference and effect of gender role conformity on normative beliefs related to pedestrian behaviours. Mistaken and unsafe behaviours are more disapproved by men than by women. Individual with high conformity to masculine gender role more endorse risk-taking and violations than individuals with high conformity to feminine gender role. Links between normative beliefs and behaviours and gender roles contents are discussed.
Zusammenfassung. Gegenstand des Beitrags ist die Affinität zu waghalsigen und Risk-Fashion Aktivitäten Jugendlicher. Im Mittelpunkt steht die Frage nach dem Zusammenhang zwischen dieser spezifischen Risikoaffinität und der Geschlechtsrollenorientierung unter Jugendlichen. Datengrundlage bildet eine Stichprobe von 2.203 Mädchen und Jungen im Alter zwischen 12 und 16 Jahren, die mittels standardisierter Erhebungsinstrumente schriftlich befragt wurden. Es ist festzustellen, dass maskuline Jungen die größte und feminine Mädchen die geringste Affinität zu risikobezogenen Verhaltensweisen zeigen. Regressionsanalytisch erweist sich, dass die Geschlechtsrollenorientierung ein relevanterer Prädiktor ist als die Geschlechtszugehörigkeit oder das Lebensalter.
Unintentional injuries are the leading cause of childhood mortality beyond 1 year of age. Although boys engage in more risk taking and experience more injuries than girls, there is relatively little known about whether parents socialize boys and girls differently with respect to risk taking. The aim in the present study was to examine mothers' and fathers' communications to sons and daughters during both a free-play episode and their teaching the child a playground behavior (going down a firehouse-type pole) that posed some threat to safety because of the child's developmental status. The results revealed that mothers and fathers responded similarly to each other, but differently to sons and daughters. Coding of verbalizations revealed that sons received more directives, fewer explanations, and more questions communicating information about how to perform the pole task than daughters. Coding of physical contact revealed that parents applied more pressure to sons than daughters to attempt the pole task without physical assistance and provided more spontaneous physical assistance to daughters than sons, although there were no sex differences in children's playground skills or their abilities to complete the task independently. Coding of the free-play episode yielded results consistent with those from the teaching session. The results suggest that in the course of routine parent–child interactions, parents communicate to young children in ways that may promote greater risk taking by boys than girls and greater perceived injury vulnerability among girls than boys.
Background
In France 7,720 people were killed in traffic accidents in 2001, 75% of which were men; the number of injured people is estimated at 153,945, of which 65% were men. The objective of the study is to describe differences between males and females regarding accidents, and to explain the main reasons for these differences.
Methods
Analysis is conducted from both national police data (2001) and data from the Rhône medical road accident trauma Register (1996-2001).
Results
The male/female incidence rate is 3.1 for mortality (95% CI: 3.0-3.3) and 1.7 for morbidity (95% CI: 1.7-1.8). Two-wheel motorised vehicle accidents are very specific to males, which explains part of this overrepresentation. The fatality rate and the severe injuries rate among survivors are higher for males. This is true for every main user group (car users, motorised two-wheelers, cyclists, pedestrians) after adjusting for accident circumstances and age of casualties. Males are more severely injured for all body regions and have more often severe after-effects.
Conclusions
This paper shows the mechanisms leading to this unfavourable outcome for men. They correspond to differences in the number of trips, in the choice of road transport types, and moreover to differences in risk-taking behaviours. Underlying these behaviours, deep-rooted, strong and rather invariant differences between genders are to be found in the values associated with risk-taking on the road.
Examined whether children differentiate between the social-interactional, moral aspects of harm and the nonsocial, prudential aspects of harm. 90 Ss (aged 6, 8, and 10 yrs) were administered an interview about 2 moral rules (pertaining to hitting and theft) and 1 prudential rule. Three types of assessment were obtained: criterion judgments (evaluation, authority and rule contingency, and generalizability); justifications; and attributions of importance. Findings show that most Ss regarded moral and prudential rules as useful, their violation as wrong, the validity of the actions as noncontingent on rules or authority, and as generalizable; these effects were stronger for the moral than the prudential rules, with more older Ss distinguishing between the 2 rule types. However, the reasons given in justification of moral rules focused on both consequences and the regulation of social relations, while justification for the prudential rule was based only on consequences. Moral rules were attributed more importance than the prudential rule. The pattern of findings indicates that children differentiate between consequences and regulation of social interactions. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The present study aimed to describe the road user behaviour of New Zealand adolescents and to investigate the applicability of the Adolescent Road user Behaviour Questionnaire (ARBQ) to New Zealand adolescents. In total 944 adolescents were surveyed in the North and South islands of New Zealand. Factor analysis of the scale produced three factors which had acceptable internal reliability and were very similar to those found in the original research. The three factors were “unsafe crossing behaviour”, “playing on the road” and “planned protective behaviour”. This research also found that males and those who were at least part Maori were more likely to put themselves at risk by playing on the road. Furthermore, those who identified themselves as being part Maori also engaged in unsafe road crossing behaviour more often than Caucasian and Asian adolescents. Interestingly, only the interaction effect between age and sex was significantly related to engagement in planned protective behaviour. However, despite differences between New Zealand and England, and differences in the sample characteristics, the scale appeared to be measuring the same latent variables. Therefore, this research confirmed that the ARBQ is a useful tool for investigating the behaviour of adolescents on the road.
The aim of the present study was to develop a self-report questionnaire to provide a classification of aberrant road user behaviour in adolescent children. An Adolescent Road user Behaviour Questionnaire (ARBQ) was developed, comprising 43 items requiring respondents to rate the frequency with which they engaged in specific examples of road-using behaviour. The questionnaire was completed by 2433 children aged 11–16. Factor analysis showed that responses to the 43 items were best fitted by a three-factor solution. Factor 1 comprised items relating to “unsafe road crossing behaviour”, factor 2 comprised items related to “dangerous playing in the road”, and factor 3 comprised items which as a group were termed “planned protective behaviour”. A revised 21-item ARBQ was produced by selecting the items that loaded most strongly on the three factors. The 21-item instrument had good internal reliability. The effects of demographic variables on ARBQ scale scores were investigated. This study provided a tool that could be used in the future by researchers investigating adolescent road user safety. Possible avenues for future research include applying the ARBQ to the study of adolescents’ road accident involvement, and the study of the psychological variables that predict the ARBQ scales.
The study examined gender and age-related differences in drivers’ normative motives for compliance with traffic laws and in gain–loss considerations related to driving. Two age groups of male and female students, totaling 181 respondents, completed a questionnaire measuring several normative motives for compliance with traffic laws, perceived gains and danger involved in the commission of traffic violations, and the frequency of committing various driving violations. The results show that younger drivers and male drivers express a lower level of normative motivation to comply with traffic laws than do female and older drivers. The lowest level of perceived importance of traffic laws relative to other laws was found among young male drivers. The commission of traffic violations was found to be related more to the evaluation of traffic laws among men and younger drivers, compared to women and older drivers. The perceived danger involved in the commission of a driving violation, however, was found to constitute much more of a factor among women than among men before the commission of traffic violations. Perceived gains involved in the commission of violations were more strongly pronounced among older drivers than among younger drivers. Results are discussed concerning different types of attitude–behavior relationships in the context of driving.
Injuries are the leading cause of death during childhood. Although many injuries to toddlers occur when children are at home and being supervised by caregivers, there has been little research examining how parents respond to children approaching injury-risk hazards. In the present study mothers and their toddlers were unobtrusively videotaped as they waited in an office containing a number of contrived hazards that could result in injury to the child. From the video records we examined when mothers attended to hazards (before or after the child approached the hazard), what they said or did (remove hazard, redirect child- verbally or physically), and children's responses to their mother's efforts to redirect them away from injury hazards. Other factors that were examined as potential influences on parents' responses included the child's injury history, the parent's report of the child's typical level of risk taking, and the child's level of receptive language development. Boys were more likely than girls to approach injury-risk hazards and were more likely immediately to touch or retrieve the item; frequency of touching hazards positively correlated with mothers' reports of children's risk taking and injury histories. Mothers used more, and more effortful, redirection strategies for boys, and boys were less compliant than girls in response to their mother's efforts to redirect them from hazards.
Unintentional injuries are the leading cause of childhood mortality beyond 1 year of age. Although boys engage in more risk taking and experience more injuries than girls, there is relatively little known about whether parents socialize boys and girls differently with respect to risk taking. The aim in the present study was to examine mothers' and fathers' communications to sons and daughters during both a free-play episode and their teaching the child a playground behavior (going down a firehouse-type pole) that posed some threat to safety because of the child's developmental status. The results revealed that mothers and fathers responded similarly to each other, but differently to sons and daughters. Coding of verbalizations revealed that sons received more directives, fewer explanations, and more questions communicating information about how to perform the pole task than daughters. Coding of physical contact revealed that parents applied more pressure to sons than daughters to attempt the pole task without physical assistance and provided more spontaneous physical assistance to daughters than sons, although there were no sex differences in children's playground skills or their abilities to complete the task independently. Coding of the free-play episode yielded results consistent with those from the teaching session. The results suggest that in the course of routine parent–child interactions, parents communicate to young children in ways that may promote greater risk taking by boys than girls and greater perceived injury vulnerability among girls than boys.
New Zealand adolescent males (n = 389) and females (n = 247) with a mean age of 15.86 years, were compared on a number of self-reported risky driving and passenger behaviors and attitudes. The survey found that males were significantly more likely than females to report driving, engaging in unsafe driving behaviors, drinking and driving, speeding on the open road, breaking the night curfew associated with being on a restricted licence, and dangerous thought patterns. Females were more likely to have been the passenger of a drinking driver after the last party they attended. High levels of unlicensed driving, breaking the rules associated with a restricted licence, failing to wear a seat belt in the back seat, speeding, and being the passenger of a drinking driver were found in both groups. Recommendations for intervention strategies are made.
Based on the theory of planned behavior, pedestrians' attitudes towards traffic violations and self-ratings of violations, errors and lapses were measured amongst a sample of 146 pedestrians. The evaluation of the planned behavior model using EQS showed a significant fit (χ2(11)=16.04 p=0.14; ). The reported violations, errors and lapses appears causally related to the intention to violate regulations, and this in turn with positive attitudes, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. Young people have a more positive attitude towards committing violations as pedestrians than adults and perceive the subjective norm to be less inhibitory, have less control over violations, have a more positive intention to commit violations, and report more violations, errors, and lapses than adults. Men report more frequent violations of the traffic rules than women do. The conclusion is drawn that pedestrians, and in particular young males, are at least in part responsible for the high accident rates and remedial actions are suggested.
The study examined gender differences in compliance with pedestrian rules among preschool children. Two groups of 5-year-old boys and girls containing a total of 162 children participated in the study. First, the children’s compliance was assessed during crossing and walking by observing their pedestrian behaviors. Then, each child was interviewed on pedestrian-danger appraisal, rule knowledge, rule compliance, and rule internalization. As hypothesized, the results showed that girls’ behaviors were more compliant than those of boys. However, boys were more compliant than girls in looking at the surrounding environment as they traveled and before crossing. Girls said they were more compliant with rules, had better knowledge of rules, and exhibited greater rule internalization than boys. Danger appraisals, however, were found to be comparable for boys and girls. Moreover, declared compliance was linked to behavioral compliance among girls but not among boys. These findings suggest that girls and boys have different motives for obeying safety rules. The results are discussed in regard to the origins of gender differences in traffic-rule compliance.
The objective of this study is to explore the effects of sex-stereotype conformity and the internalization of traffic rules on risk-taking among adolescent pedestrians. Sex-stereotype conformity, danger perception, internalization of traffic rules and risky behaviors self-reported by 278 adolescent pedestrians (130 boys and 148 girls) aged 12–16 were measured. The results show an effect of sex-stereotype conformity on the internalization of traffic rules and risky behavior. Furthermore, the results show an effect of internalizing traffic rules on the risky pedestrian behaviors. Thus, it appears that, more than biological sex, it is the level of masculinity and the level of internalization of the rules that explain gender differences in risk-taking among adolescent pedestrians.
Sexual selection theory suggests that willingness to participate in risky or violent competitive interactions should be observed primarily in those age-sex classes that have experienced the most intense reproductive competition (fitness variance) during the species' evolutionary history, and in those individuals whose present circumstances are predictive of reproductive failure.Homicidal conflicts in the city of Detroit in 1972 are reviewed in the light of the above perspective. Homicide in Detroit, as elsewhere, is overwhelming a male affair. Victim and offender populations are almost identical, with unemployed, unmarried, young men greatly overrepresented. The most common conflict typologies are described, and it is suggested that many, perhaps most, homicides concern status competition.Other manifestations of “taste for risk,” such as daredevilry and gambling are briefly reviewed. The evidence suggests that such a taste is primarily a masculine attribute, and is socially facilitated by the presence of peers in pursuit of the same goals.Such dangerous, competitive acts as the classic “trivial altercation” homicide often appear foolhardy to observers. However, it remains unknown whether the typical consequences of such acts are ultimately beneficial or detrimental to the perpetrators' interests.
Preferences and behaviour of older pedestrians and cyclists (women and men, 70 years and above) in cities were studied by means of a questionnaire, and was compared to a group of people aged 40–49. The older respondents appreciate pedestrian crossings, signalized intersections and cycle paths significantly more than the younger respondents do. To a larger extent they feel that it is dangerous to cross the road where these facilities are missing. The older pedestrians also find the presence of a pavement very important on their route, whereas the younger pedestrians more often focus on a fast passage. Differences in preferences and behaviour within the group of older respondents can be related to differences in health and physical abilities rather than to differences in age and gender. The older road users seem to be more influenced by the fact that an action is illegal than the younger road users are. In several instances they more often give this reason for refraining from an act than the younger respondents. They also more often use the argument that they act in a specific way, because it makes them feel safer. And finally they more often express doubts about their own abilities.
Unintentional injuries continue to be a serious public-health problem for children and are higher for boys than for girls, from infancy through adulthood. Literature on differential socialization concerning risky behaviors and gender stereotypes suggests that sex differences in unintentional injuries could be explained by children's differential feedback to social pressure, leading to behaviors which conform to masculine and feminine stereotypes. We made the prediction that boys' and girls' conformity with masculine stereotypes influences injury-risk behaviors among preschoolers. Masculinity score, femininity score, and injury-risk behaviors of 170 3-6-year old children (89 boys and 81 girls) were measured indirectly on two scales filled out by their parents. Results show that boys' and girls' injury-risk behaviors are predicted by masculine stereotype conformity and that girls' masculine behaviors decline with increasing age. These results underline the impact of gender-roles - and of the differential socialization associated with those roles - on sex differences in children's risky behaviors as early as the preschool period.
Judgments and justifications for different forms of civic involvement and their associations with organized and civic behavior were examined in 312 middle-class primarily White adolescents (M = 17.01 years). Adolescents applied moral, conventional, and personal criteria to distinguish involvement in community service, standard political, social movement, and social gathering activities. Males judged standard political involvement to be more obligatory and important than did females, who judged community service to be more obligatory and important than did males. For each form of civic involvement, greater involvement was associated with more positive judgments and fewer personal justifications. Structural equation modeling indicated that adolescents' judgments about specific types of civic involvement were associated with similar forms of civic behaviors.
The development of sex differences in children's injury rates was explored by analyzing data from 197,516 consumer product-related injuries reported in 1978. The results indicated that sex differences in injury rates appear within the first year of life for most types of injuries. Burns, ingestions, and poisonings were important exceptions. The sex differences were not completely explained by differences in exposure to risk. Sex differences in behavior begin to appear at the same age as the differences in injury rates and correlate with injury type. Injury prevention efforts should take these developmental differences into account and focus attention on the high-risk child.
This paper draws on data gathered during a larger study of driving behaviour to explore possible connections between stress, offending against the traffic laws, and accident rates, and gives particular attention to comparisons between male and female drivers. Data were gathered from 422 drivers by a postal questionnaire, and further measures of stress were obtained during semi-structured interviews with a specially selected subset of 66 of them. Analyses of variance investigated links between offending rates, accident history, and up to seven measures of stress, taking age and gender into account. In the results accident history, although positively related to offending, played little part in links involving stress variables. The principal findings were that (a) stress, both on and off the road, was positively associated with offending among both male and female drivers, and (b) although females overall offended less than males, females experienced more stress than males whatever their level of offending. One possible interpretation of these results is suggested by the feminist literature, which could account for both the higher levels of stress and lower levels of offending found among women drivers. However, there is unlikely to be a clear-cut gender divide in offending-stress relationships, and some small groups of female drivers in the study behaved like male ones. It is suggested that people's driving reflects their lifestyles, and that women drivers' patterns of offending and stress will resemble those of male drivers to the extent that their lives and concerns are similar to men's. It is concluded that this position warrants further research.
This study assessed parents' knowledge of injury risks for children, attitudes within children's injury-risk behaviours, and beliefs related to a number of aspects of childhood injuries. Parents completed questionnaires and participated in discussions using scenarios depicting child-injury situations that involved a parent and child. Results indicated that parents view injuries largely as a natural consequence of childhood and they believe children learn about risk avoidance from injury experiences. Parents' responses did not indicate a strong belief that injuries to children are preventable or that they should assume primary responsibility for preventing injuries to children. Parents readily identified potential injury consequences and alternative behaviours but provided a number of rationales for making choices that place their child at injury risk: explanations related to convenience, minimizing stress, placing their own goals as a priority, and believing they can keep the child safe in a hazardous situation. Injury prevention programming that targets parents needs to focus on increasing awareness of the scope of the problem and altering attitudes and beliefs related to prevention.
Children ages 6, 8, and 10 years were given tasks designed to assess their beliefs about risk of injury from activities. Children were asked to appraise the risk of injury for boys and girls engaging in various play behaviors and to judge the sex of the character in stories about children engaging in activities that result in injuries. Results revealed gender biases in children's appraisals of injury risk: Both boys and girls rated boys as having a lower likelihood of injury than girls even though the boys and girls were engaging in the exact same activities. Children also showed higher accuracy in identifying the sex of the character in stories of boys' injuries than girls' injuries, and accuracy improved with the participant's age. Overall, the results indicate that by the age of 6 years children already have differential beliefs about injury vulnerability for boys and girls. Although boys routinely experience more injuries than girls, children rate girls as having a greater risk of injury than boys. With increasing age, school-age children develop a greater awareness of the ways in which boys and girls differ in risk-taking activities that lead to injury outcomes.
Previous research has established that children's committed, eager, willing compliance with maternal control promotes moral internalization, whereas their opposition interferes with internalization; but the causal mechanism responsible for those links is unknown. A mediational model is tested in which committed compliance and opposition are seen as influencing the child's emerging view of self on moral dimensions, and this "moral self," in turn, regulates moral conduct. Committed compliance and opposition were observed in naturalistic mother-child discipline contexts involving "do" and "don't" demands at 14, 22, 33, and 45 months. An interactive interview and observations were used to measure the moral self and internalization at 56 months (N = 74). The mediational model, involving committed compliance and opposition in the "don't" demand context, was supported, but only for boys.
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