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Behavioural Coherence in Violent Group Activity: An Interpersonal Model of Sexually Violent Gang Behaviour
Abstract
This study provides an analysis of offender-victim interactions in 223 cases of sexual violence committed in gangs. Cases were derived from archival sources such as law reports. A multivariate analysis revealed four interpersonal themes (dominance, submission, co-operation, and hostility) previously identified in studies of lone sexual assault [Alison and Stein, Vicious Circles: Accounts of stranger sexual assault reflect abusive variants of conventional interactions. J Forensic Psychiatry 12:515–538, 2001]. These themes have also been identified in many other forms of human relating [Wiggins, An informal history of the interpersonal circumplex tradition. J Pers Assess 66:217–233, 1996] and conform to a structure known as the interpersonal circumplex. The circumplex has previously been used to conceptualise the relationships between individuals in terms of dynamic interactions that are mutually influencing. Thus, dominance elicits submission and submission elicits dominance. Each interpersonal style could be further subdivided according to the use of either verbally or physically abusive strategies. Point-Biserial correlations with other aspects of the offence (e.g., mobility of the group, post-offence treatment of the victim) provided additional support for these conceptually different themes and demonstrated that gang rape represents a distorted and violent form of interpersonal relating. Further, this dynamic interaction emerges not just at an individual level, but at a group level, suggesting that the thematic concepts underpinning the interpersonal circumplex can be extended to group activity and sexually aggressive behaviour. Yes Yes
... The sexual offending literature contains studies of both types. Sexual offenses committed by multiple perpetrators involve more physical violence than sexual offenses by lone perpetrators (Woodhams, 2013), but not all MPSOs are characterized by the same degree of violence, nor the same type of violence directed towards the victim (Bijleveld, Weerman, Looije, & Hendriks, 2007;Porter & Alison, 2004, 2006. 1 We are not implying that victims should be blamed or deemed responsible in any way should their acts of resistance appear to be associated with acts of aggression by the perpetrator(s). Woodhams, Gillett, and Grant (2007) proposed three potential explanations for these two findings: victim resistance, deindividuation, and group dynamics. ...
... Until now, a systematic test of these three explanations for group violence has not been possible in MPSOs, in part due to an absence of studies that have preserved the temporal ordering of victim and offender behaviors (e.g., Porter & Alison, 2004). Other studies have relied on post-hoc accounts of small samples of convicted perpetrators (e.g., Blanchard, 1959;da Silva et al., 2018) and, therefore, suffer from the methodological limitations of intentional distortion, poor memory, and reliance on potentially unrepresentative samples. ...
... Sexually violent interactions are certainly unstructured situations. Regarding the degree of pre-existing acquaintance between suspect(s) and victim, the circumplex has been successfully applied to sexually violent interactions by lone perpetrators (e.g., and multiple perpetrators who are strangers to their victims (e.g., Hauffe & Porter, 2009;Porter & Alison, 2004). Behaviors indicative of each of the four quadrants (dominance, submission, cooperation and hostility) were found in these three studies (i.e., Hauffe & Porter, 2009;Porter & Alison, 2004). ...
Objective: Violence perpetrated by groups has been proposed to result from processes that include deindividuation, instrumental responses to victim resistance, and leader–follower dynamics. Here we compare the explanatory merit of these accounts by analyzing the sequential patterns of behaviors that occurred in 71 accounts of multiple perpetrator rape by 189 suspects against lone females. Method: Victim accounts of the offenses made to the police were coded for leader, follower, and victim actions using the interpersonal circumplex quadrants, and the offenses were rated as involving high or low nonsexual aggression. Results: Analysis of the temporal proximities among victim and suspect behaviors found that (a) in contrast to deindividuation, hostility decreased rather than increased with group size, (b) victim behavior had no significant effect on perpetrator violence, and (c) leader behavior had a significant effect on group violence. Conclusions: Compared with low aggression offenses, high aggression offenses were characterized by the leaders’ hostile behaviors reinforcing the hostile behavior of followers, as well as there being some mutual reinforcement from follower(s) to leader. This has implications for theories of (sexual) violence perpetrated by multiple individuals, as well as for clinical work with such offenders. For example, the influence of peers in these offenses has implications for the planning of interventions with such offenders and the sorts of intervention that are likely to be successful.
... Group offenders' victims tend to be younger than victims of lone offenders (e.g., Lloyd & Walmsley, 1989;Morgan, Brittain, & Welch, 2012). Groups have been found to target lone victimsfor example, Porter and Alison (2004) reported that 87% of group rapes (194 out of 223) were against a lone victimbut groups are also more likely to attack multiple victims than a lone offender (Alarid et al., 2009;Hauffe & Porter, 2009). The latter perhaps is not surprising as a group allows victims to be controlled more easily. ...
... The similarity of pairs across each behavioural domain was measured using Jaccard's coefficients. These do not take joint non-occurrences into account (Porter & Alison, 2004, 2006aReal & Vargas, 1996) and therefore the level of similarity does not increase if the behaviour is not reported to have occurred within an offence pair (Woodhams, Grant, & Price, 2007). This is an important issue when working with police data as the absence of a behaviour does not necessarily mean that the behaviour did not occur (Porter & Alison, 2004, 2006a, but perhaps that it was not reported or was not recorded (Tonkin et al., 2008). ...
... These do not take joint non-occurrences into account (Porter & Alison, 2004, 2006aReal & Vargas, 1996) and therefore the level of similarity does not increase if the behaviour is not reported to have occurred within an offence pair (Woodhams, Grant, & Price, 2007). This is an important issue when working with police data as the absence of a behaviour does not necessarily mean that the behaviour did not occur (Porter & Alison, 2004, 2006a, but perhaps that it was not reported or was not recorded (Tonkin et al., 2008). Jaccard's coefficients are expressed as a value of between 0 and 1, with 0 indicative of no similarity and 1 denoting perfect similarity. ...
Behavioural case linkage assumes that offenders behave in a similar way across their crimes. However, group offending could impact on behavioural similarity. This study uses robbery data from two police forces to test this by comparing the behavioural similarity of pairs of lone offences (LL), pairs of group offences (GG) and pairs of offences where one crime was committed alone and the other in a group (GL). Behavioural similarity was measured using Jaccard's coefficients. Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to examine differences between the three categories within the linked samples. No statistically significant differences were found for linked GG compared to linked LL pairs. However, differences emerged between GL and the other categories for some behaviours (especially control) suggesting caution should be applied when linking group and lone offences committed by the same perpetrator. Differences between linked and unlinked pairs were assessed using receiver operating characteristic. The results suggest it is possible to distinguish between linked and unlinked pairs based on behaviour especially within the GG and LL categories. There were, however, fewer significant findings for the GL sample, suggesting there may be issues linking crimes where the offender commits one crime as part of a group and the other alone.
... For example, the theoretical literature from social psychology suggests that there are differences in the way duos and larger groups interact. This is an important limitation in light of repeated findings that whilst group size can range from 2-14, duos are the most common "group" (Hauffe & Porter, 2009;Horvath & Kelly, 2009;Porter & Alison, 2004Woodhams, 2008). The potential effect of differences in group size has yet to be considered by most researchers of MPR with the exception of one published study by Amir (1971) which is now more than 40 years old. ...
... For both Lone Perpetrator Rapes (LPRs) and MPRs, research has found the majority of offenders to be male and almost all victims to be female, however, the perpetrators and victims of MPR are usually reported to be significantly younger (Amir, 1971;Bijleveld & Hendriks, 2003;Hauffe & Porter, 2009;Wright & West, 1981), and are typically aged in their teens and early twenties (Bijleveld, Weerman, Looije & Hendriks, 2007;Horvath & Kelly, 2009;Porter & Alison, 2004Woodhams, 2008). Some studies report MPR offenders to more often be of an ethnic minority (Bijleveld & Hendriks, 2003;Bijleveld et al., 2007;De Wree, 2004;Horvath & Kelly, 2009;Woodhams, 2008), however, this is not found consistently (Gidycz & Koss, 1990;Ullman, 2007). ...
... Even in the literature related to MPR there is not a consensus on this issue. While most authors consider duos to be groups and include them in their group samples (e.g., Hauffe & Porter, 2009;Porter & Alison, 2004Ullman, 2007) others do not (e.g., Amir, 1971;Metropolitan Police Authority, 2009;O'Sullivan, 1991). ...
The effect of number of perpetrators involved in multiple perpetrator rapes on offense characteristics is underresearched despite beliefs that duos/dyads differ in their interactions and dynamics to groups of 3+ members. We analyzed a national sample of 336 allegations of completed and attempted rape of female victims from the United Kingdom. Rapes committed by multiple (duos and groups of 3+ perpetrators) and lone offenders were compared on offense characteristics (incorporating the approach, maintenance, and closure phases of each rape) and victim and offender sociodemographic characteristics. Significant differences between rapes committed by lone, duo, and 3+ group offenders were found for the age and ethnicity of the offenders; the type of approach used; the locations of the initial contact, assault, and release of the victims; the use of a vehicle; the precautions utilized; the verbal themes present; and the sex acts performed. These results have implications for educational prevention programs and interventions with offenders.
... There is a limited evidence base on this form of rape, especially in the United Kingdom. Studies have used varying terminology to name and define the offence, from ''gang rape'' to ''group rape'' (see Porter & Alison, 2004;Ullman, 2007). Whichever terminology has been used, the findings about the basic characteristics of the offence are variable. ...
... Some of the initial findings from this data set confirm those from previous studies, for example that the most frequently occurring size of group is two (Porter & Alison, 2004, 2006Vetten & Haffejee, 2005) and that the majority (56.5%) of offender groups were homogeneous in terms of their ethnicity (Bijleveld et al., 2007). However, the ethnicities of the victims and the perpetrators presents a complex picture. ...
... The term ''group rape'' entered into academic discourse more recently, and indeed is associated with attempts to overcome the limitations of ''gang rape''. It is usually defined and used very broadly to refer to attacks committed by two or more offenders (Porter, & Alison, 2004). In order to evaluate the appropriateness of the term ''group'' we must consider, as with ''gang'', the other meanings associated with the term. ...
Multiple perpetrator rape presents a significant problem nationally and internationally. However, previous research is limited and findings are often contradictory. The details of 101 rape allegations recorded in a six-month period in a large police force in England were analysed. Findings are presented about case classification, victim and perpetrator characteristics, approach and assault location, perpetrator group composition and victim targeting. The discussion of the findings is used as a basis to explore the pitfalls and benefits of the established naming and definition of this offence. Local and colloquial terms (e.g. “gang bang” and “streamlining”) as well as academic terminology (e.g. “group” and “gang” rape) are considered. The paper concludes by proposing an overarching term “multiple perpetrator” rape that allows a series of subtypes to be developed both locally and transnationally.
... However, the data from the three aforementioned studies showed considerable overlap, suggesting that the behaviors of different types of rapists were somewhat predictable. A study examining gang sexual violence by Porter and Alison (2004) extended the aforementioned typologies into MPR. They found four offense styles based on a theory of interpersonal interaction: (a) dominance, (b) submission, (c) cooperation, and (d) hostility. ...
... Canter & Heritage (1990) Heritage (1992) Canter, Bennell, Alison, & Reddy (2003) Salfati & Taylor (2006) Porter & Alison (2004) 66 ...
... Strikingly, these data suggest that groups of two or more perpetrators appear to be fulfilling criminogenic needs with group sexual offending behavior similar to lone offenders. In addition, three of the types from the current study aligned with those previously found in gang sexual violence (cooperation , hostility, and dominance; Porter & Alison, 2004). In particular, the violence and criminality offense styles appear consistently across many different types of sexual offense, including single-perpetrator stranger rapes, sexual homicide, and MPR. ...
Some consistency in existing typologies of rape has been found, which have extended from lone to multiple perpetrator offenses. The current study sought to explore the facets of multiple-perpetrator rape (MPR) in a sample representative of one geographical area. Seventy-five victim statements of MPR reported to an urban police force in the United Kingdom were classified into a qualitative model denoting offender actions in MPR. Four types from pathways through the model were produced: violence, criminality, intimacy, and sexuality. Analysis of the crime scene variables provided additional evidence of the four types. Finally, the associations between the four types and offense characteristics, such as victim and perpetrator age, were explored. Implications of these findings for the prevention and investigation of MPR are discussed along with suggestions for future research directions. © 2010 International Association for Correctional and Forensic Psychology.
... to the offence process and themes of lone rapist offending behaviour. In addition, the study shows the utility of Grounded Theory analysis for mapping the sequence and variation of sexual offences, which was used in the current study to examine multiple perpetrator offences. An element of MPR is the interaction between the victim and the offenders. Porter and Alison (2004) examined the interaction of the offenders and victim in 'gang sexual violence'. Their findings reflected a theory of interpersonal interaction whereby the actions of the perpetrators reflected their intention that the victim reacts in a particular manner. The Dominant offending type was exhibited by offenders who used behaviours to caus ...
... A social process that may explain the current results was deindividuation, whereby individuals in the group lose their sense of individuality, which can lead to an escalation in aggressive behaviours (Goldstein, 2002). The Force theme has described a type of MPR where physical force and violence were used, similar to previous findings (Hauffe & Porter, 2009; Porter & Alison, 2004). The deindividuation aspect of anonymity in group offending (Goldstein, 2002) may also underlie the patterns reflected in the current study by the behaviours of the perpetrators indicating that they were aware of criminal behaviour. ...
... Each of the perpetrators committed rape in succession rather than using the physical force of the group. The Manipulate theme echoed the Co-operation type found by Porter and Alison (2004) where the perpetrators spent time with the victim surrounding the offence and travelling to and from the crime scene together. The current study described the social context within which the perpetrators and victim met and how the victim was lured into the offending situation. ...
Much of the existing knowledge base of multiple perpetrator rape (MPR) comes
from studies undertaken more than 20 years ago, and thus fails to integrate
contemporary perspectives on sexual violence. The current study used Grounded
Theory methodology to construct a holistic model of MPR from 15 victim
accounts. The model of multiple perpetrator rape (MMPR) included both the
actions of the perpetrators and the reactions of the victim in a temporal sequence
of 13 categories, 9 of which had sub-categories that allowed for individual
differences. Broad themes of MPR were then explored using a total of 101 cases.
Each case was coded in the 9 sub-categories where individual differences were
allowed from the model. An associative analysis of these sub-categories was then
performed using Smallest Space Analysis. Two dominant themes were displayed.
The Manipulate theme included two perpetrators who offended sequentially and
socialised with the victim. The Force theme did not involve any social interaction,
as the force and teamwork of the group enabled the victim to be physically
overpowered.
... Research has revealed that group offences are primarily committed by adolescents (e.g. Carrington, 2002;Conway & McCord, 2002;Porter & Alison, 2004, 2006b. This includes personal robbery which is typically committed by young males (Alarid et al., 2009;Burrell, 2012;Porter & Alison, 2006a, 2006c. ...
... Groups of robbers typically target lone victims (e.g. Burrell, 2012;Porter & Alison, 2004) but are more likely to target a group than a lone offender (Alarid et al., 2009;Burrell, 2012). Groups tend to target younger victims than lone offenders (e.g. ...
Robbery is commonly committed by groups and this can create challenges for law enforcement. For example, members might have different motivations for committing the offence and some offenders talk about feeling peer pressuring and/or coerced into offending. This chapter explores theories of group behaviour and how this influences group offending. For example, the decision to commit crime, deciding who to commit crime with, the different roles individuals might have during the offence, risks of betrayal and capture, sharing the profits, etc. Consideration is given to how the group dynamic impacts on offending—for example, how this feeds into violence (or not if the group acts as a censor/regulates the behaviour of the wider group). The role of leadership is also discussed along with overlaps with gang offending.
... relationships between individuals are dynamic interactions and mutually reciprocally influencing) and reveals how offences may be understood in terms of interpersonal functioning. In studies of sexual violence perpetrated by individual offenders (Alison & Stein, 2001) and gangs (Porter & Alison, 2004), offender dominance has been shown to elicit victim submission and vice versa. This supports the notion that sexual violence may represent a distorted and violent form of interpersonal relating (Porter & Alison, 2004). ...
... In studies of sexual violence perpetrated by individual offenders (Alison & Stein, 2001) and gangs (Porter & Alison, 2004), offender dominance has been shown to elicit victim submission and vice versa. This supports the notion that sexual violence may represent a distorted and violent form of interpersonal relating (Porter & Alison, 2004). According to the principle of complimentarity 'our behaviours are likely to pull for a corresponding response on the affiliation dimension (i.e. ...
Recent research on aggressive behaviour in psychiatric hospitals has emphasised the importance of the interaction between characteristics of patients and the hospital environment. Interpersonal style, a key component of personality and personality disorder, has emerged as a potentially important characteristic that may be relevant to a patient's interactions with the hospital environment. Interpersonal style affects how patients relate to others and how they respond to the demands of treatment. This study explored the impact of interpersonal style and perceptions of staff coercion on aggression and self-harm. Participants were 39 patients with personality disorder admitted involuntarily to a secure psychiatric hospital. Results showed that perceptions of coercion were high but unrelated to aggression and self-harm. Interpersonal style did not relate to perceived coercion. However, patients with a more coercive interpersonal style, as measured by the Chart of Interpersonal Reactions in Closed Living Environments, were more likely to self-harm and/or act aggressively. Possible implications for the treatment of aggressive individuals and the prevention of aggressive behaviour are made.
... Whilst previous studies using multidimensional scaling techniques have considered which victim behaviours co-occur with offender behaviours (e.g. Porter & Alison, 2004), such analyses cannot preserve the temporal ordering of victim and offender behaviours. For example, Porter and Alison note that the offender behaviour of demeaning the victim is located within the same region of the SSA (Smallest Space Analysis) plot as the victim refusing to comply. ...
... Jaccard's coeffi cient has also widely been used in other investigative psychology studies (e.g. Canter & Heritage, 1990;Canter et al., 2003;Porter & Alison, 2004;Santtila et al., 2003). This is because of its suitability for crime data, where there can be uncertainty as to whether the absence of an offender behaviour in a victim's account is due to it not occurring or because of poor memory, amongst other factors (Bennell & Canter, 2002). ...
Personality psychologists have suggested that the context of a behaviour should be considered in studying behavioural consistency. They have operationalised this as studying ‘if (situation)–then (behaviour)’ contingencies and have demonstrated an association between situational similarity and behavioural consistency. Previous research of behavioural consistency in the forensic setting has tended to focus exclusively on the ‘then (behaviour)’ part of the contingency—the offender's behaviour. This paper considers methodological approaches that might be used to investigate whether situational similarity is associated with behavioural consistency, and to develop if–then contingencies. Seventy-eight offences by stranger sex offenders were subjected to constant comparison framework analysis to develop an offender behaviour checklist and a victim behaviour checklist, and a combination of constant comparison framework analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis were used to develop victim behavioural themes. Consistency in offender behaviour and similarity in victim behavioural themes (representing situational similarity) were measured using Jaccard's coefficient for offence pairs within 13 solved series of stranger sexual assaults. Correlational analyses were used to assess the relationship between situational similarity and behavioural consistency. Contrary to expectations, no relationship was found. The utility of linguistic computational programs in creating if(victim behaviour)–then(offender behaviour) contingencies was tested with encouraging results. However, little evidence of consistency in if(victim behaviour)–then(offender behaviour) contingencies was found within the offence series. Explanations are proposed for these novel findings and avenues for future research are suggested. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... These results show reasonable reliability among the items of each group, reporting similar results to research conducted and models published in the international context (Bonny et al., 2016;Canter, Bennell, Alison, & Reddy, 2003;Porter & Alison, 2004). Although these coefficients do not meet the criteria of a scale (>.7), they are sufficiently high enough (>.5) to indicate the themes are meaningful and coherent (Almond et al., 2006;Bonny et al., 2016;Subkoviak, 1988). ...
The high number of missing person reports that occur globally each year highlights the need for research in this academically neglected field. This research focuses on establishing whether there are different scenarios or behavioural themes that consistently appear in missing person cases in Spain, which could assist the police investigation process. A representative sample of 341 missing person police reports was collated and up to 27 behaviours , which occur during the disappearance, have been codified, as well as circumstances surrounding the case. Through multidimensional scaling four behav-ioural themes have been identified: intentional-escape, intentional-dysfunctional, unintentional-accidental, and forced-criminal. These findings entail implications, both in terms of prevention and in the scope of police investigations. Specifically, this research is considered a key step in the development of: (a) a predictive risk assessment system for harmed or deceased outcomes, and (b) in-depth review of forced-criminal disappearances that concur with homicide. K E Y W O R D S behavioural themes, missing persons, multidimensional scaling, typology
... "violación grupal" (rape group), "por pandillas" (rape gang), así como también adquiere términos de jerga local, como por ejemplo el "pulling/pull a train", en alusión a modos más específicos de comisión, como es tomar turnos para agredir a una víctima, usualmente intoxicada (Bijleveld y Hendriks, 2003;Franklin, 2004;Horvath y Kelly, 2009;Porter y Alison, 2004;Ullman, 2007). En este sentido, Horvath y Kelly (2009) ponen de manifiesto la heterogeneidad de términos empleados, así como los subtipos y matices implicados. ...
Las agresiones sexuales conllevan graves consecuencias para las víctimas y,
particularmente cuando la violencia sexual es ejercida por agresores múltiples. En este
trabajo, se lleva a cabo un estudio de archivo de sentencias penales en el que se examinan
las características penales y criminológicas de las denominadas “manadas” o agresores
sexuales que actúan en grupo. Para ello, se analizó el contenido de un total de 54
sentencias penales que incluyen 128 agresores varones múltiples encausados
judicialmente y cuyas víctimas son mujeres adultas. En relación al modus operandi de
este tipo de delitos se constata la primacía de grupos pequeños (hasta 3 agresores), que
actúan de forma nocturna, que cometen más agresiones que abusos sexuales, hacen un
uso elevado de fuerza, así como de engaño a la víctima como modalidades comisivas
predominantes, y mayoritariamente sin arma ni planificación. Asimismo, destacan entre
sus características la tasa de condena, el traslado de la víctima y el aprovechamiento de
factores de vulnerabilidad de la víctima. Se discuten las limitaciones del estudio y se
plantean algunas implicaciones para el diseño de políticas de prevención de la violencia
sexual.
... Content may be shared at no cost, but any requests to reuse this content in part or whole must go through the American Psychological Association. (Porter & Alison, 2004), and hierarchies among gang robbery offenders (Porter & Alison, 2006). Alison et al. (2013) researched terrorism suspect interviewing using ORBIT in the United Kingdom. ...
The observing rapport-based interpersonal techniques (ORBIT) behavioral coding manual (Alison, Alison, Noone, Eltnib, & Christiansen, 2013) was used to code 103 hr of investigative interviews with sexual offense victims—a sample of 86 single-victim cases conducted by 26 police interviewers in South Korea. In all cases, there was a subsequent conviction. ORBIT is comprised of two key psychological approaches previously used most often in counseling but applied here to law enforcement. These are (a) humanistic approaches that are honest, empathic and nonjudgmental and (b) an interpersonal behavior circle of dyadic interaction between interviewer and victim based on power-submission and conflict-co-operation dimensions, which can be managed in a prosocial (adaptive) or antisocial (maladaptive) way by the interviewer. Information/evidence yield was coded as a dependent variable. Coding was conducted every 15 min, representing 316 coding units. Results showed that (a) humanistic approaches positively influence adaptive interactions between interviewer and victim while simultaneously reducing maladaptive ones, the consequence of which is an increase in yield; (b) interviewer adaptive behaviors directly increase victim adaptive behavior (with the same effect for maladaptive behavior); and (c) victim adaptive behavior is positively associated with interview yield, and victim maladaptive behavior is negatively associated with it. These results suggest that interviews conducted in a humanistic-consistent fashion strongly positively influence adaptive victim behavior, which, in turn, increases interview yield.
... Using publically available data sources in this way is a method employed in several other recent studies into CSA (Almond, McManus, Giles, & Houston, 2015;Jaffe et al., 2013;Mototsune, 2015). Our data contained triangulated evidential sources, and the inclusion of court and tribunal reports and professional regulatory body hearing decision records, where available, further enhances validity as these documents are subject to stringent legal scrutiny making them arguably more accurate than police reports (Almond et al., 2015;Porter & Alison, 2004, 2006. ...
Despite increasing interest in child sexual abuse occurring in organisations, the perpetration of such abuse by females is largely ignored. This study examined situational factors in 136 cases of sexual abuse perpetrated by women working with children in the UK, Canada and the USA between 2000 and 2016. Qualitative and quantitative content analysis of court reports, professional regulator decisions, media reports and an online sentencing database was used, findings indicating that situational and contextual factors are highly relevant in perpetration. Much abuse occurs away from the organisational environment, particularly in perpetrators’ homes and cars, and in virtual environments. However, it also occurs within organisations, generally in unsupervised areas, outside of operating hours and often during mentoring/tutoring or extra-curricular activities. Organisational and local culture can be a facilitator in this abuse and allow it to continue even when concerns are raised. Practical prevention measures are suggested to assist in reducing future abuse.
... The method of data collection employed is similar to that conducted in several other recent studies into CSA perpetrated by teachers using publicly available data (Darling, 2018;Jaffe et al., 2013;Mototsune, 2015;Moulden, Firestone, Kingston, & Wexler, 2010). These published decisions are subject to stringent legal scrutiny during the professional conduct procedures, enhancing their validity and reliability and making them arguably more accurate than police reports (Almond, McManus, Giles, & Houston, 2017;Porter & Alison, 2004, 2006. ...
The study aimed to identify the differences in case characteristics and typologies of female and male teachers who perpetrated sexual abuse on students. Decisions of sexual misconduct reports in England from June 2006 to December 2016 were used. Quantitative and qualitative content analysis was conducted on 20 cases of male and female teacher sexual misconduct (N = 40). Regarding case characteristics, most were secondary school or college teachers, mid-career, with victims of the opposite sex. For differences, male teachers were older and more likely to have: perpetrated more severe and lengthier sexual abuse and previously received warnings. Interestingly, females and males were similar across the preliminary typology: minimisers and deniers; poor mental health or stressors; and young, early career. However, a fourth group of females emerged: “I was overpowered”. The study furthers the understanding of sexual misconduct by teachers and should assist in the development of policies, guidelines, and legislation around prevention.
... The method of data collection employed is similar to that conducted in several other recent studies into CSA using publically available data sources (Almond, McManus, Giles, & Houston, 2015;Jaffe et al., 2013;Mototsune, 2015). Our data contained triangulated evidential sources and the inclusion of legal reports and professional regulatory body hearing decision records, where available, further enhances validity as these documents are subject to stringent legal scrutiny making them arguably more accurate than police reports (Almond et al., 2015;Porter & Alison, 2004. ...
To date, there has been very little research into the phenomenon of female-perpetrated institutional child sexual abuse (CSA). This study explored 71 cases of CSA perpetrated by women working with children, considered by UK police and courts between 2000 and 2016. Qualitative and quantitative content analysis was employed to examine court reports, professional regulatory body decisions, media reports and an online sentencing database in order to identify perpetrator and victim characteristics, the nature of the offending behaviour, modus operandi and criminal justice system responses. Findings indicate most women offended alone and had no previous criminal or employment records of concern. Victims were typically male and 15–16 years old. Most women received custodial sentences, typically of 2–3 years in length. Implications for policy and practice are also discussed.
... Selection is an important concept [82]. Groups that contain members with known risk factors for violence are more likely to engage in collective violence; especially if these individuals are dynamic leaders, encouraging obedience and conformity from their comrades [83]. A recent study into the interaction between psychopathic personality traits and group dynamics on group performance found that the individual attributes of the group members strongly influenced how the group functioned [84]. ...
Group aggression is an important concern for societies around the world. The field of intergroup relations, a sub-field of social-psychology, offers critical insight into the emergence of group conflict and aggression. This review examines the most influential theoretical frameworks from the field of intergroup relations, namely realistic conflict theory, relative deprivation theory, social identity theory, social dominance theory, and deindividuation theory. Associated empirical findings regarding groups synonymous with aggression, such as street gangs, hate groups, rebel and insurgent groups, and terrorist organizations, are explored. This review thus provides a critical overview of the current state of the field. It concludes with implications for the future of intergroup aggression research, drawing on integrated theories that account for both personal and situational factors.
... Alison and Stein found that submissive behavior by the aggressor is not common. The victim has the sensation of controlling the aggressor, which justifies the abuse the attacker is carrying out on the victim "this situation is presented in Table 2" (Porter & Alison, 2004). Sexual assault carried out by an individual aggressor can be an immediate gratification of sexual impulses or the implementation of their own fantasies to entertain a "romantic" relationship with a woman" this tipology is presented in Table 3"; on the contrary, sexual abuse by a group enables its members to increase their reputation, express their status and demonstrate their power within the group (Bijleveld, Weerman, Looije, & Hendriks, 2007). ...
The terms that describe a non-consensual sexual behavior such as rape, sexual abuse or sexual violence are very different, as are the negative effects on a victim of a physical and psychic nature, taking into account the different approaches of the attacker. The consent of the victim is absent or obtained by the attacker with physical and/or psychological violence; but it is also possible that the victim is unconscious or incapable of understanding. Those guilty of sexual offenses fall into a special category that is called “sex offenders” within which there is a diversification of ways concerning the manner, degree and motivations. Research has shown that attackers acting in a group and those who are an individual attacker differ in their attitude towards the victim.
... Obedience to authority can also occur in the context of multi- ple perpetrator rape. In one study (Porter & Alison, 2004), researchers analyzed records of 210 groups comprising 2 to 13 people who committed gang rapes in England and the United States, examining group behaviors that occurred dur- ing the course of the rape (i.e., hostility, dominance, cooperation). Overall, the study demonstrated that members of the group tended to be consistent in their behavior during a rape. ...
This book provides a broad and contemporary overview of aggression and violence by some of the most internationally renowned researchers in the field. It begins with an integrative theoretical understanding of aggression and shows how animal models shed light on human aggression and violence.
... In this exploratory study the subordinate themes including drugs, power, criminality, control and levels of psychopathology varied depending upon the superordinate prison typology. Similarly to Porter and Alison (2004) research, the evaluated characteristics of multiple perpetrator rape identified four offence types (dominance, submission, hostility and cooperation) structured around an interpersonal circumplex. ...
The role and impact of previous experience of sexual abuse has not really been explored in prison rape literature beyond identifying it as a common feature within those who are abused. Literature concerning the perpetrator is under developed. In order to establish a better understanding of the sexual dynamics in British prisons among prison perpetrators, this exploratory qualitative study highlights the different types of perpetrator, their motivations and the factors that contribute towards sexual coercion in British prisons. Of the 43 ex-prisoner perpetrators who contributed to this study, the majority had conducted forced drug searches and had been prior victims of prison coercive sexual behaviour. Focus groups followed by a thematic analysis revealed 5 prison perpetrator typologies, including those who coerce for sexual reasons and/or for drugs. This paper has provided insight into how such behaviours could be minimised, thus emphasising the importance of understanding prison perpetrator activities for developing best practise and curtailing levels of coercive sexual behaviour in prison.
... Canter's early work in the 1990's there have been several more authors (e.g., Beauregard & Proulx, 2002;Canter, Hughes, & Kirby, 1998;Kocsis, Cooksey, & Irwin, 2002;Lundrigan & Canter, 2001;Porter & Alison, 2004;Porter, Woodworth, Earle, Drugge, & Boer, 2003;Santilla, Hakkanen, Canter, & Elfgren, 2003;Youngs, 2004) producing academically peerreviewed research into many aspects of offender profiling. ...
The area of Offender Profiling generates a lot of interest in both the academic field and the everyday world as a result of a few highly prolific cases (e.g., Jack the Ripper, Boston Strangler). Historically, profiling has been based on intuition and experience, but as the field has matured, the need to be more scientific in approach has led to the development of empirically driven models/typologies of offender behaviour based.Different approaches have attempted to define, and operationalize offender profiling based on the individual principles inherent in each approach.Briefly, the Criminal Investigative approach to profiling initially relied upon the investigative experience and observation of FBI agents who soon started publishing on the topic. However, in more recent years, large databases containing information on serial and violent crime/criminals has allowed for more empirical approaches to emerge (Snook, Luther, House, Bennell, & Taylor, 2012). The Clinical approach, on the other hand, adopts a model of offender profiling that centers on the concept of motives. Finally, and most recently, the Statistical approach has aimed to provide a testable scientific framework for identifying and inferring offender characteristics/motives.However, none of these approaches alone can explain the complexities of offending behaviour. The Criminal Investigative approach brings with it a multitude of experience from investigators; the Clinical brings an abundance of medical and privileged clientbased knowled ≥ while the Statistical approach aims to provide more objective measures and examination of offending behaviour. Without the experience, knowledge, and information offered by the first two approaches, the ability to know which variables to look for or code for would be lost. However, the latter Statistical approach allows practitioner-based knowledge to be integrated with the objective examination of offending patterns and correlated findings. Therefore, the way forward should seek to integrate all of the approaches (Alison, West, & Goodwill, 2004; Alison, Goodwill, Almond, van den Heuvel, & Winter, 2010). Together, the approaches strengthen each other and give weight and support to one another. More importantly, they help strengthen the field of offender profiling as a whole.In this chapter, an overview and critique of the offender profiling literature; its underlying assumptions; and the relationship between the crime scene actions and the offender characteristics will be presented. In addition, each of the approaches to offender profiling that have developed over its short empirical history will be described and critiqued.
... This means that the robberies an offender commits with a group might differ from those they commit alone, potentially making their crimes more difficult to link. However, research in the UK on behavioural coherence (in rape) has demonstrated the existence of thematic similarities between offenders committing multiple crimes with the same co-offenders ( Porter & Alison, 2004). Porter and Alison (2006) went on to examine behavioural coherence in robbery; the results of which suggested that offenders within the same group might indeed behave in a homogenous fashion. ...
Case linkage uses crime scene behaviours to identify series of crimes committed by the same offender. This paper tests the underlying assumptions of case linkage (behavioural consistency and behavioural distinctiveness) by comparing the behavioural similarity of linked pairs of offences (i.e. two offences committed by the same offender) with the behavioural similarity of unlinked pairs of offences (i.e. two offences committed by different offenders). It is hypothesised that linked pairs will be more behaviourally similar than unlinked pairs thereby providing evidence for the two assumptions. The current research uses logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic analyses to explore which behaviours can be used to reliably link personal robbery offences using a sample of 166 solved offences committed by 83 offenders. The method of generating unlinked pairs is then refined to reflect how the police work at a local level, and the success of predictive factors re‐tested. Both phases of the research provide evidence of behavioural consistency and behavioural distinctiveness with linked pairs displaying more similarity than unlinked pairs across a range of behavioural domains. Inter‐crime distance and target selection emerge as the most useful linkage factors with promising results also found for temporal proximity and control. No evidence was found to indicate that the property stolen is useful for linkage. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... It has been replicated across a range of interpersonal dynamics including traditional relationships such as sexual partners (Markey & Markey, 2009), interpersonal values (Locke, 2000) and interpersonal problems (Horowitz, Rosenburg, & Bartholomew, 1993). It has also been applied to criminal interpersonal dynamics such as tactics used by child sex offenders to secure and manipulate victims (Bennell, Alison, Stein, Alison and Canter, 2001), behavioral coherence in group robbery (Porter & Alison, 2006), and group sex offense behavior (Porter & Alison, 2004). ...
Principal component analysis of an operational field sample of 181 police interrogations with terrorist suspects identified five counter interrogation factors: passive (refusing to look at interviewers, remaining silent); passive verbal (monosyllabic response, claiming lack of memory); verbal (discussing an unrelated topic, providing well known information, providing a scripted response) with two single item components: retraction of previous statements and no comment. Analysis revealed significant differences in the use of counter interrogation tactics between terrorist groups, with paramilitary suspects using more passive, verbal and no comment tactics than right wing and international terrorists. International terrorists made significantly more use of retraction tactics than right wing and paramilitary groups.
... It has been replicated across a range of interpersonal dynamics including traditional relationships such as sexual partners (Markey & Markey, 2009), interpersonal values (Locke, 2000) and interpersonal problems (Horowitz, Rosenburg, & Bartholomew, 1993). It has also been applied to criminal interpersonal dynamics such as tactics used by child sex offenders to secure and manipulate victims (Bennell, Alison, Stein, Alison and Canter, 2001), behavioral coherence in group robbery (Porter & Alison, 2006), and group sex offense behavior (Porter & Alison, 2004). ...
This field observation examines 58 police interrogators’ rapport-based behaviors with terrorist suspects; specifically, whether rapport helps elicit meaningful intelligence and information. The Observing Rapport-Based Interpersonal Techniques (ORBIT; Alison, Alison, Elntib & Noone, 2012) is a coding framework with 3 elements. The first 2 measures are as follows: (i) 5 strategies adopted from the motivational interviewing (Miller & Rollnick, 2009) literature in the counseling domain: autonomy, acceptance, adaptation, empathy, and evocation and (ii) an “Interpersonal Behavior Circle” (adopted from Interpersonal theories, Leary, 1957) for coding interpersonal interactions between interrogator and suspect along 2 orthogonal dimensions (authoritative-passive and challenging-cooperative); where each quadrant has an interpersonally adaptive and maladaptive variant. The third (outcome) measure of ORBIT includes a measure of evidentially useful information (the “interview yield”) and considers the extent to which suspects reveal information pertaining to capability, opportunity and motive as well as evidence relevant to people, actions, locations and times. Data included 418 video interviews (representing 288 hours of footage), with all suspects subsequently convicted for a variety of terrorist offenses. Structural equation modeling revealed that motivational interviewing was positively associated with adaptive interpersonal behavior from the suspect, which, in turn, increased interview yield. Conversely, even minimal expression of maladaptive interpersonal interrogator behavior increased maladaptive interviewee behavior as well as directly reducing yield. The study provides the first well-defined and empirically validated analysis of the benefits of a rapport-based, interpersonally skilled approach to interviewing terrorists in an operational field setting. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
... These systems have been found to be related to psychopathy (Blair, Mitchell & Blair, 2005) and psychopathology (Johnson, Turner, & Iwata, 2003;Meyer, Johnson, & Winters, 2001). Research has found that in robbery (e.g., Porter & Alison, 2006), sexual (e.g., Alison & Stein, 2001) and gang related (e.g., Porter & Alison, 2004) offending dominance is effective in achieving victim compliance (Daffern, Duggan, Huband & Thomas, 2008). It is therefore predicted that individuals who use approach type offences will be higher in SDO than those who do not. ...
This study using a prison sample to explore Social Dominance Orientation (SDO), socially dominant inmate behaviour, index offence, age and length of time served in secure environments. A sample of 397 adult male prisoners completed the Direct and Indirect Prisoner Behaviour Checklist- Scaled (prisoner behaviour towards other inmates and staff) and the Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) Scale. It was predicted that prisoners would report higher SDO than non-incarcerated populations and that among inmates those with approach orientated index offences would be higher in SDO than those whose offenses were more remote. It was also predicted that SDO would be related to younger age, higher lifetime rates of incarceration, more negative behaviour towards other inmates and staff, and more resource focused behaviour. The results broadly supported predictions, and possible implications for practice and directions for future research are discussed.
... However, perpetrators performing acts of oral sex upon the victim were found to be very rare. The most frequent number of offenders found to participate in this type of group crime is between 2 and 4 (Porter & Alison, 2004Horvath & Kelly, 2009). In Porter and Alison's (2006) study the sizes of the groups ranged from 2 to 13 members with a mean (and median) of three. ...
This review provides a current description of a number of contexts in which multiple perpetrator sexual
offending occurs. Specifically, seven sub-categories of offences are examined under two main themes of ‘rape
of peers/adults’ and ‘multiple perpetrator offenses against children.’ This is complimented by a discussion of
psychological theories and factors that contribute to the understanding of multiple perpetrator sexual
offenses within a multifactorial framework. Individual, sociocultural and situational levels are examined to
provide an explanation for the commitment of sexual offenses with others, with particular emphasis on
theories and processes of group aggression. This review provides tentative ideas to stimulate thought and
further research in this area
... Research that has focused on themes of behavior and their potential role in understanding homicide has centered on single-offender homicides (Cheatwood, 1996). Limited research on violent offending has considered the potential relevance of behavioral themes to multiple-offender and/or multiple-victim incidents; instead, most has excluded multiple-offender homicides because of the difficulties they present (Cheatwood, 1996;Porter & Alison, 2004). Some researchers, however, are addressing this lack of information. ...
This study uses data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) to explore the impact of model selection on determining the association of victim-level and incident-level factors to the likelihood of homicide clearance. We compare both traditional operationalizations of clearance rates as well as the time to clearance as dependent variables in examinations of correlates of solvability in homicide cases. Using a different approach than most other analyses of this problem, the results affirm the consistency of some effects but also reveal some important differences when the aspect of time is factored into the model. Implications for analyses of efficiency and effectiveness of police response to homicide, cold-case analyses, and other strategies for solving crime are discussed.
... Various theories from social psychology, including deindividuation, norm enhancement, modeling, and groupthink, have been used to explain the differences in aggression in LPRs versus MPRs (Harkins & Dixon, 2010;Woodhams, Gillett, & Grant, 2007). However, studies have also observed variation in suspect aggression within MPRs (Porter & Alison, 2004). ...
Several research studies have reported an elevated level of aggression in rapes committed by multiple perpetrators compared to rapes committed by lone suspects. Several factors that have been linked to elevated aggression in generic samples of rape were examined for the first time with a sample of multiple perpetrator rapes. Factors that might be associated with victim resistance were also investigated. Victim and offender characteristics, as well as the behaviors displayed by victims and offenders, were extracted from the police files of 89 multiple perpetrator stranger rapes perpetrated against female victims in the United Kingdom. These behaviors were rated for their level of suspect (non-sexual) aggression and victim resistance, respectively. Degree of victim resistance was significantly and positively associated with suspect aggression. Older victims were the recipients of significantly higher levels of suspect aggression. Victims who were incapacitated from drugs and/or alcohol were less likely to be the recipients of suspect aggression. Group leaders displayed more aggression towards the victim than the followers in the groups. The number of perpetrators was significantly related to the degree of resistance displayed by the victim with offences perpetrated by fewer suspects being characterized by more victim resistance. Research regarding cognitive appraisal during criminal interactions and the respective roles of offenders is referred to in considering these relationships.
... Such offenses will involve nonstrategic violence (Felson & Krohn, 1990), which means violent and aggressive behaviors beyond that necessary to commit the offense. Therefore, the victim may be more likely to react aggressively and strongly resist (Porter & Alison, 2004). Typical BTA behaviors of this offending style include acts of physical (e.g., kicking, punching) and verbal (e.g., threats to kill the victim) violence. ...
The current study sought to improve the predictive accuracy of sexual recidivism using the Static-99 risk assessment tool by the addition of detailed crime scene analysis (CSA). CSA was carried out using a Behavioral Thematic Analysis (BTA) approach, the gold-standard in CSA. BTA was conducted on a sample of 167 stranger rape cases using nonmetric multidimensional scaling (MDS). The BTA procedure revealed three behavioral themes of hostility, criminality, and sexual exploitation, consistent with previous research in sexual offending CSA. Logistic regression analysis indicated that the criminality theme was significantly predictive of sexual recidivism and also significantly correlated with previous sexual offense history. Further, the criminality theme led to a significant increase in the incremental validity of the Static-99 actuarial risk assessment instrument for the prediction of sexual recidivism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
... Prior to reading the police files, published checklists of rapist behavior (Bennell et al., 2009(Bennell et al., , 2010Canter & Heritage, 1990;Canter et al., 2003;Mokros & Alison, 2002;Porter & Alison, 2004;Salfati & Taylor, 2007;Santtila et al., 2005;Woodhams, 2008) and a checklist which had been developed previously on a sample of South African rapes (De Wet, 2008) were consulted. These different checklists were amalgamated to form an overall checklist of rapist crime scene behaviors (see Appendix 1). ...
Case linkage involves identifying crime series on the basis of behavioral similarity and distinctiveness. Research regarding
the behavioral consistency of serial rapists has accumulated; however, it has its limitations. One of these limitations is
that convicted or solved crime series are exclusively sampled whereas, in practice, case linkage is applied to unsolved crimes.
Further, concerns have been raised that previous studies might have reported inflated estimates of case linkage effectiveness
due to sampling series that were first identified based on similar modus operandi (MO), thereby overestimating the degree
of consistency and distinctiveness that would exist in naturalistic settings. We present the first study to overcome these
limitations; we tested the assumptions of case linkage with a sample containing 1) offenses that remain unsolved, and 2) crime
series that were first identified as possible series through DNA matches, rather than similar MO. Twenty-two series consisting
of 119 rapes from South Africa were used to create a dataset of 7021 crime pairs. Comparisons of crime pairs that were linked
using MO vs. DNA revealed significant, but small differences in behavioral similarity with MO-linked crimes being characterized
by greater similarity. When combining these two types of crimes together, linked pairs (those committed by the same serial
offender) were significantly more similar in MO behavior than unlinked pairs (those committed by two different offenders)
and could be differentiated from them. These findings support the underlying assumptions of case linkage. Additional factors
thought to impact on linkage accuracy were also investigated.
KeywordsComparative case analysis–Linkage analysis–Behavioral linking–Sexual assault–Sexual offense
This study used the interpersonal circumplex (IPC) – a probabilistic model of human behavior during social interactions – to conceptualize victim behavior during physically assaultive crime (domestic violence, physical assault, and sexual assault). Using data from the Australian Database of Victimisation Experiences, 101 victim behaviors were identified across a sample of 150 victim narratives. Categorical Principal Components Analysis and Smallest Space Analysis found that victim behavior during physically assaultive crime aligned with the IPC’s four behavioral styles: dominance, submissive, hostility, and cooperation. These findings provide new opportunities to explore victim agency including how victims may influence the offender and situation.
Multiple-perpetrator rape is an under-studied topic, but there has been a recent increase in studies on the differences between multiple-perpetrator sexual offenses and the ones perpetrated by solo offenders. This study aims to have a deeper understanding of the differences between multiple-perpetrator and solo-offender sexual assaults committed by strangers, from a sample of 400 sexual aggressions reported to the Spanish police in 2010. Differences were explored on variables related to characteristics of perpetrators, the assault (approach, control, maintenance, termination, and sexual behavior), and the victims. Data were obtained from police files on sexual assaults committed around the country. Significant differences found were similar to other studies conducted in other countries and proved that multiple perpetrator assaults committed by strangers are a different subtype. Additionally, four predictive variables of multiple-perpetrator rape were identified: older age (OR = 0.943, 95% CI = [0.92, 0.97]), alcohol or drug use (OR = 2.499, 95% CI = [1.50, 4.32]), non-Spanish nationals (OR = 1.980, 95% CI = [1.14, 3.45]), and use of violence to control the victim (OR = 2.465, 95% CI = [1.03, 5.90]). The cultural and leisure characteristics of Spanish society provide facilitating opportunities for multiple-perpetrator rapes and prevention strategies should be urgently addressed.
Purpose
Coercive practices – which are used as means to manage violent/aggressive behaviour in secure forensic settings – have come under scrutiny in recent years due to their paradoxical effects on provoking further service user aggression and violence. Previous research has found relationships between increased service user aggression with both service users’ interpersonal styles and perceptions of staff coercion (i.e. staff limit setting). This paper aims to investigate whether forensic service users’ levels of interpersonal sensitivity to dominance increase levels of self-reported anger and rates of aggression towards staff through perceptions of staff coercion.
Design/methodology/approach
In a cross-sectional quantitative study design, 70 service users were recruited from one high and two medium secure forensic hospitals. Standardised measures were completed by service users and recorded incident data was collected within the past year. Correlation and mediation analyses were run to investigate the relationship between study variables.
Findings
A significant relationship was found between service users’ interpersonal sensitivity to dominance and self-reported rates of anger, where forensic service users’ who had higher levels of interpersonal sensitivity to others’ dominance were likely to report higher rates of anger. No significant relationships were found between all other study variables.
Practical implications
The findings from this study contradict previous research where coercive practices may not necessarily increase rates of aggression towards staff but, in the context of service users’ interpersonal sensitivities to dominance, it may be more useful to consider the way in which coercive practices are implemented.
Originality/value
There is a gap in the literature, which looks at the way in which forensic service users perceive coercive practices in relation to their interpersonal sensitivities and whether this too has an impact upon service user aggression.
The current study investigated characteristics of robbery offences with a focus on lone versus multiple perpetrator crimes. The main aim was to outline differences between lone, duo, and 3+ perpetrator crimes. Police recorded crime data from West Midlands Police relating to 1574 personal robberies (including attempts) committed in Birmingham city centre (UK) were used in the analysis. Robbery offences were compared on victim and offender demographics and offence characteristics. The findings showed significant differences between the three group sizes (lone, duo, 3+ offenders) in victim and offender age; approach styles; victim control variables; weapon use; alcohol and violence; injuries; and carjacking. The findings of the current research can feed into developing policing strategies which take into account differences in group size.
This study aimed to create a measure of risk for gang affiliation, for use in the UK. A pilot stage invited gang affiliated and non-gang affiliated participants between the ages of 16–25 years to retrospectively self-report on 58 items of risk exposure at the age of 11 years. Based on performance of these items, a 26-item measure was developed and administered to a main study sample (n = 185) of gang affiliated and non-gang affiliated participants. Categorical Principal Component Analysis was applied to data, yielding a single-factor solution (historic lack of safety and current perception of threat). A 15-item gang affiliation risk measure (GARM) was subsequently created. The GARM demonstrated good internal consistency, construct validity and discriminative ability. Items from the GARM were then transformed to read prospectively, resulting in a test measure for predictive purposes (T-GARM). The T-GARM requires further validation regarding its predictive utility and generalisability. However, this study has resulted in the first measure of gang affiliation, with promising results.
In this chapter, it is argued that a lack of social investment in neighborhood public security and equipment, a failure of private security and a lack of vetting of public and private security personnel for sexual violence facilitated sexual assassinations in three main specific mixed industrial neighborhoods zones in Juárez: the Poniente [West], South/South-East and the Border. A spatial analysis finds that lethal sexual assaults upon girls, teens and women engaged in routine activities (walking to and from school and work) took place on public streets and unlighted foot pathways in all zones. In the Poniente, frequently-used pedestrian pathways along abandoned railroad land corridors to and from urban industrial parks greatly increased the risk for sexual assassination. In the South/South-Eastern zones, sexual assassination also took place near the railroad corridor, federal lands and maquiladora plants located at uninhabited areas of the city. Very high levels of impunity in the criminal justice system particularly fueled blitz auto abductions and produced “pockets of opportunity” for repetitive crimes at the neighborhood level in all zones.
Driving a taxicab can be a difficult and dangerous job. Understanding the types of potential crime situations drivers face and the strategies they use to try to prevent or mitigate these potential harms is important. Robbery, one of these potential crimes, can have serious consequences for taxi drivers, including injuries, enhanced fear of crime, time off work, and loss of the stolen property. This chapter looks at taxi driver robbery and attempted robbery victimization among drivers operating in Cardiff, Wales, using the script analytic approach. Three main types of scripts are discussed here: (1) traditional offender crime scripts, (2) potential-victim scripts, and (3) actual-victim scripts. These “interpersonal scripts” were built from information provided by taxi drivers and include drivers’ reactions to offenders’ actions during the unfolding of these incidents—referred to here as “crimes-in-action.” These reactive tactics by drivers are discussed in terms of their potential for limiting loss of property and driver injury. Comments from the taxi driver victims on their reactions and other crime prevention measures are also examined.
Although sexual offenses by acquaintances account for the majority of sexual offenses against women, there is currently little evidence of systematic knowledge regarding the crime-commission process involved. To our knowledge, no empirical crime script has been identified for this particular offense. The purpose of this study is to better understand the crime-commission processes involved in sexual offenses against women by acquaintances and identify key intervention points by using crime scripts. This objective is achieved through a qualitative content analysis of 23 Australian court cases in which a crime script comprising eight stages is identified. Potential prevention measures are also underpinned and summarised according to the problem analysis triangle. Some key areas of focus include the isolation process and guardianship. The adaptation of prevention techniques to specific offender-victim relationships is also recommended.
Gang violence has increased in recent years. Individuals appear to be joining gangs at younger ages, and many have suffered historic maltreatment. Subsequent exposure to violence can result in profound consequences, including acute psychological harm. This review aims to identify predictive risk factors for male street gang affiliation. A systematic literature search was conducted utilising PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, Medline, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and the Social Policy and Practice databases (from the databases’ inception to 3 April 2015). From this search, n = 244 peer-reviewed papers were included in an initial scoping review, and n = 102 thereafter met criteria for a systematic review; a narrative synthesis follows. Gang members have typically faced numerous historic adversities across multiple domains; individual, family, peers, school and community. Cumulative factors generated an independent risk. The meta-narrative described an overarching failure to safeguard vulnerable individuals, with the motivation for gang affiliation hypothetically arising from an attempt to have their basic needs met. Clinical and research recommendations were made to inform early intervention policy and practice.
This systematic review examined the demographic and offence variables in group sexual offending. Eight bibliographic databases and three thesis portals were searched. The reference lists of five papers and one textbook were hand searched. Nine experts were contacted for ongoing or unpublished studies. The total number of hits was 1853, of which 55 were duplicates, 1769 were irrelevant, 14 did not meet the inclusion criteria and one paper was unobtainable. The remaining 15 papers were quality assessed before the data were extracted and synthesized. There were 2,873 cases of Multiple Perpetrator Sexual (MPS) offences in total. The majority of MPS offending in the included studies involved perpetrators in their early twenties (90% of studies), and operated as part of a „duo‟ (49.8%). Thirty-five percent of MPS offences were committed by perpetrators with a previous conviction, with 11% of the cases showing a previous conviction for sexual offending. Offenders were most likely to approach victims outdoors with the offence itself occurring indoors. The most frequent offence behaviors included vaginal rape, multiple penetration and fellatio. A model of MPS offending is suggested based on the findings of this review. Future research should aim to explore and refine theories of MPS offending in order to understand the etiology of this unique offending group.
The concept of the female sex offender (FSO) is a relatively new phenomenon within the social research literature. Studies of female rape, male rape, pedophilia, and juvenile sex offenders have suggested that different styles of offending are reflected in the different types of behaviors committed by offenders at the crime scene. These studies suggest that there are three distinct themes of behavior: Hostility, Impersonal, and Involvement. Multidimensional analysis is carried out on 35 crime scene behaviors of 73 FSOs from U.K. and U.S. law reports. The proposed framework was found to be a useful way of classifying FSOs with 84% displaying a dominant theme. These resulted in 52% classified as displaying Involvement, 17% as Control, and 15% as Hostility. Finally, the implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Although multiple perpetrator rape is a relatively under-researched area, a few authors have proposed theories to try to explain this complex phenomenon. The majority of these theories only examined some factors that are believed to play a part in multiple perpetrator rape (e.g., socio-cultural factors and group processes). The most recent and comprehensive model proposed is the Multi-Factorial Theory of Multiple Perpetrator Sexual Offending. This article critically examines this theory and the factors and processes that are suggested as contributing to multiple perpetrator rape (i.e., individual, socio-cultural and situational factors including the interactions between them). Some evidence is found to support this model although further research is needed to fully test it.
Global population-level patterns in female participation in contemporary political and revolutionary conflict remain largely unknown as systematic empirical research in the area is lacking. Accordingly, this study systematically documented the participation of a comprehensive sample of women involved in conflict around the world. A statistically derived model of female participation is proposed that consists of four thematic roles representing specific patterns of activity: active, representing fighting and leadership activities; caring, representing traditional feminine tasks; support, representing logistically based tasks, and; ideological, representing activities that propagate the ideology of the group. The contribution of the model to theory, research, and practice is considered.
The aim of this study was to examine the impact of interpersonal style and psychopathy on treatment non-completion and aggressive behaviour. Participants were patients with personality disorder admitted for treatment to a structured group program operating within a medium secure psychiatric hospital. Assessment of personality disorder and psychopathy occurred prior to admission. Interpersonal style was assessed on admission with the Impact Message Inventory (IMI), a self-report transactional inventory. Files were subsequently reviewed to determine whether patients were aggressive during their hospital stay and whether they were prematurely expelled from the unit and therefore did not complete treatment. Results showed that patients who completed treatment were more nurturing and help-seeking. Aggressive patients were more competitive and dominant. Psychopathy did not differentiate treatment completers from non-completers or aggressive from non-aggressive patients. Clinical implications and opportunities for further research are explored.
This study investigates the variations in behaviour displayed by young people who sexually harm, as previous research has shown that they are not a homogeneous sample. Three conceptually distinct sets of behaviour were hypothesized, relating to various modes of interaction between the young people with harmful sexual behaviour (HSB) and their victim, victim as object, victim as person and victim as vehicle. Thirty-three behaviours were drawn from an extensive review of the files of 300 youths who had sexually harmed. The pattern of co-occurrence of the presence or absence of these behaviours was revealed by a multidimensional scaling procedure, Smallest Space Analysis (SSA). The results provide empirical support for three distinct behavioural themes; 258 (86%) of the youths could be assigned to one dominant mode of interaction (victim as object, victim as person or victim as vehicle). The findings have implications for the ways in which practitioners differentiate between young people with HSB.
This research is concerned with explicating and modeling the causal linkages from economic inequality to homicide among nation-states. Specifically, the authors posit that the effect of economic inequality on cross-national homicide rates is mediated by the perceived legitimacy of the system of stratification; that is, the effect of economic inequality on cross-national homicide rates should be substantially attenuated once perceived legitimacy is controlled. The authors test this hypothesis with data from 33 of the 44 nation-states that participated in the third wave of the World Values Survey. Negative binomial regression analyses reveal that perceptions of legitimacy do not mediate the effects of economic inequality on homicide. However, they do indicate that the impact of economic, and political, illegitimacy on homicide depends on the level of modernity. The implications of these findings for the economic inequality-homicide relationship are explored.
Sexually aggressive behavior against adult females is an increasingly serious societal problem. The need for a unified theoretical model is addressed by integrating the elements of existing models into a quadripartite model in which the heterogeneity of sexual aggressors is accounted for by the prominence of potential etiological factors. The components of the model—physiological sexual arousal, cognitions that justify sexual aggression, affective dyscontrol, and personality problems—function as motivational precursors that increase the probability of sexually aggressive behavior. The relative prominence of these precursors within different sexually aggressive populations is used to define major subtypes.
Considerable evidence has amassed in studies of both nonoffender and offender samples that demonstrates both that sexual aggression is determined by a multiplicity of variables and that convicted sexual offenders are markedly heterogeneous (Knight, Rosenberg, & Schneider, 1985; Malamuth, 1986). Attempts both to identify sexually coercive men in normal samples and to assess etiology, concurrent adaptation, treatment efficacy, and recidivism for convicted sexually aggressive offenders have also suggested that the critical determining components of sexual aggression interact in complex ways. The purpose of this article is to survey both the offender and nonoffender sexual aggression research for evidence about which dimensions should be included in multivariate models that attempt to discriminate rapists from nonrapists, to identify subgroups among rapists, or to enhance the efficiency of dispositional decisions about these offenders.
The complementarity of behavior as moderated by the base rates of consequent behaviors, the differences attributable to friendly and hostile antecedent behaviors, and octant versus quadrant codes was examined. Complementarity was defined using 3 different but overlapping models: R. Carson (1969), D. Kiesler (1983), and J. Wiggins (1979). The Interpersonal Communication Rating Scale (ICRS; S. Strong & Hills, 1986) behavioral ratings on 80 female dyads provided by Strong, Hills, Kilmartin, et al. (1988) were analyzed using the randomization test of hypothesized order relations and correspondence analysis. Results demonstrated that (a) complementarity was supported for each of the 3 definitions (Carson's, Kiesler's, and Wiggins's), (b) complementarity fit the data better if account was taken of the base rate of behavior, (c) complementarity was more prominent if the antecedent behavior was friendly rather than hostile, and (d) complementarity of quadrant behavior was fairly strong. Results are discussed with respect to the measurement of interpersonal behaviors and the construct of complementarity.
The extrapolation of characteristics of criminals from information about their crimes, as an aid to police investigation, is the essence of ‘profiling'. This paper proposes that for such extrapolations to be more than educated guesses they must be based upon knowledge of (1) coherent consistencies in criminal behaviour and (2) the relationship those behavioural consistencies have to aspects of an offender available to the police in an investigation. Hypotheses concerning behavioural consistencies are drawn from the diverse literature on sexual offences and a study is described of 66 sexual assaults committed by 27 offenders against strangers. Multivariate statistical analyses of these assaults support a five-component system of rapist behaviour, reflecting modes of interaction with the victim as a sexual object. The potential this provides for an eclectic theoretical basis to offender profiling is discussed.
This study investigates whether accounts of sexual assault, as reported to police officers by individuals who have been raped, reflect abusive variants of conventional interpersonal scripts. Previous studies on conventional interactions suggest that a circular ordering of interpersonal descriptors located around two principal axes, dominance-submission and co-operation-hostility, may represent such events. Using multivariate statistical analyses that geometrically represent the co-occurrence of the various actions described by the victims, 251 victim statements were examined. Study One ('series offences') examined serial stranger assault cases committed by 42 different offenders resulting in a total of 112 victim statements. Study Two ('single offences') examined victim statements involving 139 different offenders committing 1 offence each; all of these were also stranger attacks. Both studies employed statements taken in the UK. In both studies the resulting configuration of actions described evidenced an approximation to a circular order. The replication of this structure in this domain suggests that such accounts reflect a manipulative and abusive variant of more conventional interactional processes. Such a finding generates a number of hypotheses about potentially different responses that are contingent upon the type of interaction described. The implications of this are discussed.
The present study examined how decisions, actions, and orders combine to act as influence strategies that occur throughout different stages in gang rape. Thirty-nine gang rape cases, yielding 120 offenders, were coded according to each individual's level of involvement at each stage in terms of decisions, actions, and orders. The various combinations of these were examined using a multidimensional scaling procedure. This revealed that the behaviors form a partially ordered scale of influence in which involvement in the approach and/or disposal of the victim were the most significant stages of the offense. Individual scores on this scale revealed that in 37 of the cases, one individual scored significantly higher on the scale than his co-offenders. The scale successfully identified leaders in 37 of the 39 groups, with leaders scoring significantly higher on the scale than followers (other group members). The results and implications are discussed. Amir (1971) stated that leadership is an essential element of gang behavior, because leaders are the creators and/or manipulators of the gang's goals. However, despite the extensive social psychologi- cal research of leadership, it remains unclear precisely how influ- ence is exerted over others. The present study examines the constit- uents of leadership using a framework that considers leadership qualities according to degree and not as an either/or dichotomous trait. Thus, different individuals may be considered as possessing degrees of influence over others rather than having either no ability or absolute ability in influencing others. The study examines this proposed scale of influence using the example of gang rape to see how the offense is controlled by the gang members at each stage of
This article explores how unobtrusive research methods popularized by Webb et al. (1966) can be utilized in forensic research. In particular, the value of the approach is considered with special reference to examining investigative processes and criminal behaviour. Webb et al.’s three non-reactive types of unobtrusive measures (physical traces, archival material and simple observation) are discussed in relation to a variety of types of material collected across the course of police enquiries. The breadth and variation of this material is emphasized with special consideration of its utility for research. We illustrate how the limitations and benefits identified by Webb et al. are echoed within the forensic domain and how close attention to the methods of collecting such material developed by researchers may improve the effectiveness of investigations.
Integrates previous theory and research addressing interpersonal complementarity, a construct that is central to refined and extended research and clinical applications of interpersonal theory. The 1982 Interpersonal Circle is presented, which the present author constructed as a comprehensive taxonomy of the domain of 2-dimensional interpersonal behavior. The 1982 Circle integrates and expands the content of 4 major adult interpersonal measures (the Interpersonal Check List, the Interpersonal Adjective Scales, the Interpersonal Behavioral Inventory, and the Impact Message Inventory) to provide a circle taxonomy consisting of 16 segments 128 subclasses, 2 levels, and 350 bipolar items. Previous conceptions of interpersonal complementarity are reviewed and, using the 1982 Circle as a theoretical and operational guide, 11 propositions of complementarity as they apply in personality, psychopathology, and psychotherapy are derived. (108 ref)
Considerable evidence has amassed in studies of both nonoffender and offender samples that demonstrates both that sexual aggression is determined by a multiplicity of variables and that convicted sexual offenders are markedly heterogeneous (Knight, Rosenberg, & Schneider, 1985; Malamuth, 1986). Attempts both to identify sexually coercive men in normal samples and to assess etiology, concurrent adaptation, treatment efficacy, and recidivism for convicted sexually aggressive offenders have also suggested that the critical determining components of sexual aggression interact in complex ways. The purpose of this article is to survey both the offender and nonoffender sexual aggression research for evidence about which dimensions should be included in multivariate models that attempt to discriminate rapists from nonrapists, to identify subgroups among rapists, or to enhance the efficiency of dispositional decisions about these offenders.
It is hypothesized that stranger rape victim statements will reveal a scale of violation experienced by the victim, ranging from personal violation, through to physical violation, and finally, at the most extreme level, sexual violation. It is also hypothesized that offences can be differentiated in terms of one of four themes: hostile, controlling, stealing, or involving. To test these hypotheses, crime scene data from 112 rapes were analyzed by the multi-dimensional scaling procedure Smallest Space Analysis. The results provide empirical support for a composite model of rape consisting of four behavioral themes as different expressions of various intensities of violation. The results also suggest that stranger rapes may be less about power and control than about hostility and pseudo-intimacy. The proposed model has implications for the classification of rape, the investigation of sexual crimes, and the treatment of victims.
This work has the aim of making facet theory, and the approach to research which derives from it, more accessible to behavioral and social scientists than has been possible in the past. In a first section the book gives the background to the theory and associated methods of analysis, illustrating the major components of the ap proach in use. A second section then provides detailed examples of the applications of the facet approach in developmental, clinical, and environmental psychology, as well as in studies of attitudes and mental performance. The third section provides some further technical details on recent developments in the facet approach as well as a computer program listing. The facet approach to social and behavioral research can be traced at least to the late 1940s (as discussed by Gratch, 1973) and the logical principles on which it is based have clear roots in Descartes' algebra and Fisher's experimental designs.
This study investigates whether accounts of sexual assault, as reported to police officers by individuals who have been raped, reflect abusive variants of conventional interpersonal scripts. Previous studies an conventional interactions Suggest that a circular ordering of interpersonal descriptors located around two principal axes, dominance-submission and co-operation-hostility, may represent such events. Using multivariate statistical analyses that geometrically represent the co-occurrence of the various actions described by the victims, 251 victim statements were examined. Study One ('series offences') examined serial stranger assault cases committed by 42 different offenders resulting in a total of 112 Victim statements. Study Two ('single offences') examined victim statements involving 139 different offenders committing I offence each; all of these were also stranger attacks. Both studies employed statements taken in the UK. In both Studies the resulting configuration of actions described evidenced an approximation to a circular order. The replication of this structure in this domain suggests that such accounts reflect a manipulative and abusive variant of more conventional interactional processes. Such a finding generates a number of hypotheses about potentially different responses that are contingent upon the type of interaction described. The implications of this are discussed.
A study was conducted to determine whether the relationship processes underlying offender-child interactions in child sexual abuse could be considered as abusive and manipu- lative variants of more conventional relationship processes that exist between adults and children. To explore this possi- bility, it was proposed that a circular order of behaviors (i.e., a circumplex) would exist in offender-child interactions that relates to circular models found in more conventional adult-child interactions. Furthermore, just as biases are found in conventional adult-child interactions towards particular relationship patterns, it was proposed that a bias would exist in offender-child interactions reflecting the predominant way in which child sex offenses are carried out. Using a multi- variate statistical analysis that geometrically represents the co-occurrence of individual actions, the behaviors from 97 British child sex offenses were analyzed. The results provide preliminary support for the idea that the coercive nature of offender-child interactions in child sexual abuse relies on the offender gaining and abusing the trust of the victim by exploiting a range of conventional adult-child relationship patterns.
Presents an introduction to social psychology theory and research, emphasizing more recent work and findings than earlier, classic material. Topics include attraction, liking, social influence, imitation and social learning, sexual behavior, the measurement and acquisition of attitudes, social exchange, and environmental influences on social behavior. (281/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Through the use of detailed examples, Shye introduces readers to the use of facet theory as a method for integrating content design with data analysis. He shows how facet theory provides a strategy for conceptualizing a study, for formulating the study's variables in terms of its purposes, for systematic sampling of the variables, and for formulating hypotheses. The book is organized into 2 parts: Part [I] introduces the reader to mapping with specific emphasis on mapping sentences, and Part [II] explores procedures for processing multivariate data. The book concludes with a discussion on the nature of scientific inquiry and the difference between a research question and observational questions.
[This book] will provide researchers with a useful technique for constructing questionnaires and for designing research instruments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter describes the contingency model and the dynamics of the leadership process. The Contingency Model provides a conceptual framework which enables to explain the effects of such change-inducing conditions as organizational turbulence, leadership experience, training, and job rotation. The integrating concept in the dynamic interpretation of this theory is the leader's situational control and influence, which, as it changes, brings about a corresponding change in the leader's behavior and performance. The Contingency Model has a number of shortcomings that need to be remedied as new research data become available. Specifically, there is need of a conceptually cleaner definition and a better metric of the situational control dimension, and it is necessary to continue research on personality and behavioral correlates of LPC, and on the effect of this variable on interpersonal encounters outside the leadership context. In addition, it is important to seek concepts which integrate different leadership theories of proven worth. The interpretation of the situational control dimension as a correlate of uncertainty and anxiety is a promising development in this direction. Leadership, and the authority relationship of which it is a part, is a central and important phenomenon in our everyday life. It plays a powerful role in the governance of our institutions and our society, and it makes obvious the critical need for understanding, developing, and improving the leadership resources at our disposal.
Accounts from both offenders and victims of what occurs during a rape suggest that issues of power, anger, and sexuality are important in understanding the rapist's behavior. All three issues seem to operate in every rape, but the proportion varies and one issue seems to dominate in each instance. The authors ranked accounts from 133 offenders and 92 victims for the dominant issue and found that the offenses could be categorized as power rape (sexuality used primarily to express power) or anger rape (use of sexuality to express anger). There were no rapes in which sex was the dominant issue; sexuality was always in the service of other, nonsexual needs.
Sexually aggressive behavior against adult females is an increasingly serious societal problem. The need for a unified theoretical model is addressed by integrating the elements of existing models into a quadripartite model in which the heterogeneity of sexual aggressors is accounted for by the prominence of potential etiological factors. The components of the model--physiological sexual arousal, cognitions that justify sexual aggression, affective dyscontrol, and personality problems--function as motivational precursors that increase the probability of sexually aggressive behavior. The relative prominence of these precursors within different sexually aggressive populations is used to define major subtypes.
Using information obtained from police files, the characteristics of group rapes were compared to those of rapes involving a solitary attacker. A number of important differences emerged from which it was concluded that, whereas some assaults by individual offenders may reflect personal propensities or pathology, group rapes originate in the dynamics of youthful gangs.
Circular representations of human nature can be traced from ancient astrology to Leonardo Da Vinci to the modern interpersonal circumplex (IPC) tradition. which began with Harry Stack Sullivan. The Kaiser Foundation Psychology Research Group operationalized key concepts of Sullivan's and Timothy Leary (1957) provided extensions of Sullivanian theory that formed the conceptual basis for contemporary circumplex models The current generation of circumplex investigators is exceptionally well represented by the contributors to this special series. The IPC can serve as an integrative cognitive framework for making sense of diverse realms that are well outside its original focus of convenience. The visual and psychological appeal of this powerful model is briefly illustrated.
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