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Rejection Sensitivity as an Interpersonal Vulnerability
... Siever states: "The signature of borderline personality disorder is the exquisite sensitivity to the vicissitudes of interpersonal relationships" (Goodman et al., 2009). There are many references in the literature to high "emotional sensitivity (ES)" in BPD, including "interpersonal hypersensitivity" and "rejection sensitivity" (Gunderson & Lyons-Ruth, 2008;Jeong et al., 2022;Pietrzak et al., 2005;Staebler et al., 2011). The DSM-5 diagnostic features section for BPD states "These individuals are very sensitive to environmental circumstances." ...
... This lengthy etiology scenario strongly suggests that the best interventions would be the earliest interventions (Brody & Mills, 1997;Chanen et al., 2017Chanen et al., , 2022Choi-Kain & Sharp, 2021;Cicchetti & Toth, 1995;Franssens et al., 2021;King et al., 2023;Schmeck et al., 2022;Sharp et al., 2021. The notable "rejection sensitivity" of the adult borderline patient would then be the result of persistently failing relationship experiences that have accumulated into adulthood (Pietrzak, Downey & Ayduk, 2005;Sturrock & Mellor, 2014). In therapy, the borderline patient might understand guidelines for her/him to be open and trusting with an experienced mentor, but this vulnerable setting for trust can resonate strongly with the childhood caretaking experience, and with all the prior interpersonal failures, even though it seems to offer a new opportunity for a secure attachment experience. ...
... For instance, if a patient anticipates that anyone with whom she/ he is becoming close will ultimately cause pain, mentalizing about this is likely to improve greatly if a relevant prior social history and its influence is clearly identified and understood, particularly when the patient is also overcoming a built-in suppression of painful truths about the childhood social experiences. Such insight can facilitate progress in understanding that people are not all identical with the caretakers, thereby helping to provide resolution for chronic self-defeating patterns such as the persistent distrust of others, and repetitive efforts to gain what was unavailable in the past from persons who may have some personality characteristics and flaws similar to those of the parents, along with expecting and thereby inducing others to behave somewhat as the parents did (Celani 1994;Pietrzak et al., 2005;Park & MacDonald, 2019). If the specific connections with the childhood developmental experiences do not become clearly understood, then this person may do well in a controlled, supportive therapy environment, but in the more complex general social world the deeply embedded misunderstandings about self and others will re-emerge in situations of emotional arousal, such as during the development of romantic intimacy, since the continuing influence of an unexplored childhood experience on the current processing of social information by the brain will have remained largely unchanged (Powers, 2017). ...
A New Model for Understanding and Treating Borderline Personality Disorder
(Revised Edition) 2023
Lee Crandall Park, M.D. and Thomas J. Park, Ph.D.
Abstract: Borderline Personality Disorder is almost always a fully developmentally engendered disorder of the Social Intelligence faculty for Theory of Mind (ToM), in the absence of any inherent neurobiological deficits. Nonetheless, pre-borderline children do have a unique, but normal, neurobiological vulnerability that can lead to maldevelopment of the mind. This inherent vulnerability is exhibited behaviorally by their well-documented very high sensitivity, but this sensitivity is not a defect. Rather, it is the visible expression of an enhanced faculty for ToM, providing a high degree of “Epistemic Trust” (ET). This would be a major asset for the development of the mind in a normal, or especially in an enriched, Developmental Social Environment (DSE). Quite paradoxically, this neurobiological enhancement is also very “Differentially Susceptible” to the nature of the DSE, providing the same high degree of inherent Epistemic Trust in a poor or adverse DSE. Throughout the developmental years the sensitive pre-borderline “orchid” child experiences routine, everyday, often rather subtle, psychological/emotional adversity that directly interferes with and perverts proper development of the mind. This exceptional vulnerability to psychological adversity gradually leads to the severe mental illness that has been incorrectly labeled as Borderline Personality Disorder.
The co-occurrence in borderline patients of inherently enhanced yet developmentally impaired Theory of Mind provides for the complex and sometimes paradoxical symptomatology that uniquely identifies BPD. In particular, although borderline patients demonstrate severe impairments in mentalizing and in understanding self and others, they can also, surprisingly, demonstrate good or even exceptional mentalization and social perceptivity (Borderline Empathy Paradox). This perceptivity has enabled them to occasionally draw even experienced professionals into strong countertransferences and boundary violations.
To our knowledge, the possibility of a fully developmental source for Borderline Personality Disorder has never been explored or even seriously considered. This is remarkable considering that the mind and language do not even exist at birth as working faculties, but must be entirely and gradually constructed during childhood social development. This omission may be largely due to the incorrect conviction that neurobiological limitations or flaws have already been identified and confirmed as inherent and contributing to the occurrence of the disorder.
This new understanding of Borderline Personality Disorder as a developmentally engendered disorder of Theory of Mind that has been gradually “learned” during the childhood everyday social experience leads to new recommendations for preventing and treating BPD. First, new research must focus on developing guidelines for parenting highly sensitive children. Second, necessary modifications for current treatment models should resolve their persisting failures to provide either a sufficiently positive sense of self or successful intimacy with others. These modifications are presented in Chapter 2. Full text available at:
https://leecrandallparkmd.net/BPDmonograph
... One such schema may include rejection sensitivity-the tendency to "anxiously expect, readily perceive, and intensely react to rejection" across various interpersonal relationships (Downey & Feldman, 1996). Given parent-child relationships are expected to form a sense of safety (Bowlby, 1969) and parent-parent relationships serve as models (Davies & Cummings, 1994), when these relationships are riddled with adverse experiences (e.g., aggression), it may create a negative filter or schema for interpreting interpersonal interactions (Pietrzak et al., 2005). Rejection sensitivity functions as a cognitive-affective processing network (Downey & Feldman, 1996) and is thought to emerge in response to repeated experiences of rejection during childhood (Pietrzak et al., 2005), such as family violence, physical victimization, hostility, emotional neglect, harsh discipline, and conditional parental love (Downey et al., 1997;Downey et al., 1999;Ibrahim et al., 2015). ...
... Given parent-child relationships are expected to form a sense of safety (Bowlby, 1969) and parent-parent relationships serve as models (Davies & Cummings, 1994), when these relationships are riddled with adverse experiences (e.g., aggression), it may create a negative filter or schema for interpreting interpersonal interactions (Pietrzak et al., 2005). Rejection sensitivity functions as a cognitive-affective processing network (Downey & Feldman, 1996) and is thought to emerge in response to repeated experiences of rejection during childhood (Pietrzak et al., 2005), such as family violence, physical victimization, hostility, emotional neglect, harsh discipline, and conditional parental love (Downey et al., 1997;Downey et al., 1999;Ibrahim et al., 2015). ...
Purpose
Exposure to aggression during childhood or adolescence has been linked to negative outcomes, including poor future romantic relationship functioning. As a step toward understanding such intergenerational influences, the present study investigates whether aggression exposure in the family-of-origin is associated with negative expectancies of romantic partner interactions when facing a challenging couple discussion. Rejection sensitivity is tested as a mediator of this association, and gender was explored as a potential moderator.
Method
Negative expectancies were assessed before a 10-minute discussion about desired changes in the relationship in a sample of young adult dating couples. To test the theorized relationship between variables, the study employed self-report measures of parent aggression, rejection sensitivity, and negative expectancies.
Results
Multilevel analyses showed that exposure to family-of-origin aggression was positively associated with negative expectancies about the upcoming change discussion task, even after controlling for dating aggression within the current relationship. Additionally, rejection sensitivity mediated the association between parent aggression and negative expectancies. Gender did not moderate these associations.
Conclusions
Findings suggest that individuals who experience aggression in their family-of-origin are more likely to anticipate negative interactions with their dating partner during young adulthood. Results also highlight rejection sensitivity as a key mechanism of this process. Taken together, these findings help to explain why some individuals have negative expectancies as they approach difficult discussions with a romantic partner, which may be a putative link in the intergenerational continuity of aggression.
... The FP-BPD relationship often gets worse with time, as the person with BPD needs more attention and validation from their FP to get the same feeling of being cared for. Consistent with what those with BPD describe, repeated use of words, such as "want (237), " "get (216), " "make (183) and made (45), " "need (181), " and "take (87) and give (66)" implies their strong dependence and high expectation from the relationship. Consequently, the FP faces more responsibilities and pressure to fulfill their person with BPD's needs, such as constant contact. ...
... The RS model explains that those who expect rejection angrily tend to express aggression and use coercion in response, while others who expect rejection anxiously tend to avoid conflicts by self-silencing and compliance or social withdrawal. 44,45 Angry RS is more strongly associated with reactive hostility and anger; thus, individuals with high angry RS are more likely to respond with aggressive retribution, often provoking interpersonal conflict. 46,47 Individuals with higher anxious RS, however, are more likely to prevent rejection before it occurs. ...
Objective:
Individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD) commonly have a favorite person (FP), whom they are heavily emotionally attached to and dependent on. This study aims to identify and illustrate the patterns of destructive FP relationships based on actual experiences described by those with BPD.
Methods:
A data mining process was conducted using raw data collected from online communities, such as blogs and social networks. An in-depth review of the information to better understand the natural course of the FP relationship was also conducted.
Results:
Individuals with BPD form an intense and insecure attachment toward their FP, from which they enormously suffer. FPs can be their friends, romantic or life partners, or family members. As their feelings go beyond their control, being increasingly obsessed with their FP, they make their FP gradually lose hope in continuing the relationship and want to quit trying to fulfill their needs. The relationship finally ends when the FP stops being responsible for meeting their expectations and eventually drifts away.
Conclusion:
This study suggests that certain FPs, distinctively named Teddy Bear Person, may behave in a particular manner to increase the likelihood of the FP relationship becoming more destructive. Moreover, the rejection sensitivity model should be discussed to understand their dysfunctional interaction.
... A narrower construct closely related to interpersonal sensitivity in the first sense (as defined by Gilbert) is rejection sensitivity, which originates from attachment research and defines a cognitive-affective disposition to "anxiously expect, readily perceive, and overreact to rejection" (Downey & Feldman, 1996, p. 1327. Rejection sensitivity can be conceptualized as a defensive motivational system that may be rooted in early prolonged and repeated experiences of rejection by significant others (Pietrzak et al., 2005). It also predicts interpersonal anxiety and fear of intimacy in young adults (Giovazolias & Paschalidi, 2022). ...
Background: In clinical psychology, interpersonal sensitivity is defined as a vulnerability to perceived signs of rejection in interpersonal situations; it plays an important role in the development of psychopathology, especially mood disorders. We investigated the relationship between interpersonal sensitivity, emotion-regulation strategies, and emotional reactivity in a group of youths without mental health issues. Method: Participants (N = 231, 46 men, 185 women, 18–25 years old) were recruited from online groups focusing on education, social activism, and psychological self-help. Measures: Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure, Perth Emotional Reactivity Scale, and Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Results: Negative emotional reactivity predicted all dimensions of interpersonal sensitivity. Positive emotional reactivity negatively predicted fear of rejection and dependence on the opinion of others. Only expressive suppression predicted the fear of rejection. Activation and intensity of negative emotions moderated the link between expressive suppression and fear of rejection. The Interpersonal Sensitivity subscales predicted negative emotional reactivity and expressive suppression. Discussion: The present study corroborates and broadens the results of previous studies that utilized rejection sensitivity – a narrower construct than interpersonal sensitivity. Expressive suppression and emotional reactivity emerge as differential predictors of individual dimensions of interpersonal sensitivity.
... The biased perception of expected rejection is likely to cause individuals to protect themselves and avoid putting themselves in situations that involve potential rejection (Pietrzak et al., 2005). To protect themselves, they might maintain distance, conceal personal information from others, and refrain from disagreements (Berenson et al., 2009). ...
Introduction
In an earlier study, we followed adolescents from age 16 to 23, examining the effect of rejection sensitivity (RS) on the quality of future romantic relationships. Findings showed that RS decreased over time, and the decrease associated with a higher quality of future romantic relationships. In contrast, the effect of the earlier level of RS on the quality of future romantic relationships was minor.
Methods
Extending the earlier study, these 101 Israeli young adults (69 females, mean age = 22.79) were followed again from age 23 to 28. At age 28, the level of RS was assessed again. In addition, participants reported about the quality of their current or most recent romantic relationship.
Results
Contrary to the earlier study, findings of the current study show that the earlier higher level of RS at age 23 was associated with a higher likelihood of maintaining distance and self concealing from one's partner, feeling less certain, and reporting greater tension in future relationships. In contrast, the effect of change in RS between ages 23 and 28 on future relationships was minimal.
Conclusions
Integrating the findings of the current and earlier studies underscores the role of earlier RS and its change over time during different developmental periods. RS decreases during the transition from adolescence to adulthood, and this decrease associates with a future higher quality of romantic relationships. In contrast, during the latter 20s RS stabilizes, and therefore, its earlier level associates with future romantic outcomes.
... Rejection sensitivity is a social-affective-cognitive model of the self, others, and relationships, in other words, a tendency to interpret social situations in a certain way. People who are highly rejection sensitive anxiously or angrily expect to be rejected by others Pietrzak et al., 2005). ...
This study's aim was to examine whether there are negative increasing cycles of peer victimization and rejection sensitivity over time. Drawing from Social Information Processing Theory, we hypothesized that victimization leads to higher levels of rejection sensitivity, which would put adolescents at risk for higher future victimization. Data were collected in a four-wave study with 233 Dutch adolescents starting secondary education (Mage = 12.7 years), and a three-wave study with 711 Australian adolescents in the last years of primary school (Mage = 10.8 years). Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models were used to disentangle between-person from within-person effects. In each sample, a significant between-person association was found: adolescents with higher levels of victimization as compared to their peers also reported higher levels of rejection sensitivity. At the within-person level, all concurrent associations between individual fluctuations of victimization and rejection sensitivity were significant, but there were no significant cross-lagged effects (except in some sensitivity analyses). These findings demonstrate that victimization and rejection sensitivity are interrelated, but there may not be negative victimization-rejection sensitivity cycles during the early-middle adolescent years. Possibly, cycles establish earlier in life or results are due to shared underlying factors. Further research is needed examining different time lags between assessments, age groups, and contexts.
... It has been found that the people with low self esteem suspect of the worth they receive and they blame themselves for this, also they experience distrustful affiliation (Campbell et al., 2005;Murray et al., 2002), excessive sensitivity against being refused (Pietrzak, Downey, & Ayduk, 2005), participating less in social environment (Harter, 1993) and they establish weak peer relationships (Gür, 1996). It is emphasized that low self esteem causes the hope of being refused in relationships and suspecting of the worth given to their relationships (MacDonald, & Leary, 2005). ...
a Firdevs SAVİ ÇAKAR, Ph.D., is currently an assistant professor at the Department of Educational Sciences, Guidance and Psychological Counseling. Her research interests include adolescents' perceived social support, self esteem, school attachment, help seeking and preventing guidance. Correspondence: Assist. Prof. Firdevs SAVİ ÇAKAR, Abstract In this study, a developed model to explain a causal relationship between adolescent's self-esteem, perceived social support and hopelessness is tested. The purpose of the study is to explore the relationship between self-esteem, perceived social support and hopelessness in adolescents. A total of 257 adolescents, including 143 female and 114 male, participated in attending different high schools in the Burdur city center. The Beck Hopelessness Scale, The Social Support Appraisals Scale for Children and Adolescents and The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory were used to gather data. The Structural Equation Model/Lisrel/Path Diagram/Windows and SPSS were used to analyze the data. First, measurement models for each of the variables were explored. Then, computed variables were used in structural equation modeling that examined relationships among latent variables. The results of a Structural Equation Model Test was showed that fit compatibility indices of the model, produced a good compatibility and the coefficients obtained were significant. According to the result the structural model, the findings indicated that a causal relationship was between adolescent self-esteem, perceived social support and hopelessness. In this study, it was seen that the results obtained are of explanatory equation because the study is intended for establishing a new model rather than testing a previously existing model
... Rejection sensitivity stems from a combination of various factors, including fear of rejection, misunderstanding of others' behaviors, inferiority complex, insecurity, and avoidance of interpersonal situations (Erözkan, 2004). Once the dynamic of rejection sensitivity fully forms in individuals who are sensitive to rejection, it becomes a lifelong dynamic for them (Pietrzak et al. 2005;Romero-Canyas & Downey, 2005). In this respect, it is believed that rejection sensitivity is similar to attachment style, insofar as it too tends to be permanent once it is formed. ...
People high in rejection sensitivity (RS) anxiously expect rejection and are at risk for interpersonal and personal distress. Two studies examined the role of self-regulation through strategic attention deployment in moderating the link between RS and maladaptive outcomes. Self-regulation was assessed by the delay of gratification (DG) paradigm in childhood. In Study 1, preschoolers from the Stanford University community who participated in the DG paradigm were assessed 20 years later. Study 2 assessed low-income, minority middle school children on comparable measures. DG ability buffered high-RS people from interpersonal difficulties (aggression, peer rejection) and diminished well-being (e.g., low self-worth, higher drug use). The protective effect of DG ability on high-RS children's self-worth is explained by reduced interpersonal problems. Attentional mechanisms underlying the interaction between RS and strategic self-regulation are discussed.
This study examined the role of self-reported attentional control in regulating attentional biases related to trait anxiety. Simple detection targets were preceded by cues labeling potential target locations as threatening (likely to result in negative feedback) or safe (likely to result in positive feedback). Trait anxious participants showed an early attentional bias favoring the threatening location 250 ms after the cue and a late bias favoring the safe location 500 ms after the cue. The anxiety-related threat bias was moderated by attentional control at the 500-ms delay: Anxious participants with poor attentional control still showed the threat bias, whereas those with good control were better able to shift from the threatening location. Thus, skilled control of voluntary attention may allow anxious persons to limit the impact of threatening information.
The authors propose an interpersonal social-cognitive theory of the self and personality, the relational self, in which knowledge about the self is linked with knowledge about significant others, and each linkage embodies a self-other relationship. Mental representations of significant others are activated and used in interpersonal encounters in the social-cognitive phenomenon of transference (S. M. Andersen & N. S. Glassman, 1996), and this evokes the relational self. Variability in relational selves depends on interpersonal contextual cues, whereas stability derives from the chronic accessibility of significant-other representations. Relational selves function in if-then terms (W. Mischel & Y. Shoda, 1995), in which ifs are situations triggering transference, and thens are relational selves. An individual's repertoire of relational selves is a source of interpersonal patterns involving affect, motivation, self-evaluation, and self-regulation.