White Birch Trees as Resource Species of Russia : Their Distribution, Ecophysiological Features, Multiple Utilizations

Abstract

Four birch tree species (Betula costata, B. pendula, B. platyphylla, B. pubescens) are traditionally important resource species in Russia. In the article, we discuss their spatial and ecophysiological features, biochemical constituents of the living tissues of the birches such as the wood, outer and inner bark, twigs, leaves, buds, roots. The exudation, tapping periods and sap productivity, exudated birch sap and derived birch tar are also reviewed. We show numerous useful wooden, medicinal, tanning, coloring as well as feeding and decorative properties. Chaga - (Inonotus obliquus), a fungi-parasite developed on the stems of the birch trees, is mentioned to be famous due to its antitumor and/or especially anti-cancer activity. It is reported that the former birch sap production being closed completely at the transition to a market-economy has restarted in the Russian Far East. Extensive bibliographic list is represented to acquaint foreign readers with unknown literature on white birches published in Russian.

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Instructionsforuse
Title WhiteBirchTreesasResourceSpeciesofRussia:Their
Distribution,EcophysiologicalFeatures,MultipleUtilizations
Author(s) Zyryanova,OlgaA.;Terazawa,Minoru;Koike,Takayoshi;
Zyryanov,VyacheslavI.
Citation EurasianJournalofForestResearch,13(1):25-40
IssueDate 2010-08
DocURL http://hdl.handle.net/2115/43853
Right
Type bulletin(article)
Additional
Information
HokkaidoUniversityCollectionofScholarlyandAcademicPapers:HUSCAP

Eurasian J. For. Res. 13-1: 25-40 , 2010 © Hokkaido University Forests, EFRC
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(Received; June 14, 2010: Accepted; July 29, 2010) * Corresponding author: zyryanova-oa@ksc.krasn.ru
White Birch Trees as Resource Species of Russia: Their Distribution,
Ecophysiological Features, Multiple Utilizations
ZYRYANOVA Olga A.1＊, TERAZAWA Minoru 2, KOIKE Takayoshi 3 and ZYRYANOV Vyach e sl av I .1
1 V.N.Sukachev Institute of Forest SB RAS, Academgorodok, 50, Bldg. 28,
Krasnoyarsk, 660036, Russia
2 Emeritus Professor, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan,
Universal Niuppu Organization, Bifuka Hokkaido 089-2208, Japan
3 Hokkaido University, Department of Forest Science, Sapporo 060-8589, Japan
Abstract
Four birch tree species (Betula costata, B. pendula, B. platyphylla, B. pubescens) are traditionally
important resource species in Russia. In the article, we discuss their spatial and ecophysiological
features, biochemical constituents of the living tissues of the birches such as the wood, outer and inner
bark, twigs, leaves, buds, roots. The exudation, tapping periods and sap productivity, exudated birch
sap and derived birch tar are also reviewed. We show numerous useful wooden, medicinal, tanning,
coloring as well as feeding and decorative properties. Chaga – (Inonotus obliquus), a fungi-parasite
developed on the stems of the birch trees, is mentioned to be famous due to its antitumor and/or
especially anti-cancer activity. It is reported that the former birch sap production being closed
completely at the transition to a market-economy has restarted in the Russian Far East. Extensive
bibliographic list is represented to acquaint foreign readers with unknown literature on white birches
published in Russian.
Key words: birch species (Betula costata, B. pendula, B. platyphylla, B. pubescens), birch tar and
Chaga, living tissues, distribution, sap exudation and tapping
Introduction: a brief survey of traditional uses
White birch species (Betula spp.) are traditionally
important trees for Russian peoples. They are grown all
over vast Russian territory and used for a wide variety
of purposes. None of the trees have such wide usage in
everyday life and folk medicine as a birch tree. The
Russians are fond of lightness, elegance, grace and
fragrance of birches particularly after rain as well as
they like to visit birch forests gathering wild strawberry
and mushrooms in them. Being soft and cheap, wood
and outer bark of birch are used for making different
goods: decorations, bark dishes, boxes, furniture, etc.
The bundles of young birch twigs are also usually used
in Russian sauna bath, like in the Finnish ones, as
aroma source and skin activator while birch fire-woods
are burnt to make the temperature in the sauna very
high. In country districts babies’ cradles were once
made from birch wood to protect their innocent charges.
Various parts of the tree have been traditionally applied
to medicinal uses (Evseeva, 2005).
Since ancient times Russian peoples recognized a
symbol of Russia in white birch tree considering it as a
core element of the poems, proverbs and fairy-tales.
During heathenism our ancestry believed a birch tree
was a God’s Gift which could ward off the evil eye
(Evseeva, 2005). They considered a birch as their
tutelary goddess, thinking the peoples’ souls
transmigrated into birch trees at death (Nozdrin et al.
2005). A traditional folk women’s dress “saraphan”
(popular wear especially in the country regions till
1940-s) has been cordially associated with white birch
outer bark. The beauty of Russian young ladies was
usually compared with the beauty of birch trees.
Complimenting a lady on her appearance the peoples
say that she is slim like a young birch tree. In one of the
famous Russian wonder-stories the apples that could
bring the youth and the beauty back were growing on
the birch tree. Finally, for Russian peoples white birch
tree is closely associated with the sense of the
Motherland. Being far away abroad the peoples usually
remember white birch forests, not the other ones.
Why do the peoples unconsciously provide white
birch tree with such magic properties while world
famous Russian poet Sergey Esenin devoted his poems
to it? This is likely to happen due to some features of
the birch, which differ it from the other tree species.
One of such unique features seems to be a birch sap
exudation at the early spring, so called “birch
weeping”.
Of 15 Betula species distributed over the territory of
Russia 8 species are tree species (Vegetative resources..,
1984). Although total number of Betula species is still
unclear because of uncertainty in Betula genus
taxonomy (Koropachinsky, Milyutin, 2006), we follow
the nomenclature of Latin names of birch species
established by Czerepanov (1985). Four species (Betula
costata, B. pendula, B. platyphylla, B. pubescens) are
traditionally used for numerous needs of the peoples,
including birch sap harvesting.
In this article, we reviewed distribution,

26 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian J. For. Res. 13-1(2010)
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ecophysiological traits, utilities of white birches for
providing the basic idea of natural resources
conservation.
Betula costata Trautv.
Distribution, ecophysiological features
Betula costata is distributed limitedly in the south of
Russian Far East occupying Primorskiy and
Khabarovskiy krai as well as Amurskaya district (Fig.
1A). This birch tree reaches its height of 27-32 m and
diameter of 80-120 cm, living by ca.300 years (Fig. 2A)
(Izmodenov 2001, Taghiltsev 2001). The bark of the
young trees shows light yellow, peeling off by big
pieces. The bark of the lower old stems is
brown-yellowish or grey, and finally is desquamating.
This species belongs to the group of tall forest trees,
which are the main co-dominants of the mixed
broadleaf trees-Korean pine forests and rarely form
pure tree stands (Krestov 2003). As the composer of the
mixed forests, birch tree performs best on lower and
middle north-facing slopes from sea level up to
800-900 m.
Biochemical constituents of living tissues of birch
Branch bark contains phenolic glycosides and
rhododendrin (Santamour, Vettel, 1978). Its leaves has
triterpenoids: i.e. 3α17α20-trihydroxydammara-24-ene
(Uvarova et al. 1976), betulafolientriol 0.007-0.035%
and its oxide (Gorovoi et al. 1975, Polonik et al. 1977,
Uvarova et al. 1976), betulafolientetraol 0.016-0.66%
and its oxide (Malinovskaya et al. 1975, Polonik et al.
1977, Uvarova et al. 1976), betulin (Hegnauer 1964).
And content of steroids is 0.004-0.011% (Polonik et al.
1977).
Exudation and tapping periods, birch sap
productivity
In the forests near Khabarovsk city, this birch sap
exudation lasts for maximum 32 days in early spring. It
usually starts on April 10-18th (average on April 14th)
and finishes on May 11-18th (average on May 15th)
(Izmodenov 2001). The period of the most intensive sap
exudation covers about two weeks from April 19th till
April 30th (Taghiltsev and Kolesnikova 2000,
Taghiltsev 2001). The commercial tapping lasts 24 days
from April 14th till May 7th (Izmodenov 2001).
Betula costata is established to be of the highest sap
productivity as compared with the other birch species
(Sukhomirov 1986, Izmodenov 1997). One birch tree
can exude 1600 liters of the sap per one tapping season
while the maximum amount is recorded to be equal to
2500 liters (Izmodenov 2001).
Biochemical constituents of exudated sap
The sap of B. costata is a colorless transparent liquid,
which density is a highest in the beginning and the
middle of the exudation (1.0040 and 1.0043 g cm-3,
accordingly), decreasing gradually by 1.0028 g cm-3 at
the end (Taghiltsev and Kolesnikova 2000). Such
sugars as glucose and fructose were detected to be the
main components of the sap, which total amount was
0.9% in the beginning and at the end of the exudation,
increasing up to 1.3% in its middle (Taghiltsev and
Kolesnikova 2000). The dynamics of coumarin seemed
to be similar to that of the sugars while sap acidity (pH)
decreased gradually from 6.0 to 5.6 towards the end of
the exudation (Taghiltsev and Kolesnikova 2000).
Useful properties
The wood is used in aviation (Usenko 1969, Tsymek
1956) and in various branches of wood industry
(Vorob’ev 1968). The alcoholic tincture of the bark
cures malaria (Kurentsova 1941) while that of the buds
releases stomach and intestine spasms as well as
rheumatic pains and treats the wounds (Brekhman and
Kurentsova 1961, Kurentsova 1941). Leaf decoction
has antiphlogistic and diuretic activities and is used at
the skin diseases (Brekhman and Kurentsova 1961,
Kurentsova 1941). The twigs are important for the
feeding of livestock and wild animals (Larin 1957). The
sap of this birch cures both kidney and urine cyst
troubles (Kurentsova 1941) and is traditionally used as
healthy beverage as well as against scurvy (Kurentsova
1941, Izmodenov 2001, Taghiltsev and Kolesnikova
2000, Taghiltsev 2001). This tree is also known as a
decorative species (Vorob’ev 1968).
Betula pendula Roth.
Distribution, ecophysiological features
Betula pendula (white birch) broadly distributes over
the territory of Russia (Fig. 1B). In boreal zone it
occupies different forest sites, forming both pure
secondary stands on the burned and logged areas as
well as mixed stands with the conifers at the
late-successional stages of forest regeneration after
such disturbances. At the southern limit of the range in
forest-steppe zone white birch performs best on the
north-facing slopes, avoiding over moisten conditions,
while it prefers the warmest flats and riversides at the
northern limit, where permafrost occurs. In the
mountainous regions, B. pendula occupies various sites
from foothills up to ca. 2500 m a.s.l.
This birch tree reaches the height of 18-20 (30) m
and the diameter of 70 cm, living by 200 years (Fig.
2B). The bark of the mature trees is white or grey in the
lower stem. Due to fast vegetative reproduction white
birch easily invades logged and burned areas.
Biochemical constituents of living tissues of birch
Wood has steroids and their derivatives are sterols’
and fatty acids’ ethers (Lindgren 1965, Selleby 1960),
fatty acids 0.08% (palmic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic)
(Ekman and Pensar 1973), betulaprenol (Lindgren 1965,
Wellburn and Hemming 1966).
Inner bark. Essential oils 0.052%: methylsalicylic,
palmic, phenic and behenic acids, sesquiterpenes
(Goryaev 1952, Pavlov 1947). Triterpenoids: betulin
1.8-14% (Ban’kovsky et al 1947, Jordanov et al. 1970,
Pavlov 1947, Rimpler et al. 1966), betulonic 0.012%
and betulinic 0.032% aldehydes, lupeol 0.2%,
acetyloleanolic 0.01%, betulinic 0.021%, oleanolic and
ursolic 0.4% acids (Rimpler et al. 1966). Steroids
0.028% (Rimpler et al. 1966). Alkaloids (Massagetov
1946). Phenolic glycosides: gaulterin (Jordanov et al.

Multiple use of birch in Russia 27
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1970, Pavlov 1947), rhododendrin (Santamour and
Vettel 1978). Carboxylic acids: gallic (Vereshchagin et
al. 1959). Catechins: 3.3 % (Dolgodvorova and
Chernyaeva 1977). Tan substances: 4-15% (Alexeev
1977, Aliev and Damirov 1948, Jordanov et al. 1970,
Klobukova-Alisova 1958, 1960, Tkabladze 1961). Fatty
acids: palmic (Ban’kovsky et al 1947, Goryaev 1952)
and behenic acids (Pavlov 1947).
Outer bark. Triterpenoids: betulin (Pasich 1965).
Catechins: 1.3% (Dolgodvorova and Chernyaeva 1977).
Lipids: 38.7-43.4% (Holloway 1972). Tan substances.
Flavonoids: 0.05% (Dolgodvorova and Chernyaeva
1977).
Buds. Essential oils: 0.2-6.25% (Alexeev et al. 1958,
Balvochyute et al. 1980, Tomchuk et al. 1973, Shreter
1970, 1975), sesquiterpenes (Barbarich et al. 1961,
Tomchuk et al. 1973), palmic acid (Tompson 1933).
Alkaloids: 0.1% (Ban’kovsky et al 1947). Vitamin C
(Geideman et al. 1962, Shreter 1970, 1975).
Flavonoids: apigenin, apigenin-4’methyl ether,
kaempheride, kaempherol-3,4’-dimethyl ether,
kaempherol-7,4’-dimethyl ether, isorhamnetin
(Kononenko et al. 1975, Wollenweber 1975),
kaempherol, quercetin, skutellarein-6,4’-dimethyl ether,
kaempherol-3-methyl ether, kaempherol-7-methyl ether
(Wollenweber 1975), 6-oxykaempherol-6,4’-dimethyl
ether, 6-oxykaempherol-3,6,4’-trimethyl ether
(Wollenweber 1975), sakuranetine, 5-hydroxy-7,4’
-dimethoxyflavon (Kononenko et al. 1975, Popravko et
al. 1974, Wollenweber 1975). Fatty acids: palmic
(Tomchuk et al. 1973), linoleic and linolenic acids
(Konina 1976).
Leaves contain essential oils of 0.04-0.81%
(Goncharova 1975, Goncharova et al. 1968, Jordanov
et al. 1970, Komendar 1961, Tomchuk et al. 1973).
Triterpenoids: 3α17α20-trihydroxydammara-24-ene,
betulafolientriol 0.8% and its oxide, betulafolientetraol
(Uvarova et al. 1976), betulinic acid (Ban’kovsky et al
1947). Vitamin C (Geideman et al. 1962, Deruma et al.
1975), E (Ionushaite and Dagis 1970), PP (Komendar
1961), carotene (Berzinya 1969, Goncharova 1975,
Deruma et al. 1975). Carboxylic acids (Bate-Smith
1962). Tan substances: 1.07-9% (Alexeev 1977,
Goncharova 1975, Goncharova et al. 1968, Tkabladze
1961, Khalmatov 1979). Coumarins: 0.09%
(Khalmatov 1979). Flavonoids 1.96-5.56%
(Goncharova 1975, Khalmatov 1979): hyperoside
(Goncharova 1975, Jordanov et al. 1970, Elbanowska
and Kaczmarek 1966), 0.36% (Geissman 1962),
aviculyarin, rutin (Goncharova 1975),
myricetin-3-digalactoside (Elbanowska and Kaczmarek
1966, Hegnauer 1973), kaempherol, quercetin,
myricetin (Bate-Smith 1962). Anthocyanins: cyanidin,
delphinidin (Goncharova 1975, Bate-Smith 1962).
Inflorescences (catkins). Vitamin E (Ionushaite and
Dagis 1970), PP (Dagis and Sadyatskene 1966).
Seeds contain fatty oil of about 28% (Aliev et al.
1961).
Exudation and tapping periods, birch sap
productivity
In Ukraine total period of the sap exudation covers
32-35 days in early spring. It usually starts on March
17-18th and finishes on April 18-20th reaching
maximum 5-7 liters in the period from March 28th till
April 3rd (Ryabchuk 1974). The beginning of the
exudation is established to correlate closely with
positive mean daily wood and soil temperature
regardless air temperature. Sap exudation starts at +7~
+8oC of wood while air temperature ranges from –3 to
+16oC (Kryuchkov 1960).
Diurnal sap exudation per one birch tree ranges from
2.5 up to 13.5 liters, in average 4-5 liters (Koldaev
1971, Kostron’ 1977, Sokolovskii 1951) while that of
for the whole season reaches maximum 425 liters, in
average 25-129 liters (Vershnyak 1977, Kadochnikov
1977, Koz’yakov 1977, Osipenko and Ryabchuk 1970).
One hectare of white birch stand was reported to exude
3-32.8 tons of the sap over the season (Vink and Panov
1973, Gavrilyuk et al. 1977).
Biochemical constituents of exudated sap
Glucose and fructose were reported to be the main
components of exudated birch sap (Ryabchuk and
Osipenko 1981, Klobukova-Alisova 1958, 1960,
Pavlov 1947). The elements such as Ca, Na, Mg, K and
Fe prevail while Mn, Zn, Cu, Al, Ni, etc. present in
trace amount (Ryabchuk and Osipenko 1981, Drozdova
et al. 1995, 2000). The amino acids (Ryabchuk and
Osipenko 1981) and the vitamins (PP) (Dagis and
Sadyatskene 1966) were also detected.
Useful properties. Wood. B. pendula is an official
plant of “The state pharmaceutical indices” (1989).
Birch wood is traditionally used for building
construction, for furniture and different goods
production because it can be easily polished (Geideman
et al. 1962, Grossgeim 1942, Klobukova-Alisova 1958,
1960, Pavlov 1947). The wood of B. pendula Roth var.
carelica (Merckl.) Hämet-Ahti (Czerepanov 1985) is
recognized to be of the highest value as a furniture
wood due to its wavy-fibered and curly properties (Fig.
3). This variation of white birch occurs in Karelian
Republic only (north-western part of Russia) and is
characterized by very slow growth and burr wood
whose texture resembles marble. The pellets of birch
charcoal, named “Carbolen”, are used at stomach and
intestine troubles, food intoxications (Krylov and
Stepanov 1979, Turova 1974) as well as for spirit and
vodka purification and for painting (Grossgeim 1952,
Klobukova-Alisova 1960). Birch essential oil has
diuretic and worm powder properties (Besser 1950,
Sklyarevsky and Gubanov 1968).
Twigs. The bundles of young twigs are traditionally
utilized for sauna bath as skin activator and source of
aroma (Klobukova-Alisova 1960) as well as for
livestock feeding (Larin 1957).
Inner bark. The constituents of this part cure
malaria (Dragendorf 1898, Hoppe 1958), gout and lung
troubles as well as are used as wound healing and
disinfective substances (Deryabina 1969) at skin
diseases such as various sores (Alexeev and Yakimova
1975) and causal fungus invasions (Dragendorf 1898).
It is also used as yellow coloring agent for wool

28 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian J. For. Res. 13-1(2010)
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(Kasumov 1973) and tan liquor.
Outer bark. The upper thin layer can cure the skin
boils (Balitsky and Vorontsova 1980), while
traditionally different goods are produced from the
outer bark (Fig. 4A-G). The products being put in such
birch bark boxes (Russian name “birch tues”) preserve
their freshness for a long period of time, and water does
not freeze even under very low air temperatures
(Evseeva 2005).
Buds. In the official medicine bud tincture is widely
used as diuretic, sweating (Mashkovsky 1979),
antiphlogistic and antiseptic (Alexeev et al. 1958)
substance while in the folk medicine bud decoctions
and tinctures are well known to cure such diseases as
liver and urine cyst troubles (Deryabina 1969, Nosal’
and Nosal’ 1958, Vollosovich 1965), rheumatism, gout,
sclerosis (Bereznegovskaya et al. 1972, Grom 1965,
Nosal’ and Nosal’ 1958, Yakubova 1961), tuberculosis,
bronchitis (Khalmatov 1964, Minaeva 1970) as well as
various skin troubles (Nikolaeva 1979, Nosal’ and
Nosal’ 1958, Vollosovich 1965). In veterinary medicine
such decoction is used as diuretic, sweating and
antispasmoic substance as well as for skin
inflammations treatment (Tsarev 1964). Alcoholic
extract of the buds stimulates hair growth (Komendar
1961) while its essential oil is added as aroma into
liquors (Dragendorf 1898, Klobukova-Alisova 1960).
Leaves. Birch leaves are used similar to those of
birch buds (Alexeev and Yakimova 1975,
Bereznegovskaya et al. 1972, Grom 1965, Deryabina
1969, Nikolaeva 1979). Additionally, their extracts and
tinctures cure anaemia, neurosis (Krylov and Stepanov
1979), the sores and burns (Turova 1974). Leaf
decoction strengthens the hair (Alexeev and Yakimova
1975) and is used as yellow, golden-yellow,
brown-blackish, green coloring agents for wool, silk
and cotton cloths (Blagoveshchensky 1953, Kasumov
1973).
Inflorescences (catkins). Staminate tincture cures
heart and stomach diseases, tuberculosis, anaemia and
sores (Alexeev and Yakimova 1975, Minaeva 1970).
Birch sap. The sap is traditionally used as a healthy
beverage (Khalmatov 1964, Yakubova 1961) and can
affect such troubles as anaemia (Khalmatov 1964,
Krylov and Stepanov 1979), cancer (Balitsky and
Vorontsova 1980, Deryabina 1969), tuberculosis
(Deryabina 1969, Parahonyak 1970), kidney and liver
stones (Deryabina 1969, Kucherov et al. 1973, Nosal’
and Nosal’ 1958), gout, arthritis, rheumatism (Nosal’
and Nosal’ 1958), cold (Khalmatov 1964, Turova 1974)
and skin (Dobrokhotova and Tchudinov 1961, Nosal’
and Nosal’ 1958, Turova 1974) diseases. It also has
diuretic and worm powder (Kucherov et al. 1973,
Nosal’ and Nosal’ 1958) and prevent tooth troubles
(Baranova and Prokazina 1977). “Biomos” medicine,
based on birch sap, cures unhealing wounds and burns
and affect as antiphlogistic and antisclerotic substance
(Beskrovny et al. 1977). In veterinary medicine birch
sap cures cow diseases and increases milk amount
(Orlov 1974).
Peoples usually use the sap as fresh drink as well as
for vine (Nikitinsky 1921), vinegar, syrup, kvass and
confectionary (Koldaev 1971, Nikitinsky 1921)
domestic production. In perfumery and cosmetics
industry birch sap is added in the lotions and shampoos
(Krylov and Stepanov 1979, Orlov 1974) while in bee
farming it is used as extra feed for the bees
(Dobrokhotova and Tchudinov 1961, Orlov 1974). In
research studies the pollen is treated by birch sap to
accelerate its germination (Orlov 1974). This tree is
also known as a decorative species (Koropachinsky
1983, Skvortsova 1961).
Betula platyphylla Sukacz.
Distribution, ecophysiological features: Betula
platyphylla is the most distributed tree birch species of
Russian Far East (Fig. 1C), which occupies here about
9 million hectares of the territory (Krestov 2003). This
species is one of the composers of mixed forests and
seral species in reforestation after clear cuttings and
wildfires due to fast vegetative reproduction. It can also
form pure tree stands. This birch tree is less warmth
and soil moisture demanding than Betula costata.
On the fertile soils this white birch reaches 27 m in
height and 50 cm in diameter and lives to 120 years
(Fig. 2C). It is a fast-growing tree species with white or
grey bark, which reaches harvesting age by 50-60
years.
Not all Russian botanists recognize the existence of
B. platyphylla as a separate species. Particularly,
leading by the Russian dendrologist academician, I. Yu.
Koropachinsky (1983, 2006) considers the territory of
Asian Russia is occupied by the only white birch
species – Betula pendula whose western individuals
(westward from Enisei river) have the leaves cuneate at
base while the eastern trees (eastward from Enisei
river) have the leaves truncate at base.
Biochemical constituents of living tissues of birch
Stem bark contains triterpenoids: i.e. betulin.
Phenolic glycosides is rhododendrin (Vegetative
resources 1984).
Buds. Essential oils are vitamin C (Petryaev 1952)
and flavonoids, i.e. apigenin, kaempherol, apigenin
-7-methyl ether, apigenin-4’-methyl ether, apigenin
-7,4’-dimethyl ether, skutellarein-6,4’-dimethyl ether,
kaempherol-7-methyl ether, kaempherol-4’-methyl
ether, kaempherol-7,4’-dimethyl ether, 6
-oxykaempherol -6,4’-dimethyl ether, 6-oxykaempherol
-3,6,4’-trimethyl ether, quercetin-7-methyl ether,
quercetin-3’-methyl ether, quercetin-7,3’-dimethyl
ether (Wollenweber 1975).
Leaves have essential oils. Triterpenoids, i.e.
betulafolientriol 0.123-0.64% (Pokhilo et al. 1975,
Polonik et al. 1977). Steroids 0.059% (Pokhilo et al.
1975). Vitamin C (Egorov 1954, Petryaev 1952),
carotene (Egorov 1954, Tomchuk and Tomchuk 1973).
Exudation and tapping periods, birch sap
productivity
In the forests near Khabarovsk city, sap exudation of
B. platyphylla lasts about 25 days. It usually starts on
April 10-12th (average on April 11th) and finishes on
May 4-6th (average on May 5th). The commercial

Multiple use of birch in Russia 29
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tapping lasts 19 days from April 12th till 30th. One birch
tree can exude 400 liters of the sap per one tapping
season (Izmodenov 2001).
For the tapping season in Yakutia, - the sap exudation
per one birch tree ranges from 19 up to 78 liters, and its
maximum value of 150 liters. One hectare of white
birch stand was reported to exude 5 tons of the sap over
the season (Vershnyak 1977, Petryaev 1952).
Biochemical constituents of exudated sap
The sap of B. platyphylla seems to have similar
parameters of contents and dynamics as that of B.
costata, being insignificantly more dense and acid. It is
a colorless transparent liquid, which density is a highest
in the beginning and the middle of the exudation
(1.0050 and 1.0070 g cm-3, accordingly), decreasing
gradually by 1.0036 g cm-3 at the end (Taghiltsev and
Kolesnikova 2000). Such sugars as glucose and
fructose were detected to be the main components of
the sap, which total amount was 0.9% in the beginning
and 1.0% at the end of the exudation, increasing up to
1.2% in its middle (Taghiltsev and Kolesnikova 2000).
The dynamics of coumarin seemed to be similar to that
of the sugars while sap acidity (pH) decreased
gradually from 5.8 to 5.4 towards the end of the
exudation (Taghiltsev and Kolesnikova 2000).
Useful properties. The use of the living tissues and
the exudated sap (Larin 1957, Makarov 1962,
Mashkovsky 1977, Pakhomov 1961, Petryaev 1952,
Usenko 1969, Vostrikova and Vostrikov 1971) of Betula
platyphylla are similar to those of Betula costata and B.
pendula.
Betula pubescens Ehrh.
Distribution, ecophysiological features
The distribution range of Betula pubescens is almost
coincident with the range of B. pendula (Fig. 1D), but,
on the contrary, this species performs best under over
moisten and even bogged soil conditions. This birch
species usually follow in its distribution
“dark-coniferous forests”, forming both mixed stands
and pure dense stands on over moisten sites, so called
“sogry”, with the average tree height of 3 m and
diameter of 5-8 cm (Koropachinsky 1983). On the
fertile and well-drained soils, B. pubescens reaches
18-20 m in height and 50 cm in diameter and lives to ca.
120 years (Fig. 2D), relatively short-lived species.
Biochemical constituents of living tissues of birch
Inner bark has essential oils of about 0.052%
(Rutovsky 1931). Triterpenoids, i.e. betulin 0.36-44%,
betulinic aldehyde 0.024%, lupeol, betulinic 0.019%,
acetyloleanolic 0.011%, oleanolic and ursolic 0.054%
acids (Rimpler et al. 1966). Steroids (Rimpler et al.
1966). Alkaloids (Ban’kovsky et al 1947). Phenolic
glycosides: rhododendrin (Karrer 1958, Santamour and
Vettel 1978). Tan substances: 4.1-15%
(Klobukova-Alisova 1960, Pavlov 1947). Fatty acids:
behenic acid (Karrer 1958).
Outer bark. Carboxylic acids: rhododendrol (Karrer
1958). Tan substances: 2.3% (Hegnauer 1964).
Buds contain essential oils: 1.2-8.5% (Alexeev and
Yakimova 1975, Balvochyute et al. 1980, Rutovsky
1931). Vitamin C (Alexeev and Yakimova 1975),
carotene. Tan substances (Alexeev and Yakimova 1975).
Flavonoids: apigenin, kaempherol, apigenin-7-methyl
ether, apigenin-4’-methyl ether, skutellarein-6,4’
-dimethyl ether, kaempherol-3-methyl ether,
kaempherol-7-methyl ether, kaempherol-4’-methyl
ether, kaempherol-3,4’-dimethyl ether, kaempherol
-7,4’-dimethyl ether, 6-oxykaempherol-6,4’-dimethyl
ether, 6-oxykaempherol-3,6,4’-trimethyl ether,
quercetin-3’-methyl ether, naringenin-7-methyl ether,
naringenin-4’-methyl ether, naringenin-7,4’-dimethyl
ether, 5-hydroxy-7,4’-dimethoxyflavon (Karrer 1958,
Wollenweber 1975). Fatty acids: 55.42% (Konina
1978).
Leaves have essential oils, i.e. 0.04-0.31
(Goncharova et al. 1968, Rutovsky 1931), Glycosides
(Tschesche et al. 1977), Steroids, i.e. phytosterol
0.059% (Goncharova et al. 1968). Vitamin C, carotene
(Goncharova et al. 1968). Carboxylic acids. Tan
substances: 5-9% (Goncharova et al. 1968). Coumarins
(Goncharova et al. 1968). Flavonoids 0.85% (Alyukina
1977, Goncharova et al. 1968): hyperoside 0.36%
(Karrer 1958), apigenin, kaempherol (Murav’eva 1978),
kaempherol-3-rhamnoside, kaempherol-3-glucoside,
quercetin-3-rhamnoside, quercetin-3-glucoside,
myricetin-3-digalactoside (Hegnauer 1964).
Anthocyanins (Goncharova et al. 1968).
Pollen contains flavonoids of about 1.56% (Alyukina
1977).
Exudation and tapping periods, birch sap
productivity
In Arkhangel’skaya district (north-west of Russia),
diurnal sap exudation per one birch tree makes up 4.4
liters and usually increases with tree diameter and
crown length increase. The content of the sugars
increases simultaneously. The exudation period lasts
here 10-20 days (Korolyak 1970, Sukhanov 1977).
Biochemical constituents of exudated sap
Such sugars as glucose and fructose were reported to
be the main components of the sap of Betula pubescens
(Ryabchuk and Osipenko 1981). Malic acid was also
isolated (Alexeev and Yakimova 1975).
Useful properties. The use of the living tissues and
the exudated sap (Balitsky and Vorontsova 1980, Grom
1965, Efremova 1967, Larin 1957, Shreter 1970, 1975)
of B. pubescens are similar to those of, mainly, Betula
pendula.
Thus, four birch species (Betula costata, B. pendula,
B. platyphylla, B. pubescens) in Russia are
characterized by a wide range of spatial and
ecophysiological features as well as the exudation and
tapping periods and sap productivity. They show
numerous useful properties of the living tissues and the
exudated birch sap, which were investigated intensively
in the former Soviet Union in the period from 1960’s
till 1980’s, especially.
Birch tar
Birch tar (Fig. 5A), a substance obtained by the

30 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian J. For. Res. 13-1(2010)
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destructive distillation of the white birch bark has been
traditionally used by Russian peoples (Evseeva 2005).
In the villages the wooden houses, the fences, the boats,
the cart’s wheel axes were usually covered with birch
tar to prevent the decays. The peasants treated the
cowhouses, sheepfolds and pigsties with the tar to
protect their livestock against various diseases. The
horse’s hooves were covered with the tar because of the
same reasons. The peoples also dropped birch tar on the
red-hot carbons for air disinfection inside the houses.
They used the repellent properties of the tar for their
own and the livestock protection against mosquitoes
and other bloodsucking insects.
To prevent pest’s increase in the gardens the peoples
sprayed fruit trees, vegetable plants, and ground surface
with the soap-tar water solution. The wine-makers kept
fresh wine in the tar impregnated wineskins to provide
a peculiar “smoked” taste of the beverage. Nowadays
this technology is completely lost.
Birch tar was widely used in the process of leather
dressing (Evseeva 2005). This imparts peculiar
well-known odour and durability to the leather. Owing
to the presence of the tar the books bound in Russian
leather are not liable to become mouldy as compared
with the treatment of the tar produced in Holland or
Germany (http://www.controverscial.com/Birch.htm).
Since ancient times the birch tar has been recognized
as “a remedy against 100 diseases” (Kutuzov 2006). In
the folk medicine birch tar was valued owing to its
analgesic, antiseptic, disinfectant, depurative, diuretic,
and febrifuge properties. This remedy was widely used
for external application at dermatological diseases, at
rheumatism, liver and gynecologic troubles
(Dragendorf 1898) while in veterinary medicine it was
used for the wounds and causal fungus invasion’s
treatment as well as a worm powder (Hoppe 1958).
At present birch tar as a constituent of Vil’kinson,
Kon’kov and Vishnevsky ointments (Fig. 5B) cures
nonhealing wounds and skin diseases (Mashkovsky
1977). In perfumery birch tar is added into special
medicinal soap (Fig. 5C) and tar-water (Kos 1963).
Recently the researchers of the Pharmaceutical
Scientific Company “Retinoids” Ltd. (Moscow) have
patented a new method of short-term external birch tar
application to cure eczema, psoriasis, neurodermatitis,
pyodermatosis, seborrhea, skin itch (Arhapchev et al.
2004), based on the properties to increase tissues blood
supply and to stimulate regeneration of epidermis. The
studies of the birch tar (purified substance) useful
pharmacological properties are continuing intensively
in Russia now.
Chaga (Inonotus obliquus (Pers.) Pilat.
Chaga is a fungi-parasite, which can develop on the
stems of all birch trees (Fig. 6). Chaga is well known
due to its medicinal properties (Kahlos et al. 1983,
1984, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990, Mizuno et al. 1996, Saar
1991). In its biochemical composition such constituents
as chaga acids 60%, steroids (ergosterol, inotodiol,
lanosterol), organic acids (acetic, oxalic, formic, oleic),
triterpenoids, lignin, alkaloids, microelements (Cu, Mn,
Ba, Zn, Fe, K, Al, Mg, Na) were detected (Shin et al.
2000, 2001, Taghiltsev et al. 2004).
In Russia water extracts of chaga are widely used as
antiphlogistic, antitumor and especially anti-cancer
medicines (Sokolov and Zamotaev 1993, Taghiltsev et
al. 2004). Based on chaga, “Befungin” medicine cures
stomach and intestine troubles as well as cancer of
different organs.
Chaga seems to be pure investigated in Russia,
although the results of the researchers published (Shin
et al., 2000, 2001) have witnessed chaga would be a
fascinating object to be studied in future.
Conclusion and future remarks
White birch species (Betula spp.) are traditionally
important tree species for both the daily-life and the
minds of the Russian peoples.
Of 15 Betula species distributed over the territory of
Russia, eight species are tree species. Four species
(Betula costata, B. pendula, B. platyphylla, B.
pubescens) are usually used for birch sap harvesting.
Betula pendula, B. platyphylla and B. pubescens
broadly occur in boreal forests, while B. costata is the
main composers of cool-temperate forests in Russian
Far East. The boreal birches form both pure secondary
stands on the burned and logged areas as well as seral
species may accompany different conifers. B. costata is
one of the co-dominants of the mixed broadleaf
trees-Korean pine forests and rarely form pure tree
stands.
All birch species have rapid growth rate, preferences
of light-demanding, reaching 20-25 m in mean height
and maximum age of 200 years. Only B. costata differs
in larger size (by 27-32 m) and lives longer by 300
years. It is also the most warmth-demanding species
among the other birches. Due to high plasticity and
high tolerance capacity against disturbances, birch
species occupy a wide range of mesic forest sites
without substrate preferences, with the exception of B.
pubescens. At both the northern and southern limits of
the boreal forests, the trees are exposed to both severe
and highly fluctuating environmental conditions.
All parts of birch trees such as the wood, inner and
outer bark, twigs, leaves, buds, roots and birch sap are
usually used in aviation, for furniture production, in
both official and folk medicine as well as in veterinary
medicine, in the feeding of livestock and wild animals,
etc. due to the unique wood structure and the
composition of the biochemical compounds. B. pendula
seems to have the widest spectrum of the use.
Daily birch sap exudation ranges from 0.9 up to 10
liters and equates in average 4-5 liters per one tree of B.
pendula, B. platyphylla and B. pubescens. The amount
of sap exudated is established to depend on tree
diameter and crown length. Betula costata appears to be
of the highest sap productivity as compared with the
other birch species.
At present, whilst Russia is in transition to a
market-economy, it faces also a major economic crisis.
The former birch sap production is completely closed
by imbalance between trade and consumer’s
performance (Tolstykh et al. 2004). But recently, local
authorities in different regions of the Russian

Multiple use of birch in Russia 31
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Federation have undertaken some efforts to promote the
possibilities of conservation of natural resources and
their sustainable use. For example, the government of
Khabarovsky krai (Russian Far East) has elaborated a
new Program on natural vegetative resources use,
which included the creation of the regional Center for
harvesting, processing and selling of wild products
(Khlynov 2004). The restart of birch sap production is
one of the main goals of this Program. The harvesting
stock of birch sap was planned to be as follows (Table).
In 2004 actual harvesting stock of birch sap made up
77.3 tons (Tolstykh et al. 2004). This exceeded
parameter proposed and thrice more than in 2001. The
technology of sap tapping and production specification
for “Natural birch sap” and “The Far East birch sap
with sugar” have been also elaborated (Ivanov and
Shamorov 2004, Taghiltsev and Kolesnikova 1999,
2000, Tolstykh et al. 2004). The number of products
containing birch sap has gradually increased in the
region recent years, a trend that is continuing
(Taghiltsev and Kolesnikova 2000).
Thus, the birch tapping and sap production in
Khabarovsky krai has begun to restart. It is hoped on
the other forested districts would follow this positive
experience. Moreover, birch forests cover about 40% of
the forested area in Russia and the resources of birch
sap are abnormal high. We hope to save birch stands
stock as promising natural resources for keeping our
health as well as our precious treasure of amenity.
Acknowledgements
We thank the staff of Hokkaido University Forests
(Japan) and of Far East State Agricultural University
(Russia) for an opportunity of review on birch species.
Financial support in parts by Joint Grant of Siberian
and Far East Branches of the Russian Academy of
Sciences n. 76 as well as by Grants of Russian
Foundation for Basic Research n. 09-04-00179a and n.
10-04-10052k is greatly acknowledged.
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36 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian J. For. Res. 13-1(2010)
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Fig. 1. Distribution of white birch trees in Russia (Zyryanova 2004):
A -
Betula costata
Trautv., B -
Betula pendula
Roth.,
C -
Betula platyphylla
Sukacz., D -
Betula pubescens
Ehrh.
Fig. 1 A
Fig. 1 B
Fig. 1 C
Fig. 1 D

Multiple use of birch in Russia 37
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Fig.2. Birches in Russia producing sap:
A -
Betula costata
, B -
Betula
pendula
,
C -
Betula platyphylla
, D -
Betula pubescens
(Photos by A.G. Izmodenov – a, c, and V.I. Zyryanov).
Fig. 2 A Fig. 2 B
Fig. 2 C Fig. 2 D

38 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian J. For. Res. 13-1(2010)
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Fig. 3. Furniture of Karelian birch wood (Photos from: www.sciteclibrary.ru/karbel).
Fig. 3 A Fig. 3 B
Fig. 3 C

Multiple use of birch in Russia 39
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Fig. 4 A Fig. 4 B
Fig. 4 C
Fig. 4 D
Fig. 4 E
Fig. 4 F
Fig. 4 G
Fig.4. Outer birches’ bark goods
(Photos by Zyryanov V.I.):
A - bread keeper, B - salt and pepper cellar,
C - birch bark cup, D - candy box,
E - flour box (tues), F - women’s decorations,
G - kid’s toy

40 Zyryanova Olga A. et al. Eurasian J. For. Res. 13-1(2010)
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Fig. 5 A
Fig. 5 B
Fig. 5 C
Fig. 6
Fig. 5. Birch tar and pharmaceutical
preparations with its addition
(Photos by Zyryanov V.I.):
A - pharmaceutical birch tar,
B - Vishnevsky ointment,
C - medicinal soap.
Fig. 6. Chaga
(
Inonotus obliquu
s
) on birch stem (Photo by Zyryanova O.A.).