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Plant Cell and Tissue Cultures: The Role of Haberlandt
Abstract
The aseptic culture of plant cells and tissues as technique is now well established. Successful development of tissue culture was necessitated by a physiological problem which clearly demanded for its solution some extreme form of isolation of the tissues being studied. Although real success first came with animal tissues, the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt (1854-1945) (Fig.1) clearly set forth the purposes and potentialities of cell culture after having attempted culture of plant cells. Haberlandt was not entirely successful but foresaw the use of cell culture as an elegant means of studying physiological and morphological problems.
... 6), Professor of Plant Physiology in Berlin, was the first to suggest that hormones might play an important role in plant cell culture media. This is clear from his suggestion that " the effect (also reported by [Hans] Winkler) of the pollen tube on the development of the ovule in orchids, the swelling of ovaries etc., [occurs] probably [because] substances (Wuchsenzyme), are involved here which, released from the pollen tube, [act] as a chemical stimulus to the growth and division of the cells concerned … it would be worthwhile to culture together vegetative cells and pollen tubes; perhaps the latter would induce the former to divide " (Haberlandt, 1902; English translation by Krikorian & Berquam, 1969: 83). It does not seem that Haberlandt followed his own suggestion. ...
... The first attempts to culture free plant cells utilized mechanically isolated ones. Although fairly intensive efforts were made by Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1898 and 1902 (Krikorian & Berquam, 1969; Krikorian, 1975 Krikorian, , 1982 Steward & Krikorian, 1975), he did not succeed. A suggestion that Haberlandt failed because he neglected the findings of a French naval architect and agronomist, Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau (1700–1782) who also studied wound healing in trees (Gautheret, 1985) probably has its roots in Gallic chauvinism rather than scientific reality. ...
... A suggestion that Haberlandt failed because he neglected the findings of a French naval architect and agronomist, Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau (1700–1782) who also studied wound healing in trees (Gautheret, 1985) probably has its roots in Gallic chauvinism rather than scientific reality. Haberlandt failed for the following reasons: (1) his ideas were more advanced than the plant science 'biotechnology' of his day; (2) his selection of cells to culture (mature, differentiated, specialized non-meristematic) was inappropriate; (3) his culture media did not include all necessary components — he used " tap water, one to five percent sucrose solutions, and Knop's solution with or without sucrose, dextrose, glycerine,Krikorian & Berquam, 1969); 31 (4) his choice of plants included monocotyledonous species which can be recalcitrant; (5) he had no previous information to guide him; and (6) his cultures, although sanitary, were not aseptic (Haberlandt, 1902 translated by Krikorian & Berquam, 1969). Not as well known as his work with orchids, but well ahead of its time was Lewis Knudson's attempt to culture sloughed-off root cap cells of maize and Canada fieldpea (Knudson, 1919). ...
A commonly held view is that the ideas and basis for the practice of orchid micropropagation arose de novo in 1960 from the work of Georges Morel in France. In this paper we argue that the crucial developments in micropropagation were made by Gavino Rotor in 1949 in the USA and Hans Thomale in 1957 in Germany, and that Morel's work needs to be seen in the context of a long line of research achievements in the in vitro culture of a wide range of explanted tissues and organs from plants of many species. A critical, historical, analysis of the events as they relate to clonal orchid multiplication is offered here. Two important technical innovations for orchid micropropagation — the use of activated charcoal to darken nutrient media and the adoption of liquid culture environments for part of the process — are examined in detail. In addition, an unusual US patent claiming invention of ‘a method for rapidly reproducing orchids’, especially cattleyas, is analysed. The origin of the micropropagation process claimed in this patent, said by the nominal inventor to go back as far as 1950, is discussed, but the claim remains unsubstantiated. Finally, consideration is given to the problems of adjudicating unequivocal priority for ‘discovery’ of a process as complicated and as broad as micropropagation.
... Polyembryony, a natural example of reproduction through asexual embryogenesis, was first identified in citrus seeds in 1719 by the Dutch microbiologist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (Tisserat et al., 1979). The identification of asexually produced embryos in many other species and the cellular origins of these embryos were discovered contemporaneously with the earliest developments of plant tissue culture, with significant strides being made at the turn of the 20th century (Krikorian & Berquam, 2003). Figure 1 depicts a timeline of significant events in the field of in vitro plant tissue culture, with particular attention paid to advancements in maize. ...
... Figure 1 depicts a timeline of significant events in the field of in vitro plant tissue culture, with particular attention paid to advancements in maize. One of the earliest reports in plant tissue culture was written by the Austrian botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt, who attempted in vitro culture of various isolated plant tissues, though he failed to produce growing cultures (Haberlandt, 1902;Krikorian & Berquam, 2003). The first report of the successful establishment of a continuously growing in vitro culture of a vascular plant occurred in 1934 by the French botanist R. J. Gautheret, who successfully cultured cambium tissue from a number of tree species (Gautheret, 1934). ...
The production of embryogenic callus and somatic embryos is integral to the genetic improvement of crops via genetic transformation and gene editing. Regenerable embryogenic cultures also form the backbone of many micro‐propagation processes for crop species. In many species, including maize, the ability to produce embryogenic cultures is highly genotype dependent. While some modern transformation and genome editing methods reduce genotype dependence, these efforts ultimately fall short of producing truly genotype‐independent tissue culture methods. Recalcitrant genotypes are still identified in these genotype‐flexible processes, and their presence is magnified by the stark contrast with more amenable lines, which may respond more efficiently by orders of magnitude. This review aims to describe the history of research into somatic embryogenesis, embryogenic tissue cultures, and plant transformation, with particular attention paid to maize. Contemporary research into genotype‐flexible morphogenic gene‐based transformation and genome engineering is also covered in this review. The rapid evolution of plant biotechnology from nascent technologies in the latter half of the 20th century to well‐established, work‐horse production processes has, and will continue to, fundamentally changed agriculture and plant genetics research.
... He began these investigations in 1898 and published the results in 1902 (Haberlandt, 1902). His intention was to study ''the properties and potentialities which the cell as an elementary organism possesses'' (Krikorian and Berquam, 1969; translation from Haberlandt's text). Although Haberlandt failed to induce divisions in any of the cells that he cultured, he is recognized as the founder of plant cell culture because of the novelty of the methods he proposed and the concluding paragraph in his article ''.I believe, in conclusion, that I am not making too bold a prediction if I point to the possibility that, in this way, one could successfully cultivate artificial embryos from vegetative cells.'' ...
... However, no cells were observed to divide. He then attempted to culture cells from other species: photosynthetic cells from Eichhorina crassipes, glandular hairs of Pulmonaria mollissima, stinging hairs of Urtica dioica, staminal filament hairs of Tradescantia virginica, and stomatal cells of Ornithogalum umbellatum, Erythronium denscanis , and Fuschia magellanica with equal lack of success (reviewed in Krikorian and Berquam, 1969). In retrospect, Haberlandt's failure to obtain dividing cells can be attributed to lack of microbial sterility, culture media that lacked hormones and growth factors that were unknown at that time, and his selection of highly differentiated mature cells. ...
One of the stellar achievements of twentieth century plant biology was the genetic transformation of somatic cells enabling the regeneration of whole plants that were stably transformed and capable of transmitting the inserted genetic material to subsequent generations. This achievement grew out of
... The problem of the competence of explant cells both in in vitro callus formation and callus cells in in vitro morphogenesis was raised in the earliest studies of these processes. Thus, in 1902, Gottlieb Haberlandt (in [23]) proposed the concept of plant cell totipotency as the ability to form a new organism. The modern interpretation of this concept and the used terms are presented, for example, in works [24,25]. ...
The use of in vitro callus cultures as experimental model systems allows us to get closer to understanding the patterns and features of morphogenesis in intact plants. In this regard, the problem of realizing the morphogenetic potential of callus cells due to their pluri- and totipotency properties is of great interest. To solve this problem, it is important to use the histological approach, which involves studying the structures of developing tissues, organs and organisms in their interactions and relationships. This review article analyzes data devoted to the study of the histological features of formed primary morphogenic calli (formation of morphogenetic centers and superficial meristematic zones), as well as the in vitro morphogenesis pathways in calli that lead to the formation of regenerants (de novo organogenesis and in vitro somatic embryogenesis). The terminology used is considered. Some questions for discussion are raised. The opinion is expressed that histological (structural) studies should be considered as a methodologic basis for further investigation of various morphogenetic scenarios in in vitro callus cultures, especially in economically valuable plants and for biotechnological purposes.
... From unicellular green algae to angiosperms, plants are highly regenerative, meaning that new organs or whole bodies can be rebuilt following injury (Ikeuchi et al. 2016. Research on regeneration can be traced back to Gottlieb Haberlandt's description of totipotency proposed in the early twentieth century (Haberlandt 2003;Krikorian and Berquam 2003;Thorpe 2007). In 1957, Skoog and Miller demonstrated that the ratio of exogenous auxin to cytokinin (CK) affects the fate of callus differentiation in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) (Skoog and Miller 1957), providing experimental tools and a conceptual framework for exploring the functions of phytohormones and their interactions during regeneration (Birnbaum and Alvarado 2008). ...
Ever since the concept of “plant cell totipotency” was first proposed in the early twentieth century, plant regeneration has been a major focus of study. Regeneration-mediated organogenesis and genetic transformation are important topics in both basic research and modern agriculture. Recent studies in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and other species have expanded our understanding of the molecular regulation of plant regeneration. The hierarchy of transcriptional regulation driven by phytohormone signaling during regeneration is associated with changes in chromatin dynamics and DNA methylation. Here, we summarize how various aspects of epigenetic regulation, including histone modifications and variants, chromatin accessibility dynamics, DNA methylation, and microRNAs, modulate plant regeneration. As the mechanisms of epigenetic regulation are conserved in many plants, research in this field has potential applications in boosting crop breeding, especially if coupled with emerging single-cell omics technologies.
... Tissue culture is based on the theory of totipotency; the ability of plant cells and tissues to develop into a whole new plant (Fowler et al., 1993). Gottlieb Haberlandt (1854-1945, a German botanist is considered as the father of plant tissue culture, was the first to separate and culture plant cells on Knop's salt solution in 1898 (Krikorian and Berquam, 1969). Micropropagation has the potential to provide high multiplication rate of selected tree genotypes. ...
... Tissue culture is based on the theory of totipotency; the ability of plant cells and tissues to develop into a whole new plant (Fowler et al., 1993). Gottlieb Haberlandt (1854-1945, a German botanist is considered as the father of plant tissue culture, was the first to separate and culture plant cells on Knop's salt solution in 1898 (Krikorian and Berquam, 1969). Micropropagation has the potential to provide high multiplication rate of selected tree genotypes. ...
Mammea suriga Kosterm. is a RET species distributed in Malnad region of the Western Ghats, which is over exploited for flowers, seeds and timbers, hence the population is declined. The study was conducted to evaluate the germination potency of the seeds in both in vivo and in vitro conditions to derive a regeneration protocol for the ex situ conservation. Among the pre-treated seeds, the decoated seeds pre-treated with 0.5 mg L-1 NAA for 24 h resulted in 86 % of germination. In in vitro condition, culture of decoated seeds on MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg L-1 NAA and 0.1 mg L-1 TDZ resulted 91.67 % of germination. Micropropagation studies showed that the interaction of 2-3 mg L-1 BAP and 0.2 mg L-1 TDZ induced multiple shoots from cotyledonary and hypocotyl explants. Mass of callus induced from the leaf explants at the concentration of 1 mg L-1 2,4-D and 3 mg L-1 BAP. Later on the photosynthetic callus, organise in to shoot buds at the concentration of 3 mg L-1 BAP and 0.2 mg L-1 TDZ. The excised micro shoots showed rhizogenesis on the media fortified with 1.5 mg L-1 IBA. The regenerants derived from both direct and indirect organogenesis exhibited similar morphological features.
... In micropropagation, a tissue culture approach, different parts of plants can be utilized as explants for culture initiation; including cultured cells, or whole organs such as seeds, shoots, or roots, which are cultured in an aseptic in vitro environment. In the 19 th century, Haberlandt produced adventitious embryos from vegetative cells (Krikorian and Berquam, 2003). Later, research scientists used the tissue culture technique in many projects to propagate plants using either a whole organ or a single cell. ...
The juvenility period in citrus is generally long requiring 5-22 years to achieve
flowering and fruit set. The FT protein plays a major role in controlling the flowering, and
mobility throughout the plant. A transgenic Carrizo citrange overexpresses the
FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) gene, resulting in accelerated flowering and fruiting within
18 months. These transgenic plants were propagated using two different methods: First
method: micropropagation used Murashige and Tucker (MT) and Murashige and Skoog
(MS) basal media supplemented with different concentrations of 6 - Benzyl adenine
(BA) and malt extract for optimal shoot multiplication. Carrizo lines rooted in vitro using
MS medium supplemented with three different concentrations of NAA (0.02, 0.03, and
0.04 mg L-1). Rooting stages were made ex Vitro using Jiffy 7 compressed peat moss
pellets and compared with in vitro rooting using MS medium supplemented with 0.02 mg
L-1 NAA. The acclimatization stage for Carrizo lines was made under three different environmental conditions. A second propagation method was also tested: rooted cuttings testing different auxin resources to achieve optimal rooting. To determine if the early flowering trait was transmittable through a graft union to
juvenile scions, selected juvenile scions were grafted on the transgenic Carrizo. Most of
the juvenile scions then quickly flowered. This suggests a successful movement of the
FT protein through the graft union into the scion, initiating early flowering. However,
after the initial bloom, sustained flowering in the grafted scions was not observed,
although it continued in the ungrafted transgenic Carrizo rootstocks.
Citrus Tristeza Virus vector was developed to introduce and cause expression of
foreign genes in citrus, achieving genes expression months after plant infection. In this
project, a modified CTV vector carrying the FT gene was used to infect juvenile citrus
disease-resistant plants (cybrids and sweet orange lines) that were developed by the
UF/CREC citrus breeding program. Confirmation of CTV-FT3 stability in the infected
plants was made based on the PCR results. The positive CTV-FT3 plants are expected
to be flowering and fruiting in the near future.
... In micropropagation, a tissue culture approach, different parts of plants can be utilized as explants for culture initiation; including cultured cells, or whole organs such as seeds, shoots, or roots, which are cultured in an aseptic in vitro environment. In the 19 th century, Haberlandt produced adventitious embryos from vegetative cells (Krikorian and Berquam, 2003). Later, research scientists used the tissue culture technique in many projects to propagate plants using either a whole organ or a single cell. ...
... Since Gottlieb Haberlandt in 1902 enunciated the theory of the totipotency of plant cells, attempts were made to cultivate in vitro cells, tissues, and organs. Haberlandt himself took the first step in this direction, although without success, for having tried to cultivate too mature cells and to have used a very simple nutritive solution (Krikorian and Berquam 2003). ...
Plant biotechnology is a great tool in several fields of human life such as medicine, pharmacology, agriculture, biomass, and biofuels. The use of nanotechnology represent and improvement in plant tissue culture that is a technique mostly used to produce clones of a plant in a method known as micropropagation with different stages. In this chapter tissue culture in modern agriculture and the use of nanomaterials for genetic transformation of plants; nanosilver as antimicrobial agent; nanomaterials for callus induction, organogenesis, and somatic embryogenesis; and titanium dioxide nanoparticles to remove bacterial contaminants will be discussed.
... In vitro culture of plants has become an integral part of advance plant science research after the introduction and realization of the Haberlandts' theory of totipotency (Krikorian and Berquam, 1969; Bairu and Kane, 2011). Plant tissue culture plays a pivotal role in basic biological research, such as genetics, plant breeding, biotechnology, biochemistry and cell biology and it has also direct commercial importance (Gamborg, 2002). ...
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Development of plant in vitro regeneration protocols has significantly contributed to research investigations and rapid propagation in commercial scale. However, due to considerable variations among plants, the technique encounters various hurdles. Major challenges are encountered during the micropropagation of woody plants, due to their range of secondary metabolites. Tissue and media browning, systemic contamination, vitrification, shoot tip necrosis (STN), tissue fasciations, somaclonal variations are some of the commonly encountered problems. Researchers in the recent years introduced various novel and unique protocols to eradicate these challenges, like nanosilver mediated sterilization, various new culture media for woody plant propagation, discovery of many new natural PGR having better properties like tapolins, diethyl aminoethyl hexanoate (DA-6), thidiazuron (TDZ) etc. have contributed immensely to the development of the subject. Although the basic concept of plant tissue culture remains same, the interpretation is subjected to development from time to time.
... The average yield of potato in Bangladesh is 11.26 t/ha which is much lower than that of many potato growing countries of the world such as, Scandinavian Countries (49.09 t/ha), the Netherlands (44.81 t/ha), and USA (40.23 t/ha) (FAO, 1999). Regeneration of valuable economic plants through tissue culture based on the principle of totipotency, individual plant cell is capable of regenerating new plant (Krikorian and Berquam, 1969). Plant tissue culture offers an efficient method for production and rapid propagation of pathogen-free material and germplasm preservation of plants to overcome this unwanted situation. ...
Six potato varieties Raja, Diamant, Cardinal, Heera, Granola and Lalpakri were used to standardize their in vitro regeneration protocol. Leaf and internode segments initiated calli were the test materials and different concentrations of BAP were used in MS medium. The highest percentage (62.60%), the maximum height of plantlet (12.90 cm), the maximum number of leaves (13.90) per plantlet were produced from internodal segment derived calli of Heera with 6.0 mgl -1 BAP and the lowest percentage (29.80%), the minimum height (4.68 cm) of plantlet, the minimum number of leaves (7.83) per plantlet was produced found in leaf segments derived calli of Lalpakri with 2.0 mgl -1 BAP at 90 DAI. The maximum days required (103.07 days) for shoot initiation was noted in calli of leaf segments of Lalpakri with 2.0 mgl -1 BAP and the minimum (53.93 days) was found in internodal segment derived calli of Heera with 6.0 mgl -1 BAP. Introduction Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) belonging to the family Solanaceae, is known to be originated in the Central Andean area of South America (Keeps, 1979). Potato is a good and cheap source of carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and proteins and provides most of the trace elements which can meet the energy requirements of the people living in the developing countries. The estimated requirement of seed potatoes for Bangladesh is about 0.18 million tones per annum (Hossain and Hossain, 1999). The average yield of potato in Bangladesh is 11.26 t/ha which is much lower than that of many potato growing countries of the world such as, Scandinavian Countries (49.09 t/ha), the Netherlands (44.81 t/ha), and USA (40.23 t/ha) (FAO, 1999). Regeneration of valuable economic plants through tissue culture based on the principle of totipotency, individual plant cell is capable of regenerating new plant (Krikorian and Berquam, 1969). Plant tissue culture offers an efficient method for production and rapid propagation of pathogen-free material and germplasm preservation of plants to overcome this unwanted situation. Tissue culture has a potential value in plant breeding. It is widely recognized and generally used as an experimental tool for crop improvement. Diseases free good quality seeds and pathogen free planting materials are produced through tissue culture. In tropical and subtropical areas like Bangladesh, it is difficult to produce seed tubers of potato due to lack of appropriate storage facilities and transport, as well as the presence of virus diseases (Omidi et al., 2003). Great progress has been made in potatoes for plant regeneration in recent years (Ehsanpour and Jones, 2000; Fiegert et al., 2000; Ahn et al., 2001). Based on the above facts, the present research was undertaken to establish a suitable and reproducible protocol for in vitro regeneration of plantlet of 6 potato varieties from initiated calli.
... The potential value of tissue culture in plant breeding has been widely recognized, and it is generally used as useful tool for crop improvement. Regeneration of valuable economic plants through tissue culture based on the principle of totipotency, individual plant cell is capable of regenerating new plantlets (Krikorian and Berquam, 1969). The regeneration of plants from cell and tissue culture is an important and essential component of biotechnology that is required for the genetic manipulation of plants. ...
The effect of different explants and concentrations of BAP and NAA on induction of callus and plant regeneration of brinjal cv. Jhumki were investigated. The treatment combinations were BAP (0. 2.0. 3.0, and 4.0 mg/l) and NAA (0. 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/l). The rate of callus formation varied in different treatments. The highest amount of callus (48.66%) was produced on MS medium containing 2.0 mg/l BAP and 0.5 mg/l NAA from stem, and 8.2 days required for callus induction. The highest fresh weight of callus was 1.12g from stem and 0.48g from root. The number of shoot regenerated through callus from stem containing 2.0 mg/l BAP and 0.5 mg/l NAA was 3.4 (23.287%) and days required for 38.8 days. All regenerated plantlets survived in normal environment.
... He predicted that the cultivation of artificial embryos from vegetative cells is possible thus introduced the term totipotency. Totipotency means the ability of any fully functional components of plants to undergo undifferentiation and differentiate again (Krikorian 1969). In modern plant tissue culture, the attachment of technology eases the difficulties to maintain an aseptic technique with equipments such as laminar air cabinet. ...
Clinacanthus nutans or “sabah snake grass” is one of the famous ornamental herb plants in Southeast Asia. Two main studies were carried out, namely callus induction and also plant regeneration of Clinacanthus nutans. For callus induction part, leaf explants were obtained from UTAR C4 land and six different surface sterilization protocols were investigated before callus induction study was performed. From all six surface sterilization protocols, the least contamination (9.64%) was achieved by using protocol six. Approximately 30 % (v/v) of Clorox was used to wash the explants for 15 minutes, before second washing with 40 % (v/v) of Clorox. The effects of various auxins on callus induction under both light and dark conditions were also investigated. Under light condition, Dicamba, picloram and 2, 4-D with the concentration of 3 mg/L were able to initiate callus from the explants whereas the media containing NAA and IBA and the control medium failed to induce callus. For the dark condition, all auxins were able to induce callus except for the medium containing NAA and the control. For the media containing cytokinin under light condition, all cytokinin (BAP, Kinetin and Dicamba)
... He predicted that the cultivation of artificial embryos from vegetative cells is possible thus introduced the term totipotency. Totipotency means the ability of any fully functional components of plants to undergo undifferentiation and differentiate again (Krikorian 1969). In modern plant tissue culture, the attachment of technology eases the difficulties to maintain an aseptic technique with equipments such as laminar air cabinet. ...
... These authors suggest that there is a definite need to know more about this in order to intelligently design physiologically 'correct' media. Additionally, Krikorian and Berquam (1969) point out that growing tissues in culture might require factors over and above those essential to the intact plant from which they were derived, because the synthetic ability of the intact plant is more complete. Despite this, numerous different culture media have been developed allowing successful growth of various explant types from different species (Street and Henshaw, 1966; Gamborg, 1984; see Duchefa, 2000). ...
Pinus radiata is by far the dominant species grown in New Zealand plantations as a renewable source of wood. Several wood quality issues have been identified in the material produced, including the high incidence of compression wood, which is undesirable for end users. At present our understanding of the complex array of developmental processes involved in wood formation (which has a direct bearing on wood quality) is limited. Hence, the forest industry is interested in attaining a better understanding of the processes involved. Towards this goal, and for reasons of biological curiosity, the experiments described in this thesis were carried out to investigate several aspects of xylem cell development. In an in arbor study, changes in the orientation of cortical microtubules and cellulose microfibrils were observed in developing tracheids. Results obtained provide evidence that cortical microtubules act to guide cellulose synthase complexes during secondary wall formation in tracheids. The mechanisms involved in controlling cell wall deposition in wood cells are poorly understood, and are difficult to study, especially in arbor. A major part of this thesis involved the development of an in vitro method for culturing radiata pine wood in which hormone levels, nutrients, sugars and other factors, could be controlled without confounding influences from other parts of the tree. The method developed was used in subsequent parts of this thesis to study compression wood development, and the influence of the hormone gibberellin on cellulose microfibril organisation in the cell wall. Results from the in vitro compression wood experiments suggested that: 1. when a tree is growing at a lean, the developing cell wall was able to perceive compressive forces generated by the weight of the rest of the tree, rather than perceive the lean per se. 2. ethylene, rather than auxin, was involved in the induction of compression wood. Culture of stem explants with gibberellin resulted in wider cells, with steeper cortical microtubules, and correspondingly steeper cellulose microfibrils in the S2 layer of developing wood cells. This observation provides further evidence that the orientation of microtubules guides the orientation of cellulose microfibrils. Overall, the work described in this thesis furthers our knowledge in the field of xylem cell development. The stem culture protocol developed will undoubtedly provide a valuable tool for future studies to be carried out.
... Yet the results of such culture experiments should give some interesting insight to the properties and potentialities that the cell, as an elementary organism, possesses. Moreover, it would provide information about the interrelationships and complementary influences to which cells within a multicellular whole organism are exposed (from the English translation, [3]). He experimented with isolated photosynthetic leaf cells and other functionally differented cells and was unsuccessful, but nevertheless he predicted that one could successfully cultivate artificial embryos from vegetative cells. ...
Plant tissue culture, or the aseptic culture of cells, tissues, organs, and their components under defined physical and chemical conditions in vitro, is an important tool in both basic and applied studies as well as in commercial application. It owes its origin to the ideas of the German scientist, Haberlandt, at the begining of the 20th century. The early studies led to root cultures, embryo cultures, and the first true callus/tissue cultures. The period between the 1940s and the 1960s was marked by the development of new techniques and the improvement of those that were already in use. It was the availability of these techniques that led to the application of tissue culture to five broad areas, namely, cell behavior (including cytology, nutrition, metabolism, morphogenesis, embryogenesis, and pathology), plant modification and improvement, pathogen-free plants and germplasm storage, clonal propagation, and product (mainly secondary metabolite) formation, starting in the mid-1960s. The 1990s saw continued expansion in the application of the in vitro technologies to an increasing number of plant species. Cell cultures have remained an important tool in the study of basic areas of plant biology and biochemistry and have assumed major significance in studies in molecular biology and agricultural biotechnology. The historical development of these in vitro technologies and their applications are the focus of this chapter.
... In 1902, the botanist Gottleib Haberlandt theorized that, under the proper culture conditions, " one could successfully cultivate artificial embryos from vegetative cells " (Haberlandt, 1902; Krikorian and Berquam, 1969). Interestingly, it took decades before effective culture techniques were established in the 1930s and another two decades before single cell totipotency was effectively demonstrated (Gautheret, 2003). ...
Multicellular organisms possessing relatively long life spans are subjected to diverse, constant, and often intense intrinsic and extrinsic challenges to their survival. Animal and plant tissues wear out as part of normal physiological functions and can be lost to predators, disease, and injury. Both kingdoms survive this wide variety of insults by strategies that include the maintenance of adult stem cells or the induction of stem cell potential in differentiated cells. Repatterning mechanisms often deploy embryonic genes, but the question remains in both plants and animals whether regeneration invokes embryogenesis, generic patterning mechanisms, or unique circuitry comprised of well-established patterning genes.
The article provides the brief review of the literature and own works devoted to the peculiarities of organogenesis as the morphogenesis pathway in calli in the conditions of in vitro culture. Particular attention is paid to the issues of realization of the morphogenic potency of callus cells due to the pluripotency property. A comparison of organogenesis in vitro with similar events in organogenesis in planta confirms the validity of the principle of universality of plant morphogenesis processes in cultural and natural conditions [Батыгина, 2014]. The used terminology is analyzed. Such controversial issue as the property of stemness of callus cells is touched upon. The prospects of using organogenesis in vitro as a model for studying the most complex biological phenomenon of organogenesis in planta are discussed.
In vitro plant regeneration involves dedifferentiation and molecular reprogramming of cells in order to regenerate whole organs. Plant regeneration can occur via two pathways, de novo organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis. Both pathways involve intricate molecular mechanisms and crosstalk between auxin and cytokinin signaling. Molecular determinants of both pathways have been studied in detail in model species, but little is known about the molecular mechanisms controlling de novo shoot organogenesis in lettuce. This review provides a synopsis of our current knowledge on molecular determinants of de novo organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis with an emphasis on the former as well as provides insights into applying this information for enhanced in vitro regeneration in non-model species such as lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.).
Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni), commonly known as a natural sweetener plant or sweet herb grabs the economic and scientific interests owing to its sweetness and therapeutic properties present in its leaves mainly due to the presence of steviol glycosides (SGs), with stevioside being the most abundant, followed by rebaudioside. Stevioside, the most abundant active component, is greatly preferred by diabetic patients since it is a non-calorie sweetener and is approved by the Food and Drug Administration as a dietary supplement. This shows the benefits of stevia over other artificial sweeteners as an ingredient for the food business, subsequently, making stevia an increasingly appropriate substitute for saccharine in various drinks, beverages, and bakery products. Stevia also offers therapeutic benefits having anti-hyperglycemic, anti-hypertensive, and immuno-modulatory effects. These beneficial effects largely focused on the importance of stevia. Sexually developed plants were not efficient because of low fertility and reduced viability. However, quality planting material can be produced through biotechnological approaches like micropropagation. To date, a great deal of studies has been completed on the tissue culture intervened approaches for the mass propagation of stevia. In this chapter, the above-mentioned approaches and their significance are emphasized for the large-scale production of identical plant materials and for the improvement of important calorie-free SGs.
Plants are characterized by a post-embryonic mode of organ development, which results in a need for these photoautotrophic organisms to regenerate lost parts in the course of their life cycle. This capacity depends on the presence of “pluripotent stem cells,” which are part of the meristems within the plant body. One hundred years ago, the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt (1854–1945) published experiments showing wounding-induced callus formation, which led ultimately to plant regeneration in tissue culture and thence to the techniques of “plant biotechnology,” with practical applications for mankind. Here, we recount Haberlandt’s discovery within the context of his long research life and his most influential book Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie. In the second part, we describe and analyze a plant tissue-culture regeneration system using sterile, dark-grown sunflower (Helianthus annuus) seedlings as experimental material. We document that excised hook segments, which contain a “stem cell niche,” can regenerate entire miniature H. annuus–plantlets that, raised in a light/dark regime, develop flowers. Finally, we discuss molecular data relevant to plant regeneration with reference to phytohormones and conclude that, one century after Haberlandt, 1921, the exact biochemical/genetic mechanisms responsible for the capability of stem cells to remain “forever young” are, although already complex, really just beginning to become known.
RESUMO O Pepper yellow mosaic virus (PepYMV) é o mais importante Potyvirus infectando plantas do gênero Capsicum no Brasil. Perdas podem chegar a 100% caso a infecção ocorra no início do cultivo. A resistência genética é a principal forma de controle desta virose. Em 2009 um novo isolado denominado PepYMV-Lins foi detectado quebrando a resistência genética das cultivares comerciais. Este trabalho visou buscar fontes de resistência a este novo isolado, estudar a herança da resistência, incorporar em linhas elites e criar híbridos de pimentões resistentes e com boa performance agronômica. Dentre os acessos do banco de germoplasma da empresa Sakata, foram encontradas seis pimentas e dois pimentões que portavam resistência conjunta aos isolados PepYMV e PepYMV-Lins. Estes dois últimos foram escolhidos para continuar os trabalhos de introdução de resistência. O estudo de herança apontou que a resistência genética nos dois acessos de pimentões é monogênica e recessiva. Eles foram cruzados com as linhagens elites de pimentões com o objetivo de criar híbridos comerciais do tipo cônico. Para acelerar o trabalho de melhoramento foi utilizada a técnica de criação e estabilização de linhagens via duplo haploide. As novas linhagens geradas por esta metodologia foram cruzadas para geração de híbridos. Os novos híbridos mostraram-se resistentes aos isolados PepYMV e PepYMV-Lins. Dois deles (AF23571 e AF23579) foram identificados com estabilidade agronômica e resistência. Testes em larga escala mostraram que o AF23579 foi o que apresentou melhor performance. Este híbrido está disponível comercialmente no mercado brasileiro de sementes de pimentão com o nome de Nocaute.
Oryza sativa indica (cv. IR64) and Oryza sativa japonica (cv. TNG67) vary in their regeneration efficiency. Such variation may occur in response to cultural environments that induce somaclonal variation. Somaclonal variations may arise from epigenetic factors, such as DNA methylation. We hypothesized that somaclonal variation may be associated with the differential regeneration efficiency between IR64 and TNG67 through changes in DNA methylation. We generated the stage-associated methylome and transcriptome profiles of the embryo, induced calli, sub-cultured calli, and regenerated calli (including both successful and failed regeneration) of IR64 and TNG67. We found that stage-associated changes are evident by the increase in the cytosine methylation of all contexts upon induction and decline upon regeneration. These changes in the methylome are largely random, but a few regions are consistently targeted at the later stages of culture. The expression profiles showed a dominant tissue-specific difference between the embryo and the calli. A prominent cultivar-associated divide in the global methylation pattern was observed, and a subset of cultivar-associated differentially methylated regions also showed stage-associated changes, implying a close association between differential methylation and the regeneration programs of these two rice cultivars. Based on these findings, we speculate that the differential epigenetic regulation of stress response and developmental pathways may be coupled with genetic differences, ultimately leading to differential regeneration efficiency. The present study elucidates the impact of tissue culture on callus formation and delineates the impact of stage and cultivar to determine the dynamics of the methylome and transcriptome in culture.
Monterey pine (Pinus radiata), a native tree to California and two Mexican islands, is important both ecologically and economically. Outside native stands, Monterey pines are grown for landscaping in California and on plantations around the world. Pitch canker, a disease caused by the fungus Gibberella circinata Nirenberg & O’Donnell (Fusarium circinatum Nirenberg and O'Donnell) is threatening the survival of Monterey pines. The disease currently affects Monterey pines in many parts of the world including the native stands. No effective chemical or biological control is available but some Monterey pines show resistance to the disease. The purpose of this project was to develop a working protocol for producing genetic clones of the resistant pines through micropropagation. These genetic clones will be used for outplanting in places outside the native stands for ornamental and plantation purposes. This project analyzes the results of ten trials with varied parameters and bases the final protocol on the parameters used in the trial that induces the growth of new shoots. The final protocol developed in this project describes, step-by-step, the media preparation for the initiation, plant material collection, surface sterilization of plant material, plating in media and initiation of shoots on explants. The protocol calls for collecting shoot tips with hardened buds that have not yet elongated, then washing the shoot tips in sterile water with Tween 20 for 15 minutes. The shoots tips are then surface sterilized in a 50% bleach solution for 20 minutes. The explants are broken into disks (to minimize damage to the cells) by inserting the tip of a scalpel and tilting it slightly. The initiation media shown to induce growth consists of ½ strength LePoivre basal salt mixture, 5mg/L benzylaminopurine, 3% sucrose and 0.8% agar and is adjusted to a pH of 5.7, then autoclaved for 20 minutes. The explants are inserted into solidified media and incubated in a growth chamber programmed for 16 hours of light and 8 hours of dark with temperatures of 27ºC and 22ºC and light irradiance of 80µEm-2s-1. After 1 month the protocol calls for transferring the growing shoots to elongation media with full LP basal salts and transferring every month. When the number of desired shoots has been reached the forthcoming protocol for rooting can be followed.
The founding of the Journal of Experimental Zoology in 1904 was inspired by a widespread turn toward experimental biology in the 19th century. The founding editors sought to promote experimental, laboratory-based approaches, particularly in developmental biology. This agenda raised key practical and epistemological questions about how and where to study development: Does the environment matter? How do we know that a cell or embryo isolated to facilitate observation reveals normal developmental processes? How can we integrate descriptive and experimental data? R.G. Harrison, the journal's first editor, grappled with these questions in justifying his use of cell culture to study neural patterning. Others confronted them in different contexts: for example, F.B. Sumner insisted on the primacy of fieldwork in his studies on adaptation, but also performed breeding experiments using wild-collected animals. The work of Harrison, Sumner, and other early contributors exemplified both the power of new techniques, and the meticulous explanation of practice and epistemology that was marshaled to promote experimental approaches. A century later, experimentation is widely viewed as the standard way to study development; yet at the same time, cutting-edge "big data" projects are essentially descriptive, closer to natural history than to the approaches championed by Harrison et al. Thus, the original questions about how and where we can best learn about development are still with us. Examining their history can inform current efforts to incorporate data from experiment and description, lab and field, and a broad range of organisms and disciplines, into an integrated understanding of animal development. J. Exp. Zool. 00A: 1-15, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The Effect of Thiamine on the Growth of In Vitro Oncidium Plantlet. Oncidium is one of the favourite genera of orchid. The commercial orchid plantation generally used seedlings from in vitro culture. Media optimization is critical factor to improve and to promote plantlet growth. One of the methods to enrich the medium was by the use of vitamine. The aim of this experiment was to determine the effect of thiamine on the growth of Oncidium plantlet. The materials used were Oncidium plantlet without roots that were cultivated in Vacin and Went medium with addition of 150 ml/l coconut water, 20 g/l sugar, and 50 g/l banana pulp. The treatments were arranged in a randomized block design with 7 treatments and 4 replications. The treatments were the addition of thiamine into the culture medium, i.e. 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 ppm thiamine, and control (without thiamine). The results showed that the use of 0.5-1.0 ppm thiamine in the culture media could significantly increased the growth of plantlet, such as plantlet height, root length, root number, leaf number, and leaf area. Keywords: Oncidium orchid; Growing media; In vitro culture; Thiamine; Plantlet growth
An understanding of basic methods in Arabidopsis tissue culture is beneficial for any laboratory working on this model plant. Tissue culture refers to the aseptic growth of cells, organs, or plants in a controlled environment, in which physical, nutrient, and hormonal conditions can all be easily manipulated and monitored. The methodology facilitates the production of a large number of plants that are genetically identical over a relatively short growth period. Techniques, including callus production, cell suspension cultures, and plant regeneration, are all indispensable tools for the study of cellular biochemical and molecular processes. Plant regeneration is a key technology for successful stable plant transformation, while cell suspension cultures can be exploited for metabolite profiling and mining. In this chapter we report methods for the successful and highly efficient in vitro regeneration of plants and production of stable cell suspension lines from leaf explants of both Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis halleri.
The effect of fructose, sucrose, glucose, sorbitol, and maltose at various concentrations on in vitro shoot proliferation on MM.106 apple rootstock was studied. Shoot tips were cultured in MS medium containing 0.4 μM indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), 4.43 μM benzylaminopurine (BAP), 0.6% agar and 0, 30, 60, 90, or 120 mM of the above carbohydrates. Type and concentration of sugars had a significant effect on shoot number and length. Sorbitol at 90 mM was the most effective carbon source for shoot proliferation and it improved plant regeneration. Shoot number was lowest at 30 and 120 mM sucrose, 30 mM glucose and at all concentrations of maltose. Shoot survival in the presence of all carbohydrates was >85% after four weeks. The reduction in shoot length and number was more pronounced in maltose compared with the other sugars.
Plant tissue culture (PTC) is a set of techniques for the aseptic culture of cells, tissues, organs and their components under defined physical and chemical conditions in vitro and controlled environment (Fig. 50.1). PTC technology also explores conditions that promote cell division and genetic re-programming in in vitro conditions and it is considered an important tool in both basic and applied studies, as well as in commercial application (1). Today, facilities for in vitro cell cultures are found in practically each plant biology laboratory, serving different purposes because tissue culture has turned into a basic asset for modern biotechnology, from the fundamental biochemical aspects to the massive propagation of selected individuals. Today five major areas, where in vitro cell cultures are being currently applied, can be recognized: as a model system for fundamental plant cell physiology aspects, generation of genetic modified fertile individuals, large-scale propagation of elite materials, preservation of endangered species, and metabolic engineering of fine chemicals.
Dissertação (mestrado)—Universidade de Brasília, Departamento de Botânica, 2008. O abacaxizeiro ornamental (Ananas comosus var. bracteatus (Lindl.) Coppens & Leal pertence a família Bromeliaceae. Essa espécie é de propagação vegetativa via propágulos removidos da planta-mãe. Esse tipo de propagação usualmente traz doenças causadas por fungos, bactérias e vírus, mediante o uso de mudas contaminadas. Uma das maneiras de controlar patógenos é usar plantas estoques livres de doenças, obtidos via cultura de tecidos. O objetivo do trabalho foi o estabelecer um sistema eficiente de propagação massal de plantas livres de doenças do abacaxizeiro ornamental e avaliar a fidelidade genética das propagulos regenerados. Os efeitos da adição de BAP em combinação com ANA e períodos de subcultivo foram estudados na formação de brotações in vitro. O delineamento experimental empregado foi o inteiramente ao acaso com os tratamentos dispostos no esquema fatorial 6 x 2 x 4, referentes a 6 concentrações BA (0,0; 0,125; 0,25; 0,5; 1,0; e 2,0 mg L-1), duas de ANA (0,0 e 0,1 mg L-1) e 4 períodos de subcultivos (30, 60, 90 e 120 dias). A formação de brotações foi observada em meio suplementado com BAP, em todos os períodos de subcultivos. O maior número médio de brotos por explante (872,2) foi obtido em meio líquido com a concentração de 1,2 mg L-1 de BAP e 120 dias de subcultivo. Na avaliação da fidelidade genética das plantas regeneradas após 120 dias de cultivo foi observado que os tratamentos com BAP nas concentrações de 0,125, 0,25, 0,5, 1,0 e 2,0 mg.L-1 influenciaram o aparecimento de variações genéticas determinadas pelo uso de marcadores RAPD. Os 46 primers utilizados amplificaram 434 bandas monomórficas (95,8%) e 18 foram polimórficas (4,2%), dentre os propágulos regenerados. Também foi estudado o efeito de concentrações de 2ip e diferentes períodos de subcultivos na propagação in vitro dessa espécie. Propágulos com, aproximadamente, 1,0 cm de tamanho, oriundos da cultura in vitro foram utilizados como explantes. Os explantes foram inoculados em meio básico, formulação líquida, contendo concentrações de 2ip (0,0; 0,5; 1,0 e 2,0 mg L-1) em combinação com quatro períodos de subcultivos (30, 60, 90 e 120 dias). O maior número de brotos por explante (139) foi obtido em meio básico com 1,6 mg L-1 de 2ip e 120 dias de subcultivo. Após a transferência de brotações individualizadas para meio contendo ANA (0,0; 0,5; 1,0; 1,5; 2,0; 2,5; 3,0 e 4,0 mg.L-1) verificou-se a diferenciação de raízes adventícias na porção basilar dos explantes. As folhas das plantas in vitro apresentam a forma lanceoladas e consistem de uma camada de células epidérmicas, hipoderme, parênquima aqüífero, parênquima clorofiliano, idioblastos de ráfides, canais de ar e sistema vascular circundado total ou parcialmente por fibras. Na epiderme ocorrem tricomas e escamas. O processo de pré-aclimatação consiste em abrir as tampas dos frascos de cultura contendo as plantas enraizadas in vitro progressivamente, 4 a 5 dias antes de transplantio para casa de vegetação. O transplantio deve ser feito para vasos contendo o substrato PlantMax ou mistura 1:1 de areia e vermiculita. Em ambas as condições 90% dos propágulos sobrevivem e desenvolvem-se ex vitro. Propágulos que não foram aclimatados apresentaram uma percentagem de sobrevivência de 70%, após transplantio com desenvolvimento inicial lento quando comparado com plantas pré-aclimatadas. _________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT The ornamental pineapple (Ananas comosus var. bracteatus (Lindley) Coppens & Leal) belongs to the Bromeliaceae family. This specie is vegetatively propagated by propagules removed from the mother plant. This kind of propagation brings diseases caused by fungi, bacteria and viruses by using infected propagules. One option to control pathogens is to use disease-free stock plants obtained by tissue culture. The objectives of this work were to establish an efficient system for mass propagation of disease-free plants of ornamental pineapple and to evaluate the genetic fidelity of regenerated plantlets. The effects of the addition of BAP in combination with either NAA or subculture periods were studied in shoot formations in vitro. The experiment was arranged as a randomized complete design in a factorial disposition 6 x 2 x 4, referring to six BAP (0.0; 0.125; 0.25; 0.5; 1.0; and 2.0 mg L-1) and two NAA (0.0 and 0.1 mg L-1) concentrations and four subculturing periods (30, 60, 90 e 120 days). Shoot formations were observed in medium supplemented with BAP in all subculturing periods. The maximum average number of shoots per explant (872,2) was obtained in liquid medium with 1.2 mg L-1 BAP and 120 days of subcultive. In the evaluation of genetic fidelity of micropropagated plants, after 120 days in culture, it was observed that BAP in concentrations of 0.125; 0.25; 0.5; 1.0 and 2.0 mg.L-1 influenced the appearance of genetic variation in the regenerated propagules using RAPD markers. The 46 primers used amplified 434 monomorphic bands (96.66%) and 22 were polymorphics (4.44%), among regenerated plants. The effect of 2ip concentrations and subculture periods in the micropropagation of ornamental pineapple was also studied. Propagules with approximately 1.0 cm in height, originated from in vitro culture were used as explants. The explants were inoculated in basal medium, liquid formulation, with 2ip in concentrations of 0.0; 0.5; 1.0 and 2.0 mg L-1) in combination with four subculture periods of 30, 60, 90 and 120 days. The maximum number of shoot production per explant (139) was obtained in basal medium with 1.6 mg L-1 de 2ip and 120 days of subculture. After transferring individual shoots to NAA (0.0; 0,5; 1,0; 1,5; 2,0; 2,5; 3,0 and 4.0 mg.L-1) media adventitious root formed in the basal portion of the explants. The leaves of the in vitro plants presented a laceolated form and consisted of an epidermal layer of cells, hypoderme, aquiferous parenchyma, chlorophyllous parenchyma, raphydes idioblastes, and vascular system circundated total or partially by fibers. Tricomes and scales were found in the epidermis. The pre-acclimatization process consisted in opening the closure of the culture flasks containing in vitro rooted plantlets progressively five days prior to transplanting them to the greenhouse. The transplanting was done in pots containing PlantMax substrate or a mixture of sand and vermiculate in the proportion 1:1 v/v. In both conditions 90% of the plantlets survived and developed ex vitro. Non acclimatized plantlets showed a 70% survival rate after they were transferred to substrate and they presented slow initial growth as compared with acclimatized plants.
Thesis (M.S.)--Texas Tech University, 1986. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 42-45).
Plant biotechnology is founded on the principles of cellular totipotency and genetic transformation, which can be traced back to the Cell Theory of Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, and the discovery of genetic transformation in bacteria by Frederick Griffith, respectively. On the 25th anniversary of the genetic transformation of plants, this review provides a historical account of the evolution of the theoretical concepts and experimental strategies that led to the production and commercialization of biotech (transformed or transgenic) plants expressing many useful genes, and emphasizes the beneficial effects of plant biotechnology on food security, human health, the environment, and conservation of biodiversity. In so doing, it celebrates and pays tribute to the contributions of scores of scientists who laid the foundation of modern plant biotechnology by their bold and unconventional thinking and experimentation. It highlights also the many important lessons to be learnt from the fascinating history of plant biotechnology, the significance of history in science teaching and research, and warns against the danger of the growing trends of ignoring history and historical illiteracy.
Traducción de: Haberlandt's physiologische pflanzenanatomic
One member of a new class of cell division-promoting substances, which are nicotinamide derivatives, has been found to be present in dividing cells of tobacco and cactus. These plants are taxonomically far removed from one another and from Vinca rosea L., the plant species from which the new substances were first isolated. Because of their apparent wide distribution among dicotyledonous plant species, the question is raised as to whether the nicotinamide derivatives rather than the purine cytokinins may not, in fact, be the naturally occurring cell division factors that are directly involved in promoting cytokinesis in higher plant species. Unequivocal evidence is presented to show that the nicotinamide derivatives do not owe their biological activity to contamination by 6-substituted purine cytokinins.
Mesophyll was successfully excised under sterile conditions from ten kinds of angiospermous leaves and cultured in liquid on a shaker. Growth either occurred as spheres of small-celled tissue in the liquid, or as masses of small cells adhering to the glass above the menisci in the flasks. Time-lapse observations of a single palisade parenchyma cell of Arachis hypogaea are presented; they show that, prior to nuclear division, systrophy (symmetrical aggregation of the chloroplasts around the nucleus) occurs. Partitioning occurs in any plane, and the result is a small callus, without resemblance to an embryo. The most suitable culture medium for these cells and tissues was Heller's macroelements with special microelements, sucrose, casein hydrolyzate, 2,4-D, and kinetin. Greatly stimulated growth was achieved by addition of 0.1 mmole of NH4Cl per liter. Continuous cultures could be attained by transfers at appropriate intervals of undivided or divided spheres of tissues derived from the mesophyll inocula. On transfer of the spheres of tissue to agar medium, the modified Heller's medium did not permit survival. Linsmaier-Skoog's medium proved adequate here, and a large-celled callus was produced, and could be indefinitely transferred. The excision, growth, and development in culture of the highly differentiated palisade parenchyma cell, as a prime example of a mature living cell, are discussed in relation to previous results.
“Fermentation” is the growth under aerobic, submerged conditions of cellular material for the production of, or the conversion to a desirable end product. The purpose in starting these mixed submerged cultures was twofold. First, to determine the effect of the partners on each other: inhibition of one or both, stimulation of one or both, or no effect. Second, is to take a mixture of cells and return to a solid medium to determine the type of tissue which would result and follow its morphogenetic development. The data already available suggest that as individual cells, freed from the helps and hindrances imposed upon them as part of a multicellular organism, they might have certain divergences. These differences include growth factor requirements and production of certain primary products. It remains for the investigator to emphasize the similarities or the divergences, according to his investigative objectives, by increasing the knowledge of the control of growth and metabolism.
Growth values and regenerative potentiality in meso-phyll cultures of Arachis hypogaea
- P C Ernest
- Ball
Erinnerungen, Bekentnisse und Betrachtungen
- G Haberlandt
La culture des tissus vétaux; son état actuel, comparaison avec la culture des tissus animaux
- R J Gautheret
- R.J. Gautheret
Growth values and regenerative potentiality in meso-phyll cultures of Arachis hypogaea
- P C Joshi
- Ball
- P.C. Joshi
Cell and Psyche. The Biology of Purpose
- Emund W Sinnott
- E. W. Sinnott
Über regenerative Sprossbildung auf den Blättern von Torenia asiatica L
- Hans Winkler
- H. Winkler
An Introduction to Vegetable Physiology
- J Reynolds Green
- J.REYNOLDS Green
Manuel technique de culture des tissus végétaux. Preface du docteur Alexis Carrel
- R J Gautheret
- R.J. Gautheret
Influence of certain carbohydrates on green plants
- Lewis Knudson
- L. Knudson
Über Parthenogenesis bein Marsilia und ihre abhängigkeit von der Temperatur
- Alexander Nathanson
- A. Nathanson
Photosynthesis. The Assimilation of Carbon by Green Plants. Longmans, Green and Co
- Walter Stiles
- W. Stiles