No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
A Theory of Social Comparison Processes
Abstract
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
... To address this issue, and based on the social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954;Vogel et al., 2015), the present work seeks to uncover the negative side of networking via SNS platforms on career satisfaction. More specifically, two survey studies (Study 1: Cross-sectional; ...
... First, while previous studies have mainly investigated the positive side of networking on SNS (Davis et al., 2020;Utz & Breuer, 2019), this study provides empirical evidence of the potential negative side of networking on SNS by using the upward social comparison perspective. Second, build on social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), this study contributes to highlight how networking on SNS may be potentially detrimental through a depleting experience enhanced by upward social comparison. Our research thus contributes to take a few steps to explain the mixed results of networking on SNS (Davis et al., 2020;Moqbel & Kock, 2018) by shedding light upon the process underlying and leading to negative results for career development. ...
... The Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) posits that people develop their own personal and social worth by comparing themselves to others. More specifically, social comparisons can be divided into (1) parallel comparisons (with persons who are like themselves), ...
... For example, a company may be deciding whom to promote and whom to lay-off. In addition, a well-acknowledged assumption about the effect of ranking systems on the "subjects" of the ordering is that ranking engenders effort because individuals are sensitive to selfevaluative information and because being better ranked usually has benefits (Festinger, 1954). Nevertheless, in the implementation of rankings inside and outside organizations, problems could readily ensue because of how ranks might affect individuals' behavior inadvertently and in unknown ways. ...
... Our propositions, framework, and review map the general ways in which rank and rank change impact more risky versus less risky choices through the formation of psychological reference points that create a status quo and a prospective state. Adopting a hierarchical perspective on the effect of ranks on motivation, we first derive high-level assumptions from the literature on social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954;Garcia et al., 2006;Van Yperen & Leander, 2014). Next, as an intermediate level, we draw upon regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997) to theorize how ranking information can create distinct goals for promotion (rank advancement) and prevention (rank maintenance). ...
... Understanding the impact of ranks on motivation falls into the broad domain of social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), which postulates the existence of a primitive human drive to evaluate one's abilities and assumes that social comparison information is often used to satisfy this drive. Furthermore, close (rather than distant) rivals' performance information is more diagnostic in satisfying the primitive drive to evaluate one's ability. ...
We present a novel theoretical framework to explain the impact of rank positions on decision‐makers' choices between more risky and less risky options. We do so by providing an analysis of the motivational effects of ranks that progresses through three levels of specificity: the broad “motive” level, an intermediate “goal” level, and a low level at which tactical choices are addressed and where the complexity of rank‐driven choices considers a dynamic multiple goal perspective. In particular, we theorize on how more risky versus less risky options are chosen in light of the combined influence of (a) rank goals, (b) rank changes relative to those goals, and (c) other aligned or competing goals. Deriving from our theorizing and review of existing evidence from different fields studying various rank phenomena such as power, status, education, and performance, we articulate seven propositions that specify when rank‐ordered individuals will choose more risky or less risky options.
... According to the classic social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), individuals have a dispositional tendency to compare themselves to others. Gibbons and Buunk (1999) coined the term "social comparison orientation" (SCO) to refer to individual variation in the tendency toward comparison with others. ...
... It is commonly recognized that SCO has two distinct dimensions of social comparison: ability and opinion (Gibbons and Buunk, 1999). SCO-ability is competition-based and focuses on comparing individuals' skills and performance as determined by relative rank, which highlights a dispositional drive to outperform others (Festinger, 1954;Gibbons and Buunk, 1999;Suls et al., 2002;Elliot et al., 2018). When individuals take part in this form of comparison, they perceive the comparison targets as competitors (Park and Baek, 2018) and evaluate whether their performance or achievements surpass or fall short of those of the targets . ...
... Our observation that SCO-ability predicts SDCO implies that a tendency toward using others as a comparative standard facilitates the desire to gauge one's abilities or motivate oneself to succeed. These findings are consistent with the proposal of Festinger (1954) and the recent theorizing by Garcia et al. (2013Garcia et al. ( , 2020. As documented by the social comparison theory of Festinger (1954), people naturally rely on social comparison when processing information about themselves and others, and are propelled by a basic "unidirectional upward drive" (Garcia et al., 2013). ...
Introduction
Our recent research has demonstrated that social comparison orientation of ability (SCO-ability) is an antecedent of trait competitiveness (TC), and TC mediates the relation between SCO-ability and domain-specific risk-taking. TC is a multi-dimensional trait, therefore we sought to expand on prior research by examining whether SCO-ability predicted two distinct dimensions of TC: hypercompetitive orientation (HCO) and self-development competitive orientation (SDCO).
Methods
We investigated how these different dimensions of TC mediated the relation between SCO-ability and both overall and domain-specific risk-taking in two correlational studies of 622 college students (313 males, mean age = 22.10, SD = 2.35) and 717 adult workers (368 males, mean age = 27.92, SD = 5.11).
Results
We found that SCO-ability positively predicted HCO. Together, SCO-ability and HCO predicted overall risk-taking and risk-taking in the recreational and ethical domains in both samples. HCO mediated the relation between SCO-ability and both overall risk-taking and risk-taking in the recreational and ethical domains. Additionally, SCO-ability positively predicted SDCO. SCO-ability and SDCO mainly predicted risk-taking in the recreational domain in both studies. SDCO mediated the relation between SCO-ability and risk-taking only in the recreational domain.
Discussion
Collectively, the findings above advance our understanding of the relation between competition and risk-taking by using differentiated measures of TC (HCO and SDCO). Our findings suggest that HCO is more strongly related to risk-taking than SDCO, thereby refining the possible role of SCO-ability and TC in predicting overall risk-taking and domain-specific risk-taking.
... Psychological research has found that social comparison, or the means by which individuals evaluate their abilities and opinions by comparing themselves with others [32], is an important way for individuals to obtain information about themselves. Festinger's [33] social comparison theory posits that humans have a natural drive to compare themselves to others to evaluate where they stand. He states that people are especially inclined to engage in social comparison behavior when objective means for self-evaluation are unavailable [33]. ...
... Festinger's [33] social comparison theory posits that humans have a natural drive to compare themselves to others to evaluate where they stand. He states that people are especially inclined to engage in social comparison behavior when objective means for self-evaluation are unavailable [33]. Individuals commonly engage in social comparison in daily life, and their objects of social comparison are often the people with whom they have contact [33,34]. ...
... He states that people are especially inclined to engage in social comparison behavior when objective means for self-evaluation are unavailable [33]. Individuals commonly engage in social comparison in daily life, and their objects of social comparison are often the people with whom they have contact [33,34]. Social comparison is a spontaneous process as long as individuals are exposed to others' information [35]. ...
Previous studies have mainly focused on the impact of social media self-presentation on individuals’ happiness and mental health, whereas few have attended to its potential influence on consumer behavior. A mixed-method empirical study with an online survey (N = 408) and an experimental study (N = 160) investigated the effects of social media self-presentation on individuals’ conspicuous consumption in China. We found that consumers’ self-presentation behavior on social media promoted tendencies for social comparison, thereby enhancing their conspicuous consumption. However, compared with individuals using social media less often, self-presentation had a more significant impact on the social comparison tendencies of users who used social media more often. Our study explains why individuals’ self-presentation on social media increases their conspicuous consumption tendencies. The study results contribute to the existing knowledge of how consumers’ behavior on social media affects their product preferences.
... Comparing oneself to others is an inevitable part of daily life, according to (Festinger, 1954). This comparison brings two negative consequences. ...
... In fact, the Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) states that any type of negative social comparison results in a decrease of an individual's self-perception. ...
The Relationship between Facebook Use and Happiness among Women Ages 30-45
... Erikson's (1968) concept of identity formation as a unified self-concept aligns with the notion that positive body image, self-esteem, and self-acceptance are crucial for identity development (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). The theory of social comparison (Festinger, 1954) highlights how individuals evaluate themselves against peers, suggesting that adolescents with a positive body image are likely to develop a positive identity through (Eryılmaz et al., 2023), suggests that employing positive psychology practices can foster a better body image among adolescents, highlighting the need for more research in this area (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). ...
... According to this study, the hypothesis that positive body image can positively affect identity development has been confirmed. The results of this study provide support for Erikson's (1968) psychosocial development theory, as well as Festinger's (1954) social comparison theory. Additionally, the findings align with the principles of self-determination theory proposed by Deci and Ryan (2000). ...
This study aimed to explore the mediating role of body image in the association between The utilization of strategies aimed at enhancing subjective well-being, friendship qualities, and identity development. The participants consisted of 270 early adolescents, comprising 157 girls (58.15%) and 113 boys (41.85%). Data were collected using several scales, including the “Body Appreciation Scale,” “Subjective Well-Being Increasing Strategies Scale for Adolescents,” “Friendship Qualities Scale,” and “The Dimensions of Identity Development Scale.” Two-stage structural equation modeling was employed to analyze the gathered data. The findings indicated a positive model of identity development in adolescents, highlighting that subjective well-being increasing strategies contribute positively to identity development, and this relationship is mediated by positive body image. Furthermore, the study found that positive body image also mediates the association between adolescents’ identity development and the establishment of quality friendships.
... From this perspective, adolescents who observe high-status peers play online games may imitate their gaming behaviors to receive reinforcement, thereby increasing the likelihood of excessive gaming. From the identity-related frameworks, the identity theories highlight the role of conforming to social norms and values of peer groups to provide a sense of belonging and self-identity (Festinger, 1954). For example, if an adolescent's friends are highly addicted to online gaming behaviors, then engaging in such behaviors can enhance one's self-concept Fig. 1 The peer selection and influence for homophily in online gaming behavior. ...
Adolescents who befriend online game using peers may be at risk for initiated and continued excessive game use (online gaming use homophily). The present article examined how adolescents’ severity of online gaming use related to their friends’ online gaming behavior bi-directionally across a semester (peer selection or peer influence effect). Students from two universities completed three waves of online surveys within four and a half months (N = 3079; 33.6% female; Mage = 19.16; SD = 0.97). Random-intercepts, Cross-Lagged Panel Model (RI-CLPM) analyses revealed that peer selection and peer influence both promote online gaming use homophily in adolescents’ friendship groups. Furthermore, participants were more likely to form new friendships with peers exhibiting similar online gaming behavior as their behavior, subsequently reinforcing their online gaming use behaviors within these relationships. These social processes may exhibit a time lag among girls, which needs to be confirmed through longer-term follow-up. In general, findings suggest that effective prevention programs targeting excessive online gaming should not only focus on promoting social influence skills but also consider the structure of peer environments.
... However, a limited socialization range prevents individuals from subjectively developing a reasonable SES perception. According to the social comparison theory, people assess their SES by comparing themselves to others [69]. Being surrounded by high SES people may lead to an underestimated SES perception, which is harmful to mental health [44]. ...
Background
Mental health is a matter of quality of life among older adults. This study aimed to explore the association between the socioeconomic status (SES) perception and mental health of older adults using data from 2017 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS).
Methods
Ordinary least squares (OLS) regression was used to analyse the association between SES perception and mental health, and the substitution model and variable methods were used to check the robustness of the results. Moreover, we adopted the Sobel model to analyse the mediating roles of social trust and justice.
Results
SES perception was positively associated with mental health, and this association was mediated by social trust and justice. This kind of positive association was mainly embodied in those groups with the highest or lowest objective SES. In other words, this study confirmed the phenomenon of “a contented mind is a perpetual feast” in Chinese society.
Conclusions
Higher SES perception is associated with improved mental health for Chinese older adults. It is imperative to prioritize efforts to enhance the perceptual abilities of older adults, particularly those with the highest or lowest objective SES, to promote their overall subjective well-being.
... The accessibility of social media platforms has enabled adolescents to readily compare themselves to others they perceive as socially superior or inferior 11 . This allows them to assess their social standing, a concept rooted in Festinger's social comparison theory (1954) 12 . ...
Currently, many adolescents allocate over three hours daily to their engagement with social media platforms. It is a prevalent practice among adolescents to invest significant time online without complete awareness of the adverse impact it may have on their emotional and social well-being. Considering this, a cross-sectional study was undertaken to assess the evolution of social media addiction in the post-COVID19 era, its repercussions on the emotional well-being of adolescents, and to identify predictive factors for the onset of emotional distress. The study encompassed 848 adolescents, aged 10 to 22, primarily from the United States. Data was collected using various questionnaires including the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Patient-Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7), Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21), as well as the Pediatric Quality of Life scale (PedsQL). The findings revealed a significant increase in social media addiction scores (p<0.0001) between before and during the pandemic. A slight and statistically insignificant decrease (p=0.5481) was observed during the time of the pandemic to after. Comparing the results during the pandemic with those after, it was evident that adolescents reported lower scores on the PHQ-9, GAD-7, and DASS-21, signifying an enhancement in mental health. The study also identified the use of social media and past experiences of cyberbullying as predictive factors for elevated scores on the PHQ-9, GAD-7, DASS-21, and BSMAS. These findings indicate the utility of these factors in forecasting both social media addiction and declines in mental well-being.
... For example, in schools that have successfully reduced the average rates of victimisation as a result of implementing anti-bullying interventions, victimised students are more likely to blame themselves for their victimisation instead of external factors, resulting in a decline of their psychological well-being. Another proposed explanation is centred around social comparison theory, which states that people have a natural tendency to compare themselves to their peers (Festinger, 1954). Therefore, in instances when victimised students are in a social context where there are few other victimised students, there is a high likelihood that they will compare themselves to their non-victimised peers, who are often happier and well-liked. ...
Recent research has highlighted the healthy context paradox (HCP), namely that the association between peer victimisation and psychological and social adjustment worsens in social contexts with lower average level of victimisation. Previous research has examined this phenomenon in relation to classroom- or school-level victimisation. We tested whether the HCP is applicable on a much wider scale, at national level. Besides country-level victimisation, we explored whether country-level economic inequality and social welfare protection moderate the victimisation-adjustment link. We used data from the HBSC 2013/2014 survey related to peer victimisation and five measures of health and wellbeing of 11-, 13- and 15-year-old boys and girls from 40 countries (N = 198,646) in Europe and North America, complemented with information on economic inequality (Gini index, available for 33 countries) and social protection (decommodification index, available for 25 countries). We confirmed an expected within-country correlation between higher levels of victimisation and poorer health and wellbeing for each measure and across countries; however this association had significant between-country variability. For country-level victimisation, there was evidence of a significant HCP effect for the measures of peer support and life satisfaction – but not for feeling low, health, and liking school.
... Through dialogues with peers using SM, they assimilate social norms and attitudes, and it has been shown that peer groups can affect adolescents' body satisfaction. 13 Another study found that the more frequently adolescents engaged in SM activities, the more negative talk they encountered about how they and others compared to the so-called "perfect" body images posted on SM. 14,15 Because of its subliminal influences, inappropriate use or overuse of SM can pose risks, especially for school-age children and adolescents, given their high usage rates. It is important that school-age children and adolescents understand the unintended consequences of SM.10 ...
Purpose: The use of the internet for social networking has become a global phenomenon, as the number of social network users worldwide increased from 2.3 billion in 2016 to around 2.6 billion in 2018. 92% of United States adolescents report daily usage of social media, and 24% of them go online “almost constantly”. This study aimed to evaluate the Impact of social media affinity on Eating Attitudes and Body Dissatisfaction among School and adolescent children. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted in Farasan school from January 2022 to February 2022. A total of 75 students were selected by the non-probability purposive sampling technique. 5-point Likert scale on social media affinity (13 items), Body dissatisfaction was assessed by BSQ 8-c, and a 4-point Likert scale (26 items) was used to assess the eating attitude.Results: The majority of participants were females (81%). Out of this 75% were using social media every day and half of the percentage (50.7%) using WhatsApp. The total mean score for social media affinity was 49.72±5.61 out of 55. It concludes that higher scores indicate higher social media affinity. The mean score for eating attitude was 53.48±9.74. It interprets that a cut-off score of 20 or above indicates children had a high risk of developing an eating disorder. The participants’ Body Shape Dissatisfaction Questionnaire mean score was 23.37±6.39. it shows scores less than 25 mean mild concerns with a shape that indicates probable cases of distorted body image. Conclusion: social media and peer pressure has greatly affected the lifestyle and eating choices of students. Emphasizing the importance of parenting style for adolescents’ sense of empowerment and underscoring the need for parental involvement in prevention programs.Keywords: Social media Affinity, Eating Attitudes, Body Dissatisfaction, School Age Children, Adolescent Girls
... There have been upward comparisons to promote a sense of inferiority; there is an association with adverse changes in self-concept. With suggestions from research, upward comparisons may promote inspiration and be associated with positive changes in self-concept (Festinger, 1954;. ...
Social psychology is a field that studies how social thinking, behavior, and influence shape daily lives. This paper examines various social psychology theories, including social cognition, individual identity, and social influences. The main goal is to gain insight into the human behavior and interactions by exploring social, psychological, and sociological theories. The study used a systematic review based on previous research over three months and analyzed 80 research papers, ultimately using 28 papers that mostly covered the aim of this study. The findings highlighted the importance of racial diversity in shaping contemporary race relations and emphasized the need for cohesive yet diverse communities. The analyses revealed that individuals' tendencies to self-serve inflate their traits' moral value, influencing others' self-perceptions and judgments. Innovative approaches such as agent-based modeling offered new perspectives on social dynamics, while identity emerged as a fluid construct shaped by socio-historical contexts. The ecological perspective provided valuable insights into the adaptive relationship between individuals and their environments. This review illuminates the crucial role of social psychology in understanding the complex interplay of individual behaviors, societal influences, and evolving identities. Throughout the paper, the discussion concerns the connection between theories and research and the application of findings to real-life situations. Hence, social psychology provides valuable insights into individual behavior and the social environment.
... Brunstein and Heckhausen (2018);McClelland et al. (1953); Weiner (1985);Festinger (1954) 122 Busch (2018); Russell (2004); McClelland and Burnham (2008); Schüler et al. (2018); van Kleef and Cheng ...
The main goal of the doctoral dissertation is to answer the research question: Can employees’ characteristics explain differences in preferences for team leadership structure: SHARED vs. FOCUSED? This implied three research tasks: (1) identify strategies to conceptualize and operationalize shared leadership in teams; (2) identify employee characteristics that predict their preferences for team leadership structure; (3) conduct research to test the relationship between employees’ characteristics and their preferences for team leadership structure. Based on a review of the literature, it was expected that employees’ preferences regarding shared vs. focused leadership depend on their control orientations (hypothesis #1), social motives (hypothesis #3), and supervisor role (hypothesis #4). Furthermore, a main effect was expected (hypothesis #2), with shared leadership preferred on average more than focused leadership. Two main MTurk studies of 359 US-located employees applied standard measures of employee characteristics (Grzelak’s Inventory and SSA) and two new measures of preferences for shared vs. focused leadership: (1) rated using a 10-item scale and (2) based on evaluations of TARGET descriptions of the team leadership structure. TARGET descriptions of shared and focused team leadership structure were crafted and validated in several steps, including an experimental MTurk study of 51 US-located employees focused on the comparison of effectiveness between verbal vs. visual form. Congruent with hypothesis #1, the analysis of study #1 revealed that employees’ DOMINANCE orientation predicts stronger preferences for FOCUSED leadership. Employees’ COLLABORATION orientation predicts stronger preferences for SHARED leadership. Congruent with hypothesis #2, the analysis of study #2 revealed that SHARED leadership is preferred on average more than FOCUSED leadership –especially by employees with a low POWER motive, low ACHIEVEMENT motive, and being a NON-SUPERVISOR, which was predicted by hypotheses #3 and #4. The dissertation concludes with a discussion of the research findings, limitations, future directions, and implications for management practice.
Key words: shared leadership, individual differences, Grzelak’s control orientations, social motives, hierarchies, leadership preference
... The act of mentorship, when directed toward the goal of developing novice entrepreneurs, has been found to be an integral component to the development of entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) and other entrepreneurial skills [36][37][38][39][40]. In addition to ESE and other entrepreneurial skills' development, mentoring relationships have been found to positively impact a mentees' emotions and cognition, their ability to create more ambitious goals and improve their skills in relation to identifying business opportunities, and reduce stress and the feeling of isolation [41][42][43]. ...
There has been extensive research and examination dedicated to the advantages and disadvantages of entrepreneurship, both in general and specifically for African Americans. Significant research has been devoted to understanding the economic outcomes of African American men, and there is an area of opportunity to study how African American men, specifically, can leverage entrepreneurship to increase the probability of successful economic outcomes for themselves and their families. Entrepreneurial research has the potential to be leveraged to combat waning labor force participation rates and heightened unemployment rates among African American men. Leveraging the theories of Trust, Goal-Orientation, Logotherapy, and Social Identity Theory, a study was conducted among United States-based business owners. The sample size was forty-one African American male business owners. The results demonstrate how these African American men have leveraged entrepreneurship to build social capital and wealth, while improving their standard of living, as well as highlight the hurdles and barriers they have endured during the process of business ownership. The majority of African American owned business are owned by African American men, and this study provides insights into the phenomenology of African American male entrepreneurs.
... The accessibility of social media platforms has enabled adolescents to readily compare themselves to others they perceive as socially superior or inferior 11 . This allows them to assess their social standing, a concept rooted in Festinger's social comparison theory (1954) 12 . ...
Currently, many adolescents allocate over three hours daily to their engagement with social media platforms. It is a prevalent practice among adolescents to invest significant time online without complete awareness of the adverse impact it may have on their emotional and social well-being. Considering this, a cross-sectional study was undertaken to assess the evolution of social media addiction in the post-COVID19 era, its repercussions on the emotional well-being of adolescents, and to identify predictive factors for the onset of emotional distress. The study encompassed 848 adolescents, aged 10 to 22, primarily from the United States. Data was collected using various questionnaires including the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale (BSMAS), Patient-Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7), Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21), as well as the Pediatric Quality of Life scale (PedsQL). The findings revealed a significant increase in social media addiction scores (p<0.0001) between before and during the pandemic. A slight and statistically insignificant decrease (p=0.5481) was observed during the time of the pandemic to after. Comparing the results during the pandemic with those after, it was evident that adolescents reported lower scores on the PHQ-9, GAD-7, and DASS-21, signifying an enhancement in mental health. The study also identified the use of social media and past experiences of cyberbullying as predictive factors for elevated scores on the PHQ-9, GAD-7, DASS-21, and BSMAS. These findings indicate the utility of these factors in forecasting both social media addiction and declines in mental well-being.
... Therefore, Instagram users who hold neutral attitudes to material goods could develop positive attitudes toward materialism due to the repeated and ubiquity presentation of material goods, known as the mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968). In addition, the presentation of material goods on Instagram from influencers or friends could serve as an upward comparison target in terms of social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954). As people always look happy in this kind of pictures, this may foster the motivation from Instagram users that someone needs to buy material goods to achieve "happiness". ...
In recent years, social media such as YouTube, TikTok, and Instagram have become an essential part of the everyday lives of children and young adults. Integrating elements of these social media into higher education may have the potential to enhance situational intrinsic learning motivation through the emotional design and proximity to students' lives, but this also poses the risk of fostering a situational materialistic focus due to the ubiquitous materialistic content on especially Instagram, undermining situational intrinsic learning motivation. In the present study, we examined if the primary use of Instagram is associated with higher materialism and how exposure to Instagram-framed pictures influences situational intrinsic learning motivation. The current study conducted an online experiment. Participants (N = 148) were randomly assigned to one of three groups after they rated items about general and problematic social media use and materialism. In the first two groups, participants were asked to rate the pleasantness of luxury or nature Instagram-framed pictures. A third group received no pictures. Afterwards, the situational intrinsic learning motivation was assessed through a mock working task. The findings prove that people who (primarily) use Instagram tend to be more materialistic than people who (primarily) use another social medium and that exposure to Instagram-framed pictures neither positively nor negatively influenced situational intrinsic learning motivation but moderated the relationship between problematic social media use and situational intrinsic learning motivation. Limitations, implications, and future directions for social media use inhigher education are discussed.
... Social comparison refers to the behavior of individuals comparing themselves with others who are similar to themselves when they cannot judge their own opinions and abilities using absolute objective standards, in order to obtain relative self-evaluation. 11 Upward social comparison refers to the behavior of individuals comparing themselves with those who are better off than themselves. 12 Studies have shown a significant positive correlation between the intensity of mobile social media use and upward social comparison Mobile social media has become a new place for individuals to engage in social comparison. ...
Background
The 18–24 age group has a much higher rate of depression risk than other age groups, and this age group has the highest proportion among users of mobile social media. The relationship between the use of mobile social media and depressive mood is inconsistent and the mechanism of action is controversial.
Purpose
This study explored the relationship among the intensity of social media use, upward social comparison, cognitive overload and depressive mood.
Methods
In this research, we used the Brief Self-rating Depression Scale (PHQ-9), the Social Media Usage Intensity Questionnaire, the Social Comparison Scale on Social Networking Sites and the Social Networking Site Cognitive Overload Scale to investigate the depressive mood and mobile social media use of 568 college students.
Results
The intensity of mobile social media use, social networking site upward social comparison, and social networking site cognitive overload are all positively correlated with depressive mood. The intensity of mobile social media use has a positive predictive effect on depressive mood, with upward social comparison and cognitive overload acting as independent mediators in the relationship between mobile social media use intensity and depressive symptoms, as well as exhibiting a chained mediating effect of upward social comparison-cognitive overload.
Conclusion
The upward social comparison and cognitive load that occur during the use of mobile social media are important predictive factors for the occurrence of depressive mood. This study is a supplement to the mechanism of the relationship between mobile social media use and depression, providing more evidence-based evidence and intervention directions for university teachers, mobile social media developers, and psychologists.
This paper examines how sellers use strategic downward selection to game consumer‐generated rating systems. I highlight the role of rating anticipation in sellers' selection of buyers – concerns regarding buyers' post‐hoc evaluations of a seller influence whom she chooses to transact with at the outset. To reduce evaluation anxiety, sellers strategically avoid buyers with superior market standings, preferring those with an inferior standing, who are perceived as more likely to be satisfied and provide positive evaluations. Analysing nearly half a million transactions on a major peer‐to‐peer lodging platform in which all participants list their homes, I find that hosts are more inclined to approve requests from guests with inferior homes. This tendency is stronger when hosts experience rating declines, heightening their evaluation anxiety. It is also more pronounced among experienced hosts who better understand consumer‐generated rating systems, and when hosts and guests are in the same country, facilitating social comparisons.
Background
Fantasy sports are a rapidly growing complement to the sports industry and recent research has explored the mental health experiences of those who play the game.
Aim
This study aimed to test the findings from two such studies ( Wilkins et al., 2021 ; Wilkins et al., 2023 ).
Methods
Questionnaire data measuring depression, anxiety, stress, positive mood, negative mood, problematic behaviour, and functional impairment from 635 fantasy football players were analysed using one-way ANOVAs.
Results
Amongst the significant results were the findings that: i) more experienced players reported less anxiety than less experienced players, and ii) players who engaged more with the game, made more social comparisons, and had greater financial involvement generally reported more mental health concerns and more positive mood than other players.
Conclusion
Engagement levels play an important role in determining the wellbeing experience of fantasy football participants. These findings also lend support to the ‘Framework of Hypothesised Factors Leading to Predominantly Positive or Negative Experiences in FF’ and should be used by stakeholders within the fantasy sports industry to optimise the game-playing experience of participants.
Purpose
The study explores the impact of social media-induced social comparison on impulse travelling, drawing upon social comparison theory. It thoroughly examines the intermediary functions of fear of missing out (FoMO) and compulsive use of social media, alongside exploring the moderating impacts of self-esteem and self-control within this dynamic process.
Design/methodology/approach
To meet the objective, we conducted a survey of 382 social media users among Indian millennial tourists. The analysis has been done using SPSS (AMOS 24) and Process macro (model 1) for moderation effect. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques have been employed for data collection.
Findings
The results indicate a positive influence of social comparison on impulsive travel. Additionally, the findings suggest that FoMO and the compulsive use of social media serve as serial mediations on the link between social comparison and impulse travelling. Moreover, self-esteem has shown a negatively significant relationship between social comparison and FoMO. Furthermore, self-control has also been found to have a negatively significant effect on the relationship between FoMO and the compulsive use of social media.
Practical implications
The study’s findings offer valuable guidance for destination administrators. It suggests that administrators should refrain from engaging in aggressive and overly tailored marketing tactics. Instead, they should focus on sharing real and authentic stories that resonate with travellers, and administrators can mitigate the effects of social comparison and discourage impulsive travelling.
Originality/value
This study delves into an unexplored realm in digital marketing literature, shedding light on how social comparison on social media influences the impulsive travelling of Indian millennial tourists. This study is an inaugural attempt to formulate a theoretical framework within the scope of the tourism sector.
The growing literature at the intersection of executives’ characteristics and stakeholders’ evaluations argues that executives’ characteristics not only have “first-order effects” on their organizations’ actions and outcomes, as in upper echelons theorizing, but also give rise to “second-order effects” or “opportunity structures,” whereby stakeholders evaluate and react to focal executives’ organizations based on those characteristics. Despite many insights from the burgeoning literature on the second-order effects of executives’ characteristics on stakeholders’ evaluations and reactions, the literature lacks a comprehensive framework with core tenets by which stakeholders form evaluations of executives’ characteristics that drive their actions (or, reactions, as it were) based on such characteristics and the ensuing outcomes. In turn, knowledge from the proliferating literature on how stakeholders react on the basis of their evaluations of referent organizations’ executives’ characteristics is fragmented, consisting of a series of disconnected findings and attendant insights scattered across various theoretical and topical domains. We conducted a framework synthesis of the literature to iteratively derive a conceptual framework from extant research—which we call the stakeholder view of upper echelons—that synthesizes knowledge at the intersection of executives’ characteristics and stakeholders’ reactions around this framework. In doing so, we provide the foundation for future research to help extend knowledge in this important domain. We identify several avenues that are important for future work to address and provide practical implications from our framework.
Cet article vise à explorer l'identité sociale et l'engagement des membres dans le contexte des communautés en ligne d'organisation à but non lucratif (OBNL). Pour ce faire, une approche nethnographique a été privilégiée pour collecter les données textuelles dans deux communautés en ligne, couvrant une variété de catégories de commentaires axées sur la cause animale. Cet article suggère la présence d'une identité sociale positive au sein des communautés étudiées, marquée par des interactions où les membres se comparent favorablement aux non-membres. De plus, les résultats indiquent que les membres s'engagent au sein de ces communautés en ligne tant avec d'autres membres qu'avec l'organisation, et identifie un niveau supplémentaire d'engagement, qui suggère que les membres s'engagent également avec la cause. Ainsi, cet article contribue à une compréhension approfondie des interactions dans les communautés en ligne d'OBNL, mettant en lumière l'importance de l'engagement envers la cause sur les dynamiques globale d'engagement.
This study developed the concept of cultural distance in beauty ideal and proposed a theoretic model arguing that cultural distance both directly and indirectly affect female body image through perceptions of ideal attractiveness and internalization of these beauty standards. This model was tested through three experiments with Chinese female university students (n1 = 140, n2 = 144, n3 = 234) in which cultural distance was operationalized in terms of race (East Asian vs. Caucasian), beauty type (Cute/Girl-next-door vs. Sensual/Sex-kitten), and femininity (submissive vs. assertive). The results were mixed, as some hypotheses were rejected, but certain arguments underlying the theoretic model were confirmed. Meanwhile, the findings did suggest a shift of Chinese beauty ideals and a closing of cultural distance in beauty ideals between Eastern and Western culture.
This article highlights the value in taking a multi‐temporal perspective to the literature on underdogs and favorites in competitive contexts. We contend that an inherent feature of the psychological experience of being an underdog or favorite is the coexistence of thoughts related to the past and future. Building upon this key insight, we adopt a multi‐temporal lens to compare current research on underdogs and favorites to the broader literature studying competition and motivation in intergroup contexts, with the goal of identifying possible areas of coherence and contradiction in relation to other relevant theoretical frameworks. Through this analysis, we put forth a set of what we hope are thought‐provoking research questions that are intended to guide and inspire future work in this domain.
Purpose
This study aims to explore the determinants influencing consumer purchase intentions towards electric vehicles (EVs) within the Asian market. It specifically examines how perceived value and perceived risk interact with the moderating effects of environmental, policy, and social factors to shape consumer behaviors towards EV adoption. The purpose is to delineate the intricate mechanisms driving consumer intentions in the context of sustainable mobility solutions.
Design/methodology/approach
Adopting a quantitative research design, this investigation collected data via a survey targeting consumers across various Asian countries. The study utilized Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze the responses, enabling a robust examination of the relationships between perceived value, perceived risk, and the potential moderating roles of external factors on consumer purchase intentions towards EVs.
Findings
The analysis revealed that both perceived value and perceived risk significantly influence consumers' intentions to purchase EVs. It was also found that environmental factors effectively moderate the relationship between perceived risk and purchase intentions, while social factors moderate the relationship between perceived risk and purchase intentions, highlighting the complex influence of external elements on consumer decisions. Contrarily, policy factors did not exhibit a significant moderating impact on the relationships examined.
Originality/value
This research enriches the domain of sustainable technology adoption by providing nuanced insights into the factors driving consumer intentions towards EVs in the Asian context. It underscores the critical roles of perceived value and risk, along with the distinct moderating effects of environmental and social factors, offering strategic implications for stakeholders within the EV ecosystem. The study's findings contribute to the broader discourse on consumer behavior in green technology adoption, laying groundwork for future investigations across diverse settings.
This chapter reviews the “wisdom of crowds” through the lens of social psychology. Early research on social influence cast a pessimistic light on whether collectives can be wise. The famous Asch (1955) studies left the impression that collective judgment is easily harmed since individuals conform too readily to what others say. Research on the wisdom of crowds, of course, demonstrates the benefits of collective judgment over individual judgment. This raises the practical question of how and when collectives will be more accurate than individuals. After briefly reviewing social influence research, the chapter describes the basic logic of the wisdom of crowds: Independent errors are more likely to bracket the truth, which cancel each other out when averaged together. The chapter then turns to conditions that foster better individual inputs to collective judgment by ensuring diverse perspectives through group composition and processes that preserve independence. It also discusses the attraction of relying on single experts and the challenges of reliably identifying them. Finally, the chapter reviews research on the degree to which people understand the benefits of listening to others and evidence that they often fail to learn enough from others. The original chapter was published in 2011. The new chapter ends with an update that explores recent work on the benefits of discussion and analytical techniques for finding the more expert members within a crowd.
This chapter examines the role of mattering in suicide risk and assessment with an emphasis on how mattering promotion can reduce vulnerability to suicide via prevention programs. The mattering construct and its facets are described. Next, the chapter includes a summary and review of research conducted primarily with adults that clearly documents the association between feelings of not mattering and suicidal tendencies. It is noted that this research is still in an early phase, and there is an urgent need for additional research. Mattering and suicidality are then examined from a conceptual perspective. A central theme proposed in this chapter is that there is an unbearable form of psychological pain in vulnerable people of various ages that includes or stems from an abject feeling of not mattering to anyone. It is vital to assess feelings of not mattering as part of clinical assessments and proactively address this feeling, especially when it fuels psychological pain and feelings of social hopelessness. Programs built around the theme of “You Matter” are an important first step, but there is a need for much broader and sustained public mental health campaigns and initiatives.
Social comparison is a common phenomenon in our daily life, through which people get to know themselves, and plays an important role in depression. In this study, event-related potential (ERP) was used to explore the temporal course of social comparison processing in the subthreshold depression group. Electrophysiological recordings were acquired from 30 subthreshold depressed individuals and 31 healthy individuals while they conducted the adapted dot estimation task. The ERP results revealed that there was a significant difference of feedback-related negativity (FRN) in the process of social comparison. Especially only in the subthreshold depression, the FRN amplitudes of worse off than some, better off than many comparisons were larger than those of upward comparisons and downward comparisons. Our results suggested that the abnormal reward sensitivity for worse off than some, better off than many comparisons might be prodromal symptoms in the subthreshold depression.
Adolescents are developmentally motivated to engage in social comparisons, and social media platforms provide abundant social information that facilitate comparisons. Despite the potential to trigger immediate emotional responses, little research has examined the day-to-day naturalistic occurrence of these comparisons and coinciding effects. Across fourteen days, 94 adolescents (51% female, Mage = 16.47) reported how their life compared to others’ lives on social media three times per day. Lateral comparisons were far more common than upward or downward comparisons and were not consistently correlated with self-evaluations (self-esteem, social connectedness, appearance satisfaction). Overall depressive symptoms was a risk factor for engaging in upward comparisons. When adolescents reported engaging in upward (relative to downward) comparisons at a given time point, they reported poorer self-esteem. When adolescents reported engaging in downward (relative to lateral) comparisons at a given time point, they reported greater self-esteem. Although rare, directional comparisons have in-the-moment associations with self-evaluations.
Purpose
The review paper aims to understand the development of workplace ostracism as a field in organizational studies from 2000 to the present. The study provides a comprehensive synthesis of the current state of the domain by exploring its antecedents, consequences, underlying mechanisms and buffering mechanisms.
Design/methodology/approach
The present study analyses 134 published peer-reviewed empirical and non-empirical articles retrieved from the Scopus database. A systematic literature review and bibliometric analyses (using VOS viewer) have been used to gain insights into the development and trends within the field. Bibliometric analyses involved science mapping techniques such as co-citation analysis, co-occurrence of keywords and bibliographic coupling. Combining these three techniques, the study aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the workplace ostracism research domain's historical, current and future landscape.
Findings
In the present study, through descriptive analyses, the authors uncovered publishing trends, productive journals, countries and industries that contribute to this research field. The systematic review enabled the showcasing of the current landscape of workplace ostracism. The bibliometric analyses shed light on major authors, influential articles, prominent journals and significant keywords in workplace ostracism.
Originality/value
This study enriches the existing literature by offering a comprehensive research framework for workplace ostracism. It goes beyond that by presenting significant bibliographic insights by applying bibliometric analyses. Furthermore, this study identifies and emphasizes future research directions using the theory, characteristics, construct and methodologies framework, aiming to expand the knowledge base and understanding of this topic.
Athletes report using social networking sites, including Instagram, to manage their self-presentations. While on Instagram, they may browse content and interact with others, enabling them to socially compare themselves to other athletes. Less favorable comparisons may contribute to higher burnout perceptions. The purpose of the current study was to (a) examine if the use of Instagram contributed to burnout perceptions and (b) if type of use and social comparison mediated these relationships. Male and female collegiate athletes (N = 162) completed measures of Instagram usage, social comparison, and burnout during their sport season. Latent path analysis using robust maximum likelihood estimation was used to examine the model. Daily time spent on Instagram was directly associated with exhaustion (β = -0.32) and reduced accomplishment (β = -0.21). Browsing was directly associated with exhaustion (β = 0.39), reduced accomplishment (β = 0.38), and sport devaluation (β = 0.27). Interacting was directly associated with devaluation (β = -0.23). Social comparison while using Instagram was directly associated with reduced accomplishment (β = -0.35) and devaluation (β = -0.34). Browsing mediated the relationship between time spent on Instagram and exhaustion (β = 0.13) and reduced accomplishment (β = 0.13). Social comparison was not a mediator. Results suggest that scrolling through posts on Instagram explains why time spent on the platform contributes to burnout perceptions. Comparing oneself favorably to others while using Instagram, independent of time spent on Instagram as well as type of use, may reduce burnout while comparing oneself unfavorably may enhance burnout perceptions.
The relationship between health and happiness is well established. However, disability and the burden of disease can also affect the happiness of the local population. We argue that income inequality can worsen the positive effect of health on happiness levels. Using data from 136 economies from 2005 to 2019, we estimate a dynamic panel model that controls the endogeneity and simultane-ity issues, and measure the effect of healthy life expectancy on happiness at varying levels of income inequality. We find evidence that healthy life expectancy is significantly and positively associated with happiness, however, at high levels of income inequality, this effect reduces. We shed new perspectives on the costs of income inequality.
Media users are often overwhelmed with excessive amounts of positivity on social media. While a healthy positive outlook acknowledges both the positive and negative aspects of life, a growing term in popular media referring to toxic positivity suggests users leverage positivity and avoid negativity for personal gain. Employing a two-study, multi-method design, Study 1 is framed within the impression management literature to conceptually and operationally define perceived toxic positivity intentions (TPI) through qualitative and quantitative measures. Study 2 is framed within the bandwagon and descriptive norm literature to investigate the role of perceived TPI in upward social comparisons and digital self-presentation behaviors. Results of Study 1 indicate a five-factor solution of perceived TPI on social media. Results of Study 2 suggest the relationship between (most) dimensions of perceived TPI and false social media self-presentations is significantly mediated by upward social comparison.
Women age 40–60 are disproportionately affected by health problems that increase their risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD; e.g. hypertension). Social comparisons (i.e. self‐evaluations relative to others) are known to influence health in this and other groups, but their nature and consequences in daily life are poorly understood. We conducted an ecological momentary assessment study over 10 days (5x/day) with 75 women ages 40–60 who had ≥1 CVD risk conditions ( M Age = 51.6 years, M BMI = 34.0 kg/m ² ). Using a mix of frequentist and Bayesian analytic approaches, we examined characteristics of women's naturally occurring comparisons and tested predictions from the Identification/Contrast Model within‐person (e.g. identifying with an upward target results in positive affect, whereas contrasting results in negative affect). Comparisons occurred at 21% of moments, with considerable within‐person variability in response. In line with predictions from the Identification/Contrast Model, women were more likely to experience positive affect after upward identification or downward contrast and more likely to experience negative affect after upward contrast or downward identification, though observed nuances warrant additional consideration. Overall, findings support the Identification/Contrast Model to describe women's comparison experiences as they occur in daily life. Future work should determine pathways between the immediate consequences of comparisons and longer‐term health outcomes.
We explore the relation between job characteristics and employees’ self-evaluations of performance in comparison to their colleagues’ performance. Using unique individual panel data from ten large firms in Germany’s chemical industry, we focus on monetary rewards (wage increases and bonus payments) and the level of the hierarchy as well as interactions with gender and tenure as possible drivers of self-evaluations. Our results hint for a positive relation of both monetary rewards and hierarchy level with self-evaluations. We find less evidence for our hypotheses regarding interaction effects of gender and tenure.
Purpose
This research was motivated by the recognition that the use of mobile-based agricultural extension services (AES) applications has become increasingly popular among the bottom of the pyramid segment in recent years. However, users’ adoption is determined not only by their perception of the technology but also by its perceived wealth. In other words, even though a technology may be perceived as advanced, if it does not fit users’ wealth perception benefits, they may not adopt it. Using an extended unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) perspective, this study aims to explore potential predictors of behavioral intention toward AES such as effort expectancy, performance expectancy, customer wealth (CW), social influence and perceived characteristics of innovation.
Design/methodology/approach
Potential causal connections between key UTAUT factors and users’ intentions to use the services are hypothesized. An integrated theoretical model was developed and tested against the empirical data collected from 336 AES users. A measurement model and structural equation model were tested using AMOS 22.0 and confirmed all 14 hypothesized relationships.
Findings
The results were consistent with the recent literature on mobile technology acceptance, confirming an unmoderated relationship between CW and the adoption of mobile-based AES. This research proposes a mobile AES user adoption model by integrating CW with the unified theory of acceptance and usage of technology (UTAUT).
Originality/value
This study establishes CW as an outcome of various relationships.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.
This investigation concerned the effect upon level of aspiration of one social determinant: knowledge of the performance of other groups. In the first experiment, such knowledge was furnished the subjects before they had a first-hand acquaintance of the task. Under this condition, the aspiration-level of the subjects was changed. In the second experiment, knowledge of the performance of other groups was furnished only after considerable experience with the task. Results showed that the aspiration-level was not changed. The difference in results is discussed in terms of the concept of "frame of reference." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In previous studies of communication only one experimental variable was manipulated. This study reports on two, a homogeneity and strength of pressure toward uniformity as related to a situation where 2 kinds of disagreement could occur among the members of the group. A mock voting situation on a public issue was presented to subjects who were differentially instructed. Extensive protocol material from the subjects was collected. Analysis of the data indicates that being a minority or majority member was very important as a determinant. Other effects are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A group of college students were given synonym and information tests, told their scores, and asked what they "expected" to get on the next test. After the second test-session they were again told their scores, this time in relation to a fictitious group (above or below high school students, college undergraduates, or graduate students) before being asked to predict their future score. A second experiment was conducted similarly, except that the information was obtained of the score the subjects "would like" to make. The subjects in the first experiment tended to react realistically: their discrepancy score (expected score minus actual score) increased between sessions when told that they scored below a group, and decreased, if scoring above a group. The subjects of the second experiment responded in a wishful manner: their discrepancy score decreased when scoring above a group, but also lowered when they were placed below the graduate group. In the unrealistic second group the downward shifts were significantly larger than the upward shifts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The four tasks used in this experiment were card sorting, digit-symbol substitution, a multiple-choice test of opposites, and cancellation performed while counting backward. A score was reported to the subject after each trial in a given task, and he was then required to state a level of aspiration for the succeeding trial. The scores reported to the subject were never his actual scores. Instead, every subject was presented with the same series of prearranged scores. The pattern of this prearranged performance curve was also the same for all four tasks, although the curve was shifted a few points in the different tasks so that the same actual numbers would not be involved. The chief aspect of aspiration level measured was the discrepancy between aspiration level and level of past performance. It was found that reliable measures could be obtained, and high intercorrelations between tasks indicated that the behavior underlying these measures was characterized by a high degree of generality. Discrepancies between aspiration level and past performance level tended to be positive and low when performance was improving rapidly and markedly higher when the curve was falling. Individuals tended to maintain the same rank within the group with respect to discrepancy scores when the performance curve was rising as when it was falling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An account of an experiment in competitive consciousness in seventeen individuals. Work was done under noncompetitive and competitive conditions with introspective accounts obtained in various ways. Certain conclusions were established. "Competition on a task begins with an adjustment period and in most cases the competitive spirit rises during the period of adjustment. Competition with the group at large is less frequent than competition with a particular individual, and autocompetition plays a large part in the competitive efforts of all subjects. The consciousness of competitive effort is rather in the nature of a recognized attitude than an immediate awareness. Elements of the competitive attitude sometimes carry over into noncompetitive periods of work, but there are no objective indications of a rise in productivity corresponding to this persistence. The subject-matter of consciousness during competition includes irrelevant ideas, awareness of autocompetitive effort, and sociocompetitive references. The proportion of irrelevant ideas is higher in competition than in noncompetition. A social situation relieves the boredom of a simple task oft repeated, and in competition the 'game' element is responsible for some of this relief. About as many subjects indicate a preference for noncompetitive as for competitive work. There is some evidence that most subjects undergo physiological changes leading to a rise in blood pressure, probably attributable to an emotional element of excitement, during period of competition." From Psych Bulletin 23:08:00330. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Experiments were conducted with subjects working in groups consisting of 3-6 members. The task assigned was successive subtraction. After each trial the experimenter announced the time required, and the subject made a private estimate of the time which would be required on the next trial. In Series A, materials were of equal medium difficulty in the first 3 trials, but there followed 8 trials in which for a third of the subjects the materials became easier; for a third more difficult; and for the last third they remained the same. Results showed a tendency for those with easy materials to estimate their performance poorer than they actually were, and for those with hard materials to estimate their performance better than they actually were. In Series B, materials were of equal difficulty for the members of a group, so that relative position was determined by arithmetical ability rather than by differences in material. Trends similar to those of Series A were shown. Since estimates were made privately, group pressure can explain the tendency to estimate towards the mean of the group only if the desire for social conformity is somehow internalized. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The self-confident, successful children react to the various levels of aspiration in a success fashion, whereas unsuccessful children, lacking in confidence, may adopt one of a number of different behavior techniques in an aspiration situation. Experimentally induced success brings the reactions of all subjects into a more homogeneous distribution. No ordinarily obvious and approved methods of gratification are provided for the individual who either fails to do consistently better or who consistently falls below the social norm for performance on a given task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In a situation where 2 persons must combine their efforts against a third in order to gain points, it is postulated that the importance of the task and the extent to which each person is seen as a peer or non-peer are crucial determinants of who will form coalitions. An experimental test of these notions was carried out with one member of each trio being a paid participant who was given an initial advantage. Predictions were generally confirmed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A series of interrelated hypotheses has been presented to account for data on informal social communication collected in the course of a number of studies. The data come from field studies and from laboratory experiments specifically designed to test the hypotheses. Three sources of pressures to communicate have been considered: (1) communication arising from pressures toward uniformity in a group (2) communications arising from forces to locomote in a social structure [and] (3) communications arising from the existence of emotional states.
Major conclusions drawn from experimental work with small face-to-face groups are summarized. The authors report an experimental study in which (1) amount of pressure toward uniformity, and (2) degree to which members perceived the group as homogeneously composed was manipulated. It was found that "when there is a range of opinion in the group, communications tend to be directed towards those members whose opinions are at the extremes of the range." The greater the pressure toward uniformity and the greater the perception of homogeneous group-composition, the greater is the tendency to communicate to these extremes and the greater is the actual change toward uniformity.
A laboratory experiment designed to investigate aspects of "cohesiveness the attraction of membership in a group for its members" is described in detail. Results indicate that an increase in cohesiveness, independent of its nature, will produce greater effort to reach an agreement. The different techniques of producing cohesiveness and their relationship to patterns of communication and influence are discussed.
Results of experiments dealing with the consequencies of deviation from a group standard are described. The effect of degrees of cohesiveness and relevance of the issue on the degree of rejection of a deviate is considered. The effects of these variables on communication and induction within the groups are studied in detail. 18 references.