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Who is a Journalist?: Changing legal definitions in a de-territorialised media space
Abstract
The emergence of blogging and citizen journalism has created challenges in defining the once-simple terms of “journalist” and “news media”. Internationally, courts, legislators and policy makers are developing new definitions that incorporate a broader understanding of journalism practice, as territories blur and shift across digital spaces. However, a lack of consensus has resulted in jurisdictional clashes, challenges to legislative amendments, appeals to higher courts, and confusion for regulators and practitioners alike. In Australia, recently legislated shield laws have resulted in different definitions across the country’s various jurisdictions. In the United States, court cases relating to defamation and shield laws have been successfully appealed based on differing definitions of the role of a journalist. In New Zealand, a High Court judgement overturned a lower court decision, to find that a blogger could be viewed as a journalist. At the same time, courts internationally are developing policies and guidelines relating to live text-based communication from courts, which also requires them to determine who is permitted to text, tweet or blog from within courtroom. This paper examines how these courts, legislators and policy makers are grappling with the challenges of redefining “journalist” and “news media” while ultimately focusing on the objective of ensuring a free and democratic flow of information.
... 2 Three phases of publicity The twenty-first century has provided expanded and diversified media opportunities and challenges for the courts. Though restrictions do exist, with some areas emerging as major restricted zones, for instance in terrorism trials, via suppression orders, in alternative dispute resolution or courts outsourcing work (Resnik, 2013), more media channels, dedicated courts' communication staff and even expanded definitions of the role of the journalist (Johnston and Wallace, 2017) provide varied opportunities for more publicity, albeit not always of a positive nature. In investigating this array of media opportunities, I propose that court publicity has occurred in three overlapping phases over time. ...
... See Dietrich (2014). come to the attention of courts internationally, with questions surrounding media training, accreditation, legal knowledge and employer responsibility (Gleason, 2015;Johnston and Wallace, 2017;Peters and Tandoc, 2013;Wallace and Johnston, 2015;West, 2014) occurring concurrently with reductions in specialist court reporters (Greenslade, 2016;Moran, 2014b). Questions are raised: How do court reporting guidelines for journalists apply to those who choose to report but do not identify with journalism in other ways, such as adhering to a code of ethics? ...
... If a lack of training and expertise has been found to be a growing issue within traditional, employed journalists' ranks, this growing phenomenon of the 'non-traditional' journalist represents as big a challenge for the courts. Guidance documents and practice directions have been developed by CIOs to address the issue across many countries and jurisdictions, for example in England and Wales (Judge, 2011), Australia (Johnston and Wallace, 2017), the US (Supreme Judicial Court Rule 1.19, 2012: part 2), Canada (Canadian Centre for Court Technology, 2013) and Hong Kong (Ma, 2014). In most cases, the guidelines outline whom the courts recognise as journalists and this also applies to using Twitter (or live text-based communication) from courts (Johnston and Wallace, 2017). ...
The paper examines the changing nature of publicity in the courts, tracing three distinct but interconnected phases of publicity using Jeremy Bentham's theory of open justice and publicity as a framework. The first phase is press coverage, with the news media chronicling the justice system for the general population, most recently including televised court proceedings. The second is the appointment of Courts Information Officers, occurring as early as the 1930s and growing in impact since the 1990s, established to facilitate the relationship between courts and the news media. The third and final phase is the Internet, including social media, resulting in changes to news media models and driving contemporary practices of court-generated media. The paper concludes that, while media and communication practices have changed radically since the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and the concept of publicity has shifted, Bentham's approach to open justice remains salient for twenty-first-century courts’ communication.
... Beyond the Egyptian context, this article engages with the debate in journalism studies on redefining the profession and its peripheries amid increasingly blurred boundaries in digital times Carlson and Lewis 2015;Holton and Belair-Gagnon 2018;). The core struggle over professional boundaries and distinction in Egypt echoes the global debate on the questions of who is a journalist during an era of digital disruption and what privileges journalists receive to perform their jobs (Carlson and Lewis 2015;Johnston and Wallace 2017;Belair-Gagnon, Holton, and Westlund 2019;Mollerup 2017;Waisbord 2013). It does not focus on technology but explores what technology does to journalism in imbalanced power dynamics. ...
... First, legally expelling journalists from the field and marking them as deviant (Carlson and Lewis 2015) has serious repercussions for them. The legal exclusion of non-traditional journalists not only limits journalism's independence, it informally positions them in a lower professional hierarchy and exposes them to additional risks because they are deprived from recognition and protection (Johnston and Wallace 2017). In addition, the current boundaries have a loophole: to become a formally recognized journalist in the first place, journalists need to work first to build a portfolio, which is a prerequisite for Syndicate membership. ...
Focusing on the Egyptian Journalists’ Syndicate crisis in 2016, this article examines how non-traditional journalists contest their peripheral position and push journalism’s boundaries within an asymmetrical context beyond political-legal control. As digital and freelance journalists are excluded from legal journalism definitions, outdated regulations divide professional journalists into a hierarchical system. Rigid boundaries and blurred practice exist side by side. Power imbalances, media patrimonialism, and an ambivalent professional association divide the journalists’ community over recognition and benefits. A qualitative media analysis of three newspapers and interviews revealed a contested spectrum. Journalists demanded professional autonomy but did not push for boundary expansion. Radical critique was missing. Beyond the regional focus, this article offers a contextualized analysis of how severe exclusion and power imbalances shape journalism boundaries. It brings journalists themselves, not just politics, as a force into the foreground to be reckoned with as journalistic divisions block change and sustain inequalities.
... News media will publish their news as long as it meets several aspects. Publish means: "a) insert in a newspaper or other periodical publication; or b) disseminate via broadcast, telecast or cinematograph; or c) disseminate to the public via social media or the internet" (Johnston & Wallace, 2017). Nowadays, people continue to consume information from diverse sources and prioritize their time on content from certain sources and specific topics (Kolluri & Murthy, 2021). ...
Private news media worldwide are trying to develop pay models for their online news in order to survive in the competitive market. Faced with a worldwide crisis, it is vital to understand the news
business by imposing paid content. However, not all publishers can encourage their consumers to purchase or subscribe to paid content. The vast majority of customers are still unwilling to pay
for online news. Since the Covid-19 pandemic, several online media outlets in Indonesia have started to monetize their content. This study aims to investigate the intentions and factors that
young generations in Indonesia consider when deciding whether to pay for news material. This study utilized a questionnaire containing both close-end and open-ended questions to collect raw data. According to the findings of this study, media organizations have the potential to attract the audience to their paid-for content because students with no prior experience with paid content are considering paying for it in the future. However, media entrepreneurs must take several factors into account before applying pay models for millennials.
... In digital journalism, this research at hand takes into account the contributions of Micó (2006) on digital journalism, Deuze (2001), Pavlik (2001) and Rost (2006) on interactivity and contributions to the figure of the digital journalist of Cohen (2018), Sherwood and O'Donnell (2018), Johnston and Wallace (2017) and Wilentz (2014). Broersma and Eldridge (2019) address the challenge of new trends in digital journalism and the rise of social networks, particularly in terms of dynamic information and authority. ...
La digitalización y la crisis económica han llevado al periodismo a un nuevo paradigma (Albalad, 2018). Las rutinas y los contenidos se han modificado, los soportes han cambiado, los nuevos modelos son híbridos y los medios generalistas no siempre cubren las temáticas que la sociedad pide (Sims, 2018). Conociendo la tradición y siguiendo la innovación, el periodismo narrativo aparece como una posible respuesta a la situación. El objetivo de este análisis es detectar los desafíos del periodismo narrativo y de los periodistas narrativos en este contexto. Se trata de analizar formatos, rutinas y contenidos de este tipo de medios, estudiar cómo viven digitalmente (Drok & Hermans, 2016) y si son una plataforma de activismo periodístico. La selección de casos de estudio está integrada por tres revistas: Jot Down, Gatopardo y The New Yorker. Su modelo digital, contenidos y calidad literaria son motivos para elegirlos, además de sus diferentes edades, procedencias geográficas y de formato. Con una metodología de investigación cualitativa basada en el análisis de contenido (Voutsina, 2018), la entrevista en profundidad (Johnson, 2002), la observación no participante y la revisión documental, este análisis plantea que el nuevo nuevo periodismo digital es un tipo de activismo periodístico en favor de la tradición del periodismo narrativo, el reporteo y la calidad literaria. El estudio se desarrolla con tres bases teóricas: periodismo narrativo, con autores como Sims (1996) o Herrscher (2012) y periodismo digital, con firmas como Rost (2006) o Domingo y Heinonen (2008).
... Ojalá nosotros, los periodistas, le pongamos el nombre (Lichfield, 2009) puesto que definir el nombre de la profesión es precisamente el desafío a partir de la des-territorialización de las clásicas rutinas de producción y difusión de información. Alrededor del mundo, las cortes y los congresos en su afán coercitivo debaten qué es ser periodista o qué es periodismo en un contexto en que ciudadanos hacen un uso cada vez más intensivo de las TIC para trasmitir información, real o no, mediante formas no tradicionales de entrega de noticias a través de blogs o medios sociales (Johnston & Wallace, 2016). ...
ResumenEste trabajo tiene como propósito reflexionar sobre los cambios que ocurren en el ejercicio periodístico con énfasis en la prensa escrita, cada día con menos lectores debido, entre otras cosas, al cambio de comportamiento que internet genera entre los lectores. Los públicos, los periódicos y todas las plataformas de difusión de contenidos escritos están en una fase de transición en que lo nuevo sustituye a lo viejo inmediatamente, lo cual inyecta fuertes dosis de incertidumbre respecto al futuro de la profesión mientras cambia el comportamiento de la gente. Dentro de este entramado cobran fuerza los clásicos conceptos del periodismo que hablan de una profesión con alta dosis de servicio y compromiso social.Palabras clave: comunicación de masas, información y comunicación, ética de la prensa, periodismo, tecnología de la informaciónAbstractThe purpose of this work is to reflect on the changes that are taking place in journalism as practiced by newspapers, which each day have fewer readers not least on account of the changes in behavior provoked by the internet. The public, newspapers and all platforms for disseminating written content are in a transition phase in which the old immediately is immediately replaced by the new, thus injecting strong doses of uncertainty regarding the future of journalism as a profession while simultaneously changing the behavior of the people. Within this framework, the classic concepts of journalism that speak of a profession infused with a deep sense of service and social commitment gain strength.Keywords: communication ethics, information and communication, internet, journalism, mass mediaResumoO objetivo deste artigo é refletir sobre as mudanças que ocorrem no exercício jornalístico com ênfase na imprensa escrita, cada dia com menos leitores devido, entre outras coisas, à mudança no comportamento gerado pela internet entre os leitores. Os públicos, os jornais e todas as plataformas de divulgação do conteúdo escrito estão em uma fase de transição em que o novo substitui o antigo imediatamente, o que injeta fortes doses de incerteza respeito ao futuro da profissão enquanto muda o comportamento das pessoas. Nesse contexto, os conceitos clássicos de jornalismo que falam de uma profissão com alta dose de serviço e compromisso social ganham força.Palavras-chave: comunicação de massa, informação e comunicação, ética da imprensa, jornalismo, tecnologia da informação
... Ojalá nosotros, los periodistas, le pongamos el nombre (Lichfield, 2009) puesto que definir el nombre de la profesión es precisamente el desafío a partir de la des-territorialización de las clásicas rutinas de producción y difusión de información. Alrededor del mundo, las cortes y los congresos en su afán coercitivo debaten qué es ser periodista o qué es periodismo en un contexto en que ciudadanos hacen un uso cada vez más intensivo de las TIC para trasmitir información, real o no, mediante formas no tradicionales de entrega de noticias a través de blogs o medios sociales (Johnston & Wallace, 2016). ...
Este trabajo tiene como propósito reflexionar sobre los cambios que ocurren en el ejercicio periodístico con énfasis en la prensa escrita, cada día con menos lectores debido, entre otras cosas, al cambio de comportamiento que internet genera entre los lectores. Los públicos, los periódicos y todas las plataformas de difusión de contenidos escritos están en una fase de transición en que lo nuevo sustituye a lo viejo inmediatamente, lo cual inyecta fuertes dosis de incertidumbre respecto al futuro de la profesión mientras cambia el comportamiento de la gente. Dentro de este entramado cobran fuerza los clásicos conceptos del periodismo que hablan de una profesión con alta dosis de servicio y compromiso social.
... In digital journalism, this research at hand takes into account the contributions of Micó (2006) on digital journalism, Deuze (2001), Pavlik (2001) and Rost (2006) on interactivity and contributions to the figure of the digital journalist of Cohen (2018), Sherwood and O'Donnell (2018), Johnston and Wallace (2017) and Wilentz (2014). Broersma and Eldridge (2019) address the challenge of new trends in digital journalism and the rise of social networks, particularly in terms of dynamic information and authority. ...
Digitization and the economic crisis have led journalism to a new paradigm (Albalad, 2018). Contents and customs have changed, supporting media has changed, new journalistic models are hybrids and the mainstream media do not always deal with the issues that society demands (Sims, 2018). With a knowledge of tradition, but following the path of innovation, narrative journalism emerges as a possible response to this state of affairs. The objective of this analysis is to identify the challenges facing narrative journalism and narrative journalists themselves in this regard. We analyse their formats, routines and content, study how their digitally existence (Drok & Hermans, 2016) and ask ourselves if they constitute a platform for journalistic activism. Three magazines were identified for the selection of case studies: Jot Down, Gatopardo and The New Yorker. Their digital models, content and literary quality are the principal reasons for their selection, in addition to their different seniorities, geographical backgrounds and formats. By deploying a qualitative research methodology based on content analysis (Voutsina, 2018), in-depth interviews (Johnson, 2002), non-participant observation and document review, this analysis suggests that the new new digital journalism is a kind of activist journalism that upholds the traditions of reporting, narrative journalism and literary quality. This study is based on two theoretical premises: narrative journalism, exemplified by authors such as Sims (1996) and Herrscher (2012) and digital journalism, represented by writers such as Rost (2006) and Domingo & Heinonen (2008).
... Neveu (2016) focussed on the business of digital narrative journalism, while authors such as Wilentz (2014) studied the figure of the digital narrative journalist and their skills. Le Cam et al. (2019), Cohen (2018), Sherwood and O'Donnell (2018), and Johnston and Wallace (2016) studied the working conditions of journalists following digitisation and agreed on journalism being an identity rather than a profession. In the field of religion, Díez Bosch (2013) analysed the profile of journalists who specialised in religion, specifically in Catholicism. ...
Intercultural and interfaith dialogue is one of the challenges faced by society. In a world marked by globalisation, digitisation, and migratory movements, the media is the agora for people of different faiths and beliefs. At the same time, the media is adapting to the online space. In this context, narrative journalism emerges, breaking the rules of technological immediacy and opting for a slow model based on the tradition of non-fiction journalism. With slow, background-based reporting and literary techniques, narrative journalism tells stories with all their aspects, giving voices to their protagonists. Is this genre a space in which to encounter the Other? Could narrative journalism be a tool for understanding? These are the questions that this research aims to investigate through the content analysis of 75 articles published in Jot Down, Gatopardo, and The New Yorker, along with 38 in-depth interviews with journalists associated to them.
... Ojalá nosotros, los periodistas, le pongamos el nombre (Lichfield, 2009) puesto que definir el nombre de la profesión es precisamente el desafío a partir de la des-territorialización de las clásicas rutinas de producción y difusión de información. Alrededor del mundo, las cortes y los congresos en su afán coercitivo debaten qué es ser periodista o qué es periodismo en un contexto en que ciudadanos hacen un uso cada vez más intensivo de las TIC para trasmitir información, real o no, mediante formas no tradicionales de entrega de noticias a través de blogs o medios sociales (Johnston & Wallace, 2016). ...
O objetivo deste artigo é propor uma perspectiva crítica para compreender o processo comunicativo. O caráter multidimensional dos sujeitos, que estão em comunicação, põe em cheque as pesquisas monocausais, funcionalistas e positivistas. Uma nova ciência da “recepção comunicativa” nasce a partir de olhares voltados à constituição identitária dos sujeitos e suas inter-relações históricas e políticas com os meios. Notamos que as dimensões identitárias pressupõem diferença, movimento, performatividade, intersecção e poder. Características essas que também são próprias da linguagem e das culturas, e que orientam o próprio devir das dimensões políticas da comunicação e dos sujeitos.
... The journalist as programmer is also gaining relevance as reporters are called upon to engage with the technical aspects of news production (DeVito 2016;Johnston and Wallace 2016). In turn, it is not surprising that many observers have pointed to computer algorithms having a significant impact on journalistic routines, news produc- tion, and distribution to consumers (Broussard 2015a;Napoli 2014). ...
This article examines the role of code in the process of news distribution and the degree to which code and algorithms can filter and prioritize news, much as an editor would. The discussion focuses specifically on the context of mobile news applications that filter news for consumers. Given concerns raised by the intersection of computer science and journalism, analysis moves away from the common notion that code is replacing humans as producers of news and shifts toward the role of code in helping journalists order and communicate the news. Thus, the focus of this research is on code as technological actants, filtering news based on decisions imbued into the code by human actors. This article reports the results of an investigation of code contained in 59 open source mobile news apps and an analysis of the content of that code. Findings highlight the journalistic decisions made in code and contribute to discussion surrounding the relationship between algorithmic and traditional news values.
The question of “who is a journalist?” has animated much discussion in journalism scholarship. Such discussions generally stem from the intersecting technological, economic, and social transformations journalism has faced in the twenty-first century. An equally relevant aspect, albeit one that has hitherto been less studied, is what a journalist looks like. Some studies have tackled this through, for example, examining depictions of journalists in popular culture, but artificial intelligence understandings of what a journalist is and what they look like have yet to receive research attention. While AI-enabled generative art has existed since the late 1990s, the ease and accessibility of these processes has greatly been boosted by providers like Midjourney which emerged since the 2020s and allow those without programming skills to easily create algorithmic images from text prompts. This study analyzes 84 images generated by AI from four “generic” keywords (“journalist,” “reporter,” “correspondent,” and “the press”) and three “specialized” ones (“news analyst,” “news commentator,” and “fact-checker”) over a six-month period. The results reveal an uneven distribution of gender and digital technology between the generic and specialized roles and prompt reflection on how AI perpetuates extant biases in the social world.
For the past two decades, understandings of the scale of digital disruption in journalism work in post-industrialised countries have relied on data about newspaper closures, newsroom job losses and the creation of new full-time jobs in journalism. Yet, the digital economy has fostered new employment and work arrangements, and there is less secure employment in journalism, making it more difficult to define who is a journalist now. Using a case study of Australian journalists seeking re-employment after newsroom job loss, this article examines some of the emerging patterns of atypical journalism work. It concludes that attempts to measure the current extent of journalism work need to explicitly account for hybrid careers characterised by professional activities at the margins of or outside of traditional newsroom work. In the digital economy, journalists may undertake a range of journalism and non-journalism work simultaneously or sequentially.
Design is a discipline that gives form to alternative futures. Through a process of material exploration, it explores novel configurations of technology, people and values, and in doing so, seeks to understand the implications of new designs. It is this practice of making and creating that is valuable to journalism as it grapples with how to respond to communication technologies that are increasingly subtle, physical and sensuous. In this article we examine the theory of materiality as it has been discussed in communication and design literature, proposing a conceptual approach for a design-led view of materiality in journalism studies. This view sees materiality from a form-giving perspective in which technologies and journalistic principles are materials to shape in order to explore potentials and possibilities. This article extends the concept of journalism design by examining how journalistic values can be incorporated into the design of public interest technologies. In doing so, it frames journalism as a process of designing things that respond to public concerns. The article also contributes to scholarship that sees tinkering, iteration and participation as a way to understand how news could be structurally different.
The networked era has made it increasingly difficult to define journalism and to separate it from other types of information. This is no small thing. The definition of journalism influences its practice and its role in democratic society. This article identifies themes from judicial definitions of journalism from recent U.S. state and federal cases. Jurists’ rationales for why a person is or is not a journalist have come as they face a variety of cases in which bloggers, message-board posters, website publishers, and others have claimed protections that have historically been primarily associated with traditional journalists. Ultimately, judges have constructed a discourse about journalism that combined concerns regarding how closely the process and practices the publishers used to gather and communicate the information aligned with traditional journalistic work, the public-service value of the information, and the journalistic credentials of the publisher. Though concern for how the work was created and who communicated it was crucial, jurists consistently conveyed the public-service role was most instrumental in their evaluations, often rationalizing broad expansions of what legally constitutes journalism.
The Chinese government began disseminating propaganda targeting journalists covering the protests in Hong Kong from the beginning of the Anti-Extradition Bill Movement in 2019. Thus, on the one hand, state media outlets criticized the frontline reporters for unprofessional conduct, alleging that they pointed their cameras only at the police while overlooking protesters’ violent acts. On the other hand, they accused these reporters of using false professional identities to impede the efforts of police to enforce the city’s laws (Wang & Li, 2019). The Hong Kong police, for their part, claimed to have identified three types of fake reporters: those with forged press cards, of which at least two cases were reported; those wearing the yellow reflective vests that normally identified members of the press but without the insignia of a media organization and who disappeared when police officers approached; and those who represented organizations that were unknown to the authorities. Although the law gives members of the public the right to take photographs in public places, the police asserted that the fake reporters made it impossible for them to identify real journalists (“Fake reporters,” 2019).
Current literature examining journalism’s boundary work has focused mostly on traditional, hard news journalism, while soft news journalism, such as lifestyle journalism, has largely been overlooked. Guided by the framework of boundary work, this paper examines how traditional fashion journalists and fashion bloggers define their own professionalism and what that says about the negotiation of fashion journalism’s boundaries. Through a textual analysis of the ‘About’ pages of 40 mainstream fashion magazine websites and fashion blogs, this paper shows that fashion magazines and fashion blogs demonstrate differences in four areas: mode of presentation, rituals of asserting authority, organisational structure, and relationship with the audience. For each theme, fashion magazine websites and fashion blogs display different approaches that help to shape their professional identities. These four areas serve as markers of the emerging – and perhaps blurring – boundaries between the two media actors. Findings from this study have implications not just on boundary work in journalism, but also on the very definitions of journalist and journalism, and on the evolving digital cultural industry, particularly in relation to lifestyle-centred content.
This study examines how the United States community newspapers engage community members and how editors view challenges of citizen participatory and collaboration practices with particular focus on ethical issues. To address this, the study conducted a content analysis of interactive news features offered by online newspapers and in-depth interviews with news editors. Findings reveal various ways that local newsrooms seemingly invite citizens to participate in telling the community news. Letters-to-the-editor were discussed most frequently in all aspects of their discussions—both in positive and negative ways. Legal concerns did not arise as such concerns were avoided and filtered before inclusion and publication, but ethical considerations were also discussed modestly. Editors as a whole generally turned to ideas reflected in traditional journalism codes of conduct for citizens as a guide in their practice of submitting content with primary focus placed on truth telling, independence, and transparency. Implications are discussed in terms of citizen news engagement, news collaboration, and participatory journalism and the continued institutional control of content through normalization of the news and separation between professional and citizen.
This article discusses emergent digital mechanisms that are engaging with, analysing and challenging coronial practice and state talk around contested deaths. Drawing on key examples, the article argues that these mechanisms represent and enable a growing, interactive public dialogue around deaths in controversial circumstances, which has the potential to shape how we might understand aspects of death justice and knowledge about the dead and their bereaved in the digital age.
This essay considers how social actors in news have come to shape the contours of news and journalism and what these changes may suggest for other industries. It looks more specifically at the question of who does journalism and news and what that may signal for power dependencies, status, and norms formation. It examines how authors who contributed to this thematic issue define who gets to decide what is news and journalism, what forms of power are exerted amongst groups, who gets to claim status, and how norms and epistemologies are formed. Ultimately, this essay illustrates how conformity to groups and organizations varies with the investments that these social actors have to core and more peripheral journalism and media groups.
Globalization and the internet have created a space for news and political discourse that overrides geography and increases opportunities for non-mainstream, citizen-based news sources. Drawing a distinction between emerging citizen and professional media, this study examines one rapidly expanding and increasingly influential citizen news source — weblogs. We analyzed the linking patterns, the online network led to by six of the most popular news and political weblogs to study their relationship to other weblogs and the traditional professional news media in the USA and internationally. Findings suggest a more complementary relationship between weblogs and traditional journalism and less echo-chamber political insularity than typically assumed. The blogosphere relies heavily on professional news reports and half of its linked-to sites can be considered non-partisan.
Using a systems framework from the sociology of occupations, this article maps the journalism-blogging relationship, revealing areas of conflict between the two, vulnerabilities, and predictors of vulnerability. The systems framework suggests occupations exist within a network of other occupations and that they encroach into each other’s jurisdictional areas. A variety of factors shape these fluid processes. Factors that are external to the occupation include organizational division of labor, revenue needs, and relationships with other institutions. Internal factors include the degree to which journalists control the definition of problems and inference to solutions, and the success with which they solve problems. Difficulties posed by external and internal factors have led journalism to neglect some types of news information, which in turn have been poached by bloggers. These include partisan expression, ‘old stories’, stories driven by non-elite sources, and highly specialized content. A model for future study is constructed from these observations.
This study surveyed Weblog users online to investigate how credible they view blogs as compared to traditional media as well as other online sources. This study also explores the degree to which reliance on Weblogs as well as traditional and online media sources predicts credibility of Weblogs after controlling for demographic and political factors. Weblog users judged blogs as highly credible—more credible than traditional sources. They did, however, rate traditional sources as moderately credible. Weblog users rated blogs higher on depth of information than they did on fairness.
As blogs have become a fixture in today's media environment, growing in number and influence in political communication and (mass) media discourse, research on the subject has proliferated, often emphasizing the high-profile conflicts and controversies at the intersection of blogging and journalism. Less examined, however, is the psychology of everyday citizen bloggers in this context. In studying a randomized sample of US bloggers, we attempt to puzzle out these questions: to what extent do bloggers (1) perceive their work as a form of journalism, and how might such a perception influence (2) their motivations for posting and (3) the topics around which they blog? Most critically, (4) this article constructs a model by which all these antecedents predict whether bloggers behave like professional journalists. Results indicate that bloggers who see their work as a form of journalism are more inclined to inform and influence readers, write about public affairs, and behave as a more traditional journalist.
Now in a fully updated second edition The Routledge Companion to Critical and Cultural Theory is an indispensible guide for anyone approaching the field for the first time. Exploring ideas from a diverse range of disciplines through a series of 11 critical essays and a dictionary of key names and terms, this book examines some of the most complex and fundamental theories in modern scholarship including:
•Marxism
•Trauma Theory
•Ecocriticism
•Psychoanalysis
•Feminism
•Posthumanism
•Gender and Queer Theory
•Structuralism
•Narrative
•Postcolonialism
•Deconstruction
•Postmodernism
With three new essays, an updated introduction, further reading and a wealth of new dictionary entries, this text is an indispensible guide for all students of the theoretically informed arts, humanities and social sciences.
****
I am afraid that I don't have a full text of this book that I can share. There appear to be fairly extensive extracts online that come up if you put the title into your favourite search engine.
The contemporary debate about "who is a journalist" is occurring in two distinct domains: law and professional ethics. Although the debate in these domains is focused on separate problems, participants treat the central question as essentially the same. This article suggests that the debates in law and professional ethics have to be resolved independently and that debate within those domains needs to be more nuanced. In law, it must vary depending on whether the context involves constitutional law, statutory law, or the distribution of informal privileges by government officials. In professional ethics, the debate should not be oriented around a single definitional threshold but should identify tiers that take account of different communicators’ unique goals, tactics, and values.
The study of citizen journalists’ characteristics and values has gained relevance and popularity, but problems remain in operationalizing the ambiguous term, “citizen journalist.” This study uses Q-methodology to determine the types of citizen journalists that exist in the newssphere, allowing citizens to define themselves. Through Q, categories of people are generated which are operant, revealing entirely new effects in ways that traditional questionnaires cannot. The factor analysis revealed three types of citizen journalists: The Nonchalant, Self-fulfillment Seeker; The Watchdog’s Watchdog; and the Passionate Pro-hopeful. The Q-method proved valuable in identifying new ways of thinking about citizen journalism, confirming some traditional knowledge about citizen journalism, and offering new insights.
Australian courts in five States recently changed their rules to permit journalists reporting on court proceedings to use electronic devices to send text-based transmissions from court. These changes reflect an international trend to allow journalists and, in some cases, members of the public, to use live text-based communication in the courtroom. This development has clear benefits in terms of promoting open justice and timely reporting of court
proceedings, in an era when mobile computing technologies have become essential tools for news reporting. However, it also poses risks to the administration of justice, including the potential for an increased risk of
breaches of court orders in relation to publication. This article analyses the approach taken by the courts in Australia and overseas in developing policies that attempt to manage these risks.
This article takes its point of departure in the thesis that today’s global, digitalized and convergent media environment has promoted new patterns of information gathering and dissemination within journalism, and war journalism in particular, which involve changing forms and various degrees of interplay between elite and non-elite sources as well as media professionals and amateur sources. On account of their proximity to unfolding events, amateur sources often break the news by means of raw and fragmented bits of visual and verbal information. Elite sources rarely possess the same exclusive access to information from war zones, but are instead brought in to comment on, validate and grant legitimacy to amateur sources as a form of explicit source criticism that we would like to term metasourcing. This new pattern of information gathering and sourcing within war reporting manifests itself most clearly in cases of major international news events, which render visible the multitude of sources and the speed of information production and distribution. A recent example is the capture and subsequent death of Muammar Gaddafi in October 2011. Based on quantitative and qualitative analyses of the sources included by selected newspapers to report on this event, the current article investigates the following research questions: Which types of sources are brought into play in the news coverage of Gaddafi’s death, and which forms of interplay between sources in today’s globalized and convergent media landscape are indicated by this case?
Thanks to advances in mass communication technology, it is now easier and cheaper for all of us to share information with each other. This new ability allows us to act in ways that often seem “press-like.” We might, for example, tweet a warning to our friends about a traffic jam or blog about an upcoming election. Armed with nothing more than a smart phone or a laptop, each of us can share information about matters of public interest to a potentially broad audience in a timely manner — thus engaging in the very activities that were once considered the exclusive province of the press. Has modern technology, therefore, made us all “the press”?The First Amendment protects “the freedom … of the press.” Many thoughtful legal observers have debated what that text means, how it might function differently from the freedom of speech, and whether it is possible to develop enforceable standards. In a prior article, I made the case that defining “the press” was both necessary and achievable. This article elaborates on that work in significant ways. I begin with the premise of press exceptionalism — that there naturally exists a subset of speakers who fulfill a distinctive role in our democracy. This limited group of speakers shares common attributes, most notably a proven devotion of time, resources and expertise to the tasks of informing the public on newsworthy matters and serving as a check on power. The challenge is identifying the members of this group and distinguishing them from “occasional public commentators” who at times use their speech rights in similar ways. To be sure, it is no easy task to separate these two categories of speakers in the age of the Internet, blogging, smart phones and social media. Yet even as these technological advances blur the line between the press and everyone else, they also help to focus our analysis on the core constitutional characteristics that differentiate the press from other sorts of speakers. Such a purposive analysis points the way toward identifying the subgroup of communicators who, if empowered with rights beyond those granted by the Speech Clause, will most often and most effectively use those rights to benefit society as a whole. The goal of this article, therefore, is to offer a workable framework in our search for “the press” for First Amendment purposes in the Internet age.
The failure to agree on a sufficiently narrow definition of "journalist" has stalled efforts to enact a federal shield law to legally protect reporter-source communications from compelled disclosure in federal court. The increasing use of the Internet in news coverage and the greater reliance by the public on the Internet as a news source creates further problems as to who should qualify for federal shield law protection. This iBrief argues that a functional definition of "journalist" can be created to shield journalists from compelled source disclosure so as to protect the free flow of information to the public, but limits must be set to prevent abuse of such protection.
Commitments to truth and to "transparency," or public accountability, are two central normative aspects of professional journalism. This article considers ways in which both are challenged and complemented by popular communicators, particularly bloggers, in today's media environment. While all professions claim autonomy over articulation and enactment of their own norms, definitions of professional constructs are now open to reinterpretation, and oversight of professional behavior is increasingly shared.
This article considers the neglected area of journal editorship in advancing a discipline and provides, albeit retrospectively, theoretical warrant for its modus operandi. Written from a specific personal, cultural, and geographic site, it charts the move of Australasian public relations writing from the periphery to the center through a series of editorial policies, principles, and practices.
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