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Peer Coaching: A Relational Process for Accelerating Career Learning

December 2008
Academy of Management Learning and Education 7(4)

December 2008
7(4)

DOI:10.5465/AMLE.2008.35882189

Authors:

Polly Parker

The University of Queensland

Douglas T (Tim) Hall

Boston University

Kathy Kram

Boston University

We examine the nature of peer coaching and frame it as a type of developmental tool that can enhance personal and professional development. We begin with a discussion of the relational perspective on career learning, which provides a context for peer coaching as a tool that can accelerate career learning. We distinguish between peer coaching and the related concepts of mentoring and peer mentoring and discuss factors that facilitate the development of this type of helping relationship. We offer a discussion of the key characteristics of effective peer-coaching relationships, and we provide an empirical test of the impact of these characteristics with a survey of MBA students. We also offer a theoretical model of peer coaching, along with propositions for future research. We conclude that when peer coaching works best for a person, it happens through a 3-step process of (1) building the developmental relationship, (2) creating success in development, and (3) internalizing the learning tactic by applying the peer-coaching process in future relationships.

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Peer Coaching: A Relational

Process for Accelerating Career

Learning

POLLY PARKER

The University of Queensland Business School

DOUGLAS T. HALL

Boston University School of Management

KATHY E. KRAM

Boston University School of Management

We examine the nature of peer coaching and frame it as a type of developmental tool

that can enhance personal and professional development. We begin with a discussion of

the relational perspective on career learning, which provides a context for peer coaching

as a tool that can accelerate career learning. We distinguish between peer coaching and

the related concepts of mentoring and peer mentoring and discuss factors that facilitate

the development of this type of helping relationship. We offer a discussion of the key

characteristics of effective peer-coaching relationships, and we provide an empirical test

of the impact of these characteristics with a survey of MBA students. We also offer a

theoretical model of peer coaching, along with propositions for future research. We

conclude that when peer coaching works best for a person, it happens through a 3-step

process of (1) building the developmental relationship, (2) creating success in

development, and (3) internalizing the learning tactic by applying the peer-coaching

process in future relationships.

........................................................................................................................................................................

The contemporary business social and political/

military environment has been influenced by

global competition, organizational restructuring,

mergers, delayering of organizations, and flat-

tened structures. In the U.S. Army for example,

the acronym “VUCA” is used by leaders to signal

to employees that every day they have to be

mindful that they operate in a world that is vol-

atile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous. Such

an environment has resulted in new employment

patterns and also created high levels of stress

around job and career issues (Ashkanasy &

Holmes, 1995). Different sets of career skills are

necessary to adapt to these changes and main-

tain employability. In particular there is an in-

creased focus on learning as a foundation of

career growth as individuals assume responsi-

bility for their own career development.

One of the challenges that managers now face is

how to promote learning, growth and development

for themselves and for others. Life-span issues of

adulthood mean that career learning has moved

from a one-time education credential to an ongo-

ing lifelong process that underpins a range of ca-

reer education issues including preparing for the

world of work, transitioning in the job, losing work,

and adjusting to changed circumstances (Guindon

& Richmond, 2005). Learning and work, which have

traditionally not been well coordinated (Burns,

1995), must now be integrated into a continuously

supportive process so that people can “acquire all

the knowledge, values, skills and understanding

they will require throughout their lifetimes” (Stew-

art & Ball, 1995: 5). Oral and written communication

skills, motivating and managing others, and lead-

ership skills are considered by students to contrib-

Work on this paper was supported in part by the Morton H. and

Charlotte Friedman Research Fund and the Boston University

Executive Development Roundtable. The helpful comments of

the editor and two anonymous reviewers are gratefully ac-

knowledged, as is the research assistance of Dana Truhe.

姝Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2008, Vol. 7, No. 4, 487–503.

........................................................................................................................................................................

487

express written permission. Users may print, download or email articles for individual use only.

ute to improving workplace situations (Zekeri,

2004).

Such skill development is inherent in career ed-

ucation today, and the foundation for acquiring

these skills is frequently developed in degree pro-

grams. Increasing numbers of workers are return-

ing to tertiary institutions at various stages of their

lives to address these dramatic changes in work

roles (Watson, Buchanan, Campbell, & Briggs,

2003). However, reviewers of management educa-

tion have been critical of schools’ lack of respon-

siveness to the needs and desires of employers

(Boyatzis & Kolb, 2000). The emphasis on the pro-

cess of learning rather than specific content is

underscored by the current attention of accredita-

tion bodies, which requires schools to demonstrate

links between the learning process and outputs as

measures of quality (e.g., AACSB International;

EQUIS).

In the last decade both scholars and practitio-

ners have acknowledged that mentoring and other

developmental relationships are essential to help-

ing individuals strengthen their ability to learn at

a pace and breadth that is required in today’s

workplaces (Kram & Hall, 1989, 1996; Ragins &

Kram, 2007). These relationships exist in a variety

of forms, both within and external to the organiza-

tion, and are well documented as keys to success-

ful learning in careers (Higgins & Kram, 2001). The

most well recognized is the traditional mentoring

relationship in which a more experienced col-

league supports a younger person through assign-

ment allocation, feedback, and sponsorship (Kram,

1996). Positive career outcomes and psychosocial

support emerge in the process.

While traditional mentoring continues to be an

enduring learning process (Mavrinac, 2005), confu-

sion has arisen from the plethora of terms used to

describe developmental relationships and the lack

of clarity associated with them (D’abate, Eddy, &

Tannenbaum, 2003; Ensher, Thomas, & Murphy,

2001). Mentoring and coaching are the most widely

recognized terms, and both forms have come to be

used more frequently in organizations. These

terms are sometimes used interchangeably, and

although some argue that they are the same

(Sperry, 1996), the meanings can be easily confused

(Watt, 2004). However, there are many more forms

of developmental constructs (D’abate, Eddy et al.,

2003) identified by other names.

Despite the terminology, the reality is the re-

source constraints of contemporary organizations

includes relational limitations, and therefore,

fewer senior managers are available today to act

in a mentoring role (Allen, Poteet, & Burroughs,

1997; Eby, 1997). And what is the upshot of all of

these forces? An extremely high need for emo-

tional and informational support for all workers

as they strive for continuous learning to maintain

their career adaptability and other key capabili-

ties. This need is largely unmet. We introduce here

a new resource to address these learning needs:

peer coaching. It is a powerful tool, and it has the

potential to possess some remarkable properties: It

can be high-impact, just-in-time, self-renewing,

low-cost, and easily learned.

We introduce the concept of peer coaching and

position it as a relevant and new application of a

developmental interaction specifically focused to

accelerate career learning. We build on the funda-

mental premise of “a helping relationship that has

the intent of promoting growth, development, ma-

turity, improved functioning, improved coping with

life of the other” (Rogers, 1973: 223). Whereas help-

ing relationships have often been relegated to

therapy, increasingly the lexicon of organizations

and of careers has broadened to include a wider

scope of “helping” possibilities. Furthermore, more

complete and sound definitions of particular de-

velopmental constructs are required (D’abate,

Eddy et al., 2003).

We begin with a discussion of the relational

perspective of careers, which provides a context

for peer coaching to accelerate career learning. We

distinguish between peer coaching and the related

concepts of mentoring and peer mentoring and

discuss factors that facilitate the development of

peer coaching. We then report on several class-

room initiatives that we have done at our respec-

tive universities; these involved using peer coach-

ing to foster personal learning and leadership

development. In addition to structuring peer-

coaching opportunities in the classroom, we have

done preliminary research to understand the fac-

tors that shape the quality and outcomes of peer-

coaching relationships. Finally, we end with prop-

ositions for future research that will address the

theoretical and practical gaps we have identified.

A Relational Perspective on Careers

Relational Influences on Career Growth

A relational approach to careers is grounded in the

assumption that interaction with others is a critical

resource for learning (Hall & Associates, 1996). The

relational view is informed by feminist literature,

which emphasizes the centrality of relationships,

acknowledgment of multiple viewpoints, and per-

sonal construction of meaning (Gallos, 1989; Gilli-

gan, 1979; Marshall, 1989). The concept is rooted in

the belief that by “forming mutual and meaningful

488 DecemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

connections with others, individuals gain a greater

sense of energy, purpose, vision and, ultimately,

self-understanding” (Walsh, Bartunek, & Lacey,

1998).

A relational approach includes the way individ-

uals learn and grow in work-related experiences

with others (Kram, 1996). There is a holism to life

activities, in which career growth begins with self-

knowledge—an assuredness or certainty that

strengthens identity and allows an individual to

subsequently reach out to others, be sensitive to

their needs, and interact effectively. At the same

time, identity and competence are continuously

reshaped and affirmed through interactions with

others. In contrast to traditional approaches that

emphasized autonomy and individual mastery, in-

dividuals move through a process of increasingly

complex states of interdependence (Kram, 1996).

Traditional Mentoring and Peer Mentoring

The contribution of mentors who support individu-

als as they cope with a range of personal and

professional issues is well documented (Higgins &

Kram, 2001; Kram, 1985; Kram & Hall, 1989). Since

Kram (1985) defined mentoring functions and the

stages in the process, many researchers have ex-

plored the role of mentoring in different aspects:

antecedents; outcomes (Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz, &

Lima, 2004); psychosocial support (feelings of com-

petence; self-esteem; job acceptance); strengthen-

ing individuals’ ability to become leaders in their

profession; and adjustment to changes in the envi-

ronment (Kram, 1985). Recently, mentoring has

been incorporated into LMX (Schriesheim, Neider,

& Scandura, 1998); OCB; socialization and knowl-

edge (McManus & Russell, 1997); and creating and

sharing (Bryant, 2005). Mentoring facilitates per-

sonal learning (Lankau & Scandura, 2002), and it

can also mitigate mergers’ negative effects on per-

sonnel (Siegel, 2000).

However, mentoring has also come under scru-

tiny. The traditional role of an older, wiser person

guiding a younger one has been undermined in an

age where experience of the past and accumulated

knowledge no longer guarantee relevance in the

future. Empathy emanating from “having been

there” is undermined. In the old career paradigm,

mentors were able to guide learners from a base of

experience and knowledge. However in today’s en-

vironment, old patterns are no longer templates for

future action, and career actors are required to

face new situations continuously. Drawing from

previous experience could thus be a disadvantage

rather than the advantage of providing support to

develop responses to new situations.

This situation has prompted the interest in peer

mentoring. Peers are more likely to identify with

the ambiguity and lack of certainty in contempo-

rary situations. Furthermore, mentoring today is

not necessarily aligned with values-based trans-

formational change aimed at developing a learn-

ing culture (Mavrinac, 2005). Not only can peers

provide the same kinds of psychosocial and voca-

tional support (Eby, 1997; Ensher, Thomas, & Mur-

phy, 2001), but also they can contribute to creating

and sharing knowledge with its concomitant po-

tential to create competitive advantage (Bryant,

2005).

There is no doubt that one downside of tradi-

tional mentoring in organizations is that the selec-

tion of some precludes selection of other motivated

employees for developmental relational support.

The introduction of formal peer-learning relation-

ships allows for greater participation among the

workforce numerically and may offer some unique

advantages over traditional mentoring relation-

ships (Bryant, 2005). Formal peer learning is an

intentional one-on-one relationship between em-

ployees at the same or a similar level in the firm

that involves a more experienced worker teaching

new knowledge and skills and providing encour-

agement to a less experienced worker (Eby, 1997).

The relational approach, with its affiliative em-

phasis, promotes learning through social activity

and recognizes structures that facilitate ongoing

development. Communities of practice (Lave &

Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998) highlight the socially

situated nature of learning. Connection with oth-

ers through participation in multiple career com-

munities supports growth and development of dif-

ferent aspects of self that are integrated into a

synchronous whole by the career actor (Parker,

Arthur, & Inkson, 2004). Participation also illus-

trates the need to participate in multiple learning

environments, as no single context will meet all

learning needs. Peer coaching is one form of a

specialized developmental relationship that facil-

itates mutual career learning.

Peer Coaching

Conceptual Origins

The power of peer influence has long been noted in

psychological literature (Bennis, Berlew, Schein, &

Steele, 1973), and the value of consulting with

knowledgeable peers has been advocated both in

coaching (DeMarco & McCullick, 1997) and in ex-

periential learning (Scho¨n, 1983). The sense of con-

nection with others may be found in a range of

relationships—including those with peers—that

2008 489Parker, Hall, and Kram

provide formal and informal support (Clawson,

1996). An increasing focus on the role peers can

play in developmental relationships has high-

lighted a vital horizontal communication link (Sie-

gel, 2000). From a learning perspective, access to

peers is critical to developing a community of prac-

tice (Wenger, 1998).

Working with peer partners is widely reported

within education, often to improve specific class-

room skills. For example, in collaborative class-

rooms, peer coaching maximizes the natural learn-

ing environment for staff and pupils (Buzbee Little,

2005). Peer planning is a specific type of peer

coaching that occurs in the planning stage of a

program and is then combined with team teaching

(Finley, Skarl, Cox, & VanderPol, 2005). Peer-

assisted leadership emerged from a program de-

signed to reduce educational managers’ profes-

sional isolation by increasing informal networks

(Dussault & Barnett, 1996).

However in some fields the uptake has been

slower, such as in sports coaching, where the role

of peers for help other than strategy formation was

first posited by Gilbert and Trudel (2005). In the

careers field it is now recognized that peers can

provide emotional and psychological support that

facilitates individual learning and career success.

In fact many of the benefits of traditional mentors

can be provided by peers (Eby, 1997; Ensher,

Thomas et al., 2001; Higgins & Kram, 2001), al-

though a range of developers may be required to

meet a variety of individual needs (Higgins &

Kram, 2001).

Different themes emerge in peer relationships at

different career stages—for example, in early ca-

reer more self-confidence is needed and compe-

tence to adjust to rapid changes in organizational

life is required. A quick reflection on a pair-and-

share activity in educational settings may contrib-

ute to self-assessment and awareness of different

perceptions of others on a particular issue. At later

stages, deeper levels of analysis may be required

to elicit more transformational learning to effect

career development. Peers can assist each other in

learning how to learn and in drawing insights into

personal style.

Peer coaching is more focused than general peer

learning. Peer coaching has been described as a

“developmental relationship with the clear pur-

pose of supporting individuals within it to achieve

their job objectives” (Holbeche, 1996: 26). As with

other developmental activities, the interaction is

between two or more people with the goal of per-

sonal or professional development (D’abate, Eddy

et al., 2003). The emphasis is on the voluntary,

nonevaluative, and mutually beneficial partner-

ship between two practitioners of similar experi-

ence (Waddell & Dunn, 2005).

Peer coaching is one type of helping relation-

ship, which, as Carl Rogers (1973) emphasized, is

based on qualities such as unconditional positive

regard, authenticity, and mutual trust, if it is to be

effective. There are other examples of develop-

mental relationships that support individual learn-

ing and facilitate career success. However the

unique contribution of peer coaching is the inher-

ent mutuality and reciprocity of the process. Both

individuals are learners, in contrast to more tradi-

tional models of mentoring and other hierarchical

learning relationships. The explicit and primary

purpose of the relationship is to service both par-

ties’ learning. While more recent writing on men-

toring acknowledges that mentors learn as well,

the primary purpose is still defined as “in the ser-

vice of the protege’s learning” (Ragins & Kram,

2007).

One of the earliest mentions of peer coaching we

found was Joyce and Showers’ (1980) discussion of

peer coaching as a dimension of staff development

for teachers to create better learning environ-

ments. The coaching was a component within a

broader context of general professional improve-

ment. Since its inception, the concept has been

applied in several and varied fields including

nursing (Holbeche, 1996) and medical education

(Gattellari, Donnelly, Taylor, Meerkin, & Ward,

2005; Sekerka & Chao, 2003); patient education

(MacPherson, Joseph, & Sullivan, 2004); education

(Arneau, Kahrs, & Kruskamp, 2004; March, Peters,

& Adler, 1994); staff development (Dixon, Willis,

Benedict, & Gossman, 2001); and counseling

effectiveness.

Critical Qualities

Characteristic elements of peer coaching include

(1) equal status of partners (Siegel, 2000); (2) focus

on personal and professional development of both

peers (Seibert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001); (3) integra-

tion of reflection on practice to identify critical

incidents for focus (Daudelin, 1996; Raelin, 2000;

Van Manen, 1977); (4) emphasis on process as well

as content that facilitates leadership skill develop-

ment (e.g., as in learning to attend to the whole

person, taking account of the emotional compo-

nent, acting as a critical friend (Arthur & Kallick,

1993; Heron, 1992; Kidd, 2004); differentiating be-

tween dialogue and conversation (Baker, Jensen, &

Kolb, 2005; Issacs, 1999); coaching, (Barnett, 1995);

(5) and accelerating career learning (McCauley,

2006). Each quality of peer coaching is discussed

below.

490 DecemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

1. Equal status of peers. First, the equal status of

peers removes the important power dimension

evident in other relationships. Individuals who

are at the same level can provide both critical

horizontal communications and traditional

mentoring (Siegel, 2000). Peers can plan and

initiate their learning opportunities and work

toward a shared goal of support of mutual

learning, considering sensitive and personal

or professional issues. A peer coach offers an-

other lens to examine a specific task, problem,

or decision. Peer coaching thus provides one

specific way in which social networks can con-

tribute to the planning and management of

careers (Siebert, Kraimer, & Liden, 2001).

2. Personal and professional development of both

peers. Within the process, peers strive to gain

an in-depth understanding of subjective expe-

riences, including the worldview of the other.

In this sense, the peers engage in shared

sense-making of each other’s worldview. The

learning is self-directed and requires peers to

examine their own mental models, assump-

tions, and beliefs that underpin attitudes and

behaviors. Each participant selects issues of

personal interest for expression and explora-

tion within the dyad. Peers listen for consis-

tency, congruence of the helper’s words, and

feelings, and must ideally hold the other in

unconditional positive regard according to

Rogers’ (1973) characteristics of helping rela-

tionships that enhance growth.

3. Integration of reflection and practice. In effec-

tive peer coaching attention is on the whole

person. This requires personal reflection on

one’s actions or practice. The reflection pro-

cess builds awareness of cognitive, affective,

and spiritual aspects of professional and per-

sonal dimensions that extend beyond the tra-

ditional emphasis on applied intellect to en-

compass body awareness, feelings, social and

political processes, and spiritual awareness

(Heron, 1992). Therefore, the learning process

that builds such self-awareness is one that

demands purposeful attention to self.

Reflection is a familiar process to most people

and one that promotes learning when encouraged

by allocating time and structure for it to occur

(Daudelin, 1996; Seibert & Daudelin, 1999). Peer

coaching is an ideal structure for reflection. How-

ever as with any form of cognitive coaching, be-

havior will not be affected until the inner thought

processes are altered and rearranged (Barnett,

1995).

4. Importance of attention to process. Peer coach-

ing provides a medium through which peers

learn a process for how better to attend to other

people. Grounded in process rather than con-

tent, peer coaching can be transforming for

individuals. The focus is on understanding

self, other people, events and patterns over

time rather than “truth” as measured by an

external judge. In this sense, the process is

constructivist in that it involves generating

data from peers who assume multiple realities

rather than a fixed truth, with participants as

active agents in their ongoing development

(Peavy, 1994). This proactive stance is congru-

ent with calls for people to be more active in

pursuing their personal career agendas in the

emerging knowledge economy and to main-

tain employability in changing times.

5. Accelerating career learning. The need to

learn rapidly and continuously has assumed

greater importance in the era of the VUCA

world of the 21st century. Attention to ongoing

career development is an imperative that can-

not be ignored as tensions (such as the need to

perform in the current role and also seek ways

to develop) and opportunities coexist. Since

fewer external guidelines are available to em-

ployees, new forms of self-organizing assume

greater importance (Weick & Berlinger, 1989).

Proactive career management requires that all

employees be perpetual learners to promote career

growth and success. High levels of learning sup-

port are required to develop not only microlevel

skills that extend beyond those necessary for a

particular job, but also macrolevel skills such as

adaptability and learning how to learn (Hall, 2002).

In addition, career actors today need to possess

political and social skills to succeed (Siegel, 2000).

A recognized way to learn these skills is within

developmental relationships where the interac-

tions are critical to both individual development

and organizational success (D’abate, Eddy et al.,

2003).

Career learning as a relational activity includes

the ability to self-reflect and expand self-aware-

ness, personally assess what is known and what

needs to be known, and to adapt to the situation by

altering behavior and attitudes. Careers are repos-

itories of knowledge (Bird, 1996), and individuals

must drive personal learning agendas in an ongo-

ing process of growth and development as life-

long learners. Support and challenge from a

trusted peer, through the peer-coaching process,

can provide a powerful form of this accelerated

career learning.

Commentators on global business support the

learning concept to enhance life not only at the

individual level, but also to promote a robust,

adaptive, and prosperous society (Friedman, 2005;

Handy, 2005). Career learning is necessary for

adaptability and growth of the individual, not only

to focus merely on short-term performance en-

hancement (Hall, 2002), but also as a basis for life-

long development with a focus on the process

itself.

2008 491Parker, Hall, and Kram

Peer Coaching in Practice

There are now a growing number of examples of

peer coaching emerging in both industry and edu-

cational settings. While not much research has

been completed yet, sponsors and participants are

reporting positive experiences. Where these initi-

atives are not meeting expectations, there is the

opportunity to identify what factors—in terms of

structure and process—need to be addressed in

order to achieve the potential of peer coaching as a

relational tool.

Corporate Settings

Success has been reported at Vodaphone, where

peer groups were formed at each level of the orga-

nization to accelerate culture change. Building a

coaching ethos from the top down and linking it

with elements such as personal development re-

views, briefings, team building, and leadership

courses contributed to a shift in priorities from

day-to-day processes to people development

(Eaton & Brown, 2002). At National Semiconductor

in California’s Silicon Valley, peer coaching was

instituted to coach more than 400 people in one

organization. Peer coaches made up performance

partnerships for new behavior, increased organi-

zational effectiveness, and enhanced personal pro-

ductivity (Peters, 1996).

Several organizations are now experimenting

with peer-coaching groups and mentoring circles.

In each case, peers are brought together on a reg-

ular basis (e.g., monthly) for a specified time (e.g.,

1 year) for the purpose of supporting one another’s

learning and development. At one pharmaceutical

firm, an HR facilitator trains managers to serve as

facilitators of these peer-coaching groups. The

specific learning goals are related to on-the-job

challenges as well as emotional competencies that

will enhance peer coaching and other learning

relationships.

At a large consumer products firm based in the

United States, mentoring circles have been estab-

lished with junior executives for the purpose of

supporting one another’s career development.

Each circle has a senior executive who is respon-

sible for convening the group monthly and provid-

ing mentoring as well. As at the pharmaceutical

firm, the senior executives are trained in the emo-

tional competencies and group dynamics skills

necessary for these groups to achieve their pri-

mary objectives. The initial pilot has already indi-

cated that participants found this experience to be

very fruitful in terms of personal learning and ca-

reer development. The learning was so significant

for some that they decided to continue to meet after

the formal commitment had come to an end. Senior

executives who led these groups reported that they

learned as much about themselves, their younger

colleagues, mentoring, and peer coaching as did

their junior colleagues.

Academic Settings

At Griffith University, Australia, a postgraduate

class in leadership was introduced to the concept

of peer coaching to promote learning of both con-

tent and processes associated with leadership and

self-development. Thirty-four students of a broad

age range and from 15 different countries partici-

pated and were structured formally into peer-

coaching dyads. Prior to peer selection students

experienced a range of scenarios that highlighted

similarities and differences among the class and

the implications for learning. A model of coaching

based on assessment, challenge, and support (Van

Velsor & McCauley, 2004) was introduced, followed

by a wide range of specific skills to support each

other’s learning. Each dyad developed a working

agreement (which they revisited throughout the

semester) to build trust and establish boundaries

for peer coaching.

Early process work used course content to pro-

vide a focus for engagement and specifically to

develop a depth of understanding by practicing

questioning techniques. The developing skills

were then used to transfer to more personal appli-

cations of leadership content and the relevance in

students’ lives, such as personal visioning and

leadership challenges. Some class time was allo-

cated each week to peer coaching, and peers could

choose how to use it. Reported outcomes from par-

ticipants were extremely positive without being

unanimous.

In the School of Management at Boston Univer-

sity, where team learning is a key element in the

undergraduate and MBA curricula, peer coaching

is used in a manner similar to that employed at

Griffith. The skills of peer coaching are taught in

the first-semester required course in organiza-

tional behavior, where a major component in-

volves self-assessment. Students self-select their

peer coaches, with assistance from exercises that

facilitate discussions with people who the stu-

dents see as different from themselves, as well as

people that they see as similar. Peer-coaching ac-

tivities are used throughout the course. There are

two basic types. One we call “Share and Com-

The examples that follow are ones that at least one of the

authors worked on either in a consultant or leadership role.

492 DecemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

pare,” in which students pair off after a class ac-

tivity (e.g., case, experiential exercise, self-assess-

ment activity) and share their reactions and

learning arising from what they had just done. The

second type of peer coaching is more intensive,

with students helping each other process their self-

assessments from various tests and exercises over

the course of the semester. They also coach each

other on the design and writing of their final pa-

pers that integrate their self-assessment data and

present a career development plan based on that

self-assessment.

A similar process of peer coaching is used in the

school’s leadership elective. Here, too, the course

is based upon self-assessment work, with the as-

sumption that much of leadership development is

personal development. Peer coaching is used both

for “Share and Compare” activities and longer

term development work on a final self-assessment

and leadership plan paper.

Finally, through the full-time MBA program, as

part of the career-planning process, all students

participate in what are called “professional port-

folio communities” comprised of other students

with similar career interests. Facilitated by a fac-

ulty portfolio advisor, students are encouraged to

coach each other in dyads or teams to maximize

learning from their internship experiences and the

job search process.

In sum, there is evidence in the literature and

from our personal experiences to suggest that a

relational approach to careers—and peer coaching

in particular—facilitates ongoing development.

The power of peer influence is noted in a range of

contexts and at different career stages. Peer coach-

ing is a more focused form of peer influence that

facilitates professional development and acceler-

ates career learning. Its unique contributions are

the inherent mutuality and reciprocity of the pro-

cess, along with a focus on a specific issue or task.

However, empirical evidence is required to support

this claim and to promote the concept more

broadly. This study reports our initial empirical

investigation in university settings and leads to

propositions for further testing.

THE STUDY

Method

To give us a better idea of the outcomes from the

peer-coaching process, as well as a better under-

standing of what facilitates good peer-coaching

experiences, we conducted a survey of our stu-

dents (N⫽209) in our MBA leadership and organi-

zational behavior courses. The survey data were

collected approximately 6 months after the stu-

dents had completed the courses in which peer

coaching was used. The students (50% male, 50%

female) are full-time MBA students at Boston Uni-

versity and Griffith University. Forty-three percent

were 27 years of age and younger, 30% were 28 –30,

and 27% were over 30.

The survey was conducted on-line, using Survey

Monkey, a site that our students are quite familiar

with and use for their own course research, such as

marketing surveys. The survey items were created

specifically for this research, designed to opera-

tionalize the major issues that we have been dis-

cussing. For example, we assessed the extent to

which students had input in choosing their peer

coach with the following question: “How much in-

put did you have in choosing your peer?” The re-

sponse options were None/Very Little/Some/A Lot/

Full.

Satisfaction was measured from responses to

“How satisfied were you with your peer coaching

experience?” The responses ranged from Dissatis-

fied to Extremely Satisfied. Other variables were

measured in a similarly straightforward manner.

The four outcomes measured were satisfaction,

percent of course learning resulting from peer

coaching, contributions to professional develop-

ment, and later independent use of peer coaching.

Qualitative data were gathered with two open-

ended questions: “How did the peer learning pro-

cess compare with other forms of learning you

have experienced?” and “How were your skill level

and development affected by the peer coaching

process?” Comments were examined by sorting

the sample into groups with high and low levels of

the outcomes that were measured. These com-

ments were used to enrich our understanding of

the phenomena identified in the analysis of the

quantitative data.

Results and Discussion

First we examined what our students reported as

the outcomes resulting from their experiences with

peer coaching. Some of their comments give a fla-

vor of how they were affected by the peer-coaching

process. Qualitative data in the survey indicated

that the impacts were in the following areas:

•Success in dealing with change

•Support for personal and professional goals

•Increased confidence

•Improved accuracy on self-image

•Development of “soft” skills

•Fostering empowerment

•Improved delivery of feedback

Comments included the following:

2008 493Parker, Hall, and Kram

X made me realise that the experiences I

had were valuable and could be applicable

in HR.

I learned to broaden my horizons.

. . . reflected on observations as well as

thoughts.

It was almost like I turned on the self-aware-

ness tap and it was hard to stop—I was con-

stantly evaluating myself.

X used her expertise and questioning skills to

push my thoughts and she really made me

think about how to deal with my relationship

with a Director of the company I work for.

It was more personalized [than other learning

methods], and, because I had a very good

peer coach, I received a lot of detailed feed-

back. It was obvious my peer coach spent a

lot of time really trying to understand my is-

sues and subsequently work through them

with me.

In terms of student satisfaction, we had a wide

range of responses. Forty-nine percent reported

that they were either satisfied, very satisfied, or

extremely satisfied with their peer-coaching expe-

rience. Twenty-six percent were partially satisfied,

and another twenty-five percent were dissatisfied.

In looking at the qualitative responses, it appears

that the degree of satisfaction and learning are a

function of how much time and effort both parties

put into the peer-coaching process, as we see in

the following comments:

I would say it was not very effective for me

because my peer and I did not put in too much

time to do real “coaching.”

[It was] very helpful to have someone really

spend time 1:1 with results vs. doing it in a

team setting. Would have liked more

time—we continually were late joining class

[after peer coaching activities] as we got into

some very deep discussions.

Beyond satisfaction, we were also interested in

how peer coaching contributed to the students’

adaptability—their ability to use new methods of

learning on their own after the course was fin-

ished. To get at this, we asked them how they

thought their relationship with their peer coach

contributed to their professional development. Six-

ty-six percent reported some contribution to their

professional growth. An important way that their

ability to learn in the future could be enhanced

would be through using peer coaching on their

own in other courses, when it is not required. Three

quarters of the respondents reported that they

made some use of peer coaching on their own, with

about one quarter using it to a considerable extent

or to a great extent.

Correlates of Course Learning Outcomes and

Later Use of Peer Coaching

The good news, then, is that roughly three quarters

of the students experienced some level of satisfac-

tion with the peer-coaching process, and for many

it has become a new skill and learning tool that

they use independently. But, about one fourth of

the students did not experience these positive out-

comes. What accounts for the differences between

TABLE 1

Zero-Order Correlations Among Peer-Coaching Relational Qualities, Peer-Coaching Learning Outcomes,

and Future Independent Use of Peer Coaching (Nⴝ209)

Gender Age Input Satisfaction Accommodation Emotional

Future

use Development Respect

Age .078

Input ⫺.028 ⫺.151

Satisfaction ⫺.059 ⫺.119 .350**

Accommodation ⫺.081 ⫺.158 .319** .372**

Emotional .147 .045 .224** .541** .360**

Future use ⫺.035 ⫺.058 .143* .223** .049 .142*

Development ⫺.021 ⫺.113 .360** .729** .393** .508** .320**

Respect .020 ⫺.004 .358** .531** .266** .463** .213** .441**

% Learning .017 ⫺.118 .227** .540** .285** .284** .175* .624** .230**

*p⬍0.05 level (2-tailed). ** p⬍0.01 (2-tailed).

494 DecemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

those who benefited and those who didn’t? To an-

swer this question, we used multiple regression

analysis to look at relationships between these

outcomes and some possible predictors. These re-

sults are reported in Tables 1, 2, and 3. Table 1

shows the zero-order correlation coefficients, and

Tables 2 and 3 show the regression results.

For predictors, we were interested in seeing

whether age (perhaps a surrogate for maturity?)

and gender were related to the course learning

outcomes related to peer coaching. As Tables 1

and 2 show, a student’s age and gender had noth-

ing to do with peer-coaching outcomes.

The other possible predictors were related to the

nature of the relationship between the two parties.

First, we thought that the more choice or input that

a student had in the selection of the peer-coaching

partner, to help one find a partner from whom one

can learn a lot, the more successful the outcomes

might be. As one student said, “Peer coaching with

an individual with the same or less experience as

yourself is not helpful.” And, as we can see in

Table 2, input into choice of the partner was, in

fact, related to later satisfaction with peer coach-

ing and the extent to which the peer coaching con-

tributed to one’s professional development. However,

the relationship between choice of partner and the

percent of course learning resulting from peer coach-

ing was not significant. Also, having input into se-

lecting the peer coach was not related to the later use

of peer coaching on one’s own.

Next we looked at the nature or quality of the

relationship between the two peer coaches. Did the

relationship accommodate their two learning

styles, was there an emotional component in their

work together, and was the relationship mutually

respectful and professional? We predicted that all

of these qualities would make for a better, more

trusting peer coaching relationship and thus more

positive outcomes. And in fact, all three relational

qualities were strongly correlated with some peer-

coaching outcomes in the course, particularly the

contributions of peer coaching to one’s profes-

sional development. Also, a person’s satisfaction

with peer coaching was positively related to the

emotional component in the relationship with the

peer coach, as well as to the extent to which

the relationship was mutually respectful and

professional.

Overall, all predictors (input, accommodation,

TABLE 2

Regression Results: Standardized Regression Coefficients (betas) Between Predictors and Peer-Coaching

Outcomes (Nⴝ209)

Predictors (over “gender, etc.) Outcomes

Satisfaction

Percent of course

learning

resulting from

peer coaching

Contributions

to professional

development

Engaging in peer

coaching later on

one’s own

Gender ⫺.08 .01 ⫺.04 ⫺.04

Age ⫺.08 ⫺.07 ⫺.06 ⫺.04

Input into choice of peer coach .12* .10 .16* .08

Accommodation of learning styles .12* .16* .16* ⫺.05

Emotional component in peer coaching .35*** .17* .34*** .07

Relationship was mutually respectful and professional .30*** .07 .18** .17*

.44*** .14*** .38*** .06

*p⬍.05. ** p⬍.01. *** p⬍.001 (all two-tailed).

TABLE 3

Predictors and Course Learning vs. Later

Independent Use of Peer Coaching

Engaging in peer

coaching later on

one’s own

Relational Predictors

Gender ⫺.03

Age ⫺.03

Input into choosing peer coach .03

Accommodation of learning styles .10

Emotional component in peer coaching ⫺.03

Relationship was mutually respectful

and professional

.12

Course learning outcomes

Satisfaction ⫺.01

Percent of course learning resulting

from peer coaching

⫺.04

Contributions to professional

development

.35**

.12***

*p⬍.05. ** p⬍.01. *** p⬍.001 (all two tailed).

2008 495Parker, Hall, and Kram

emotional components, and respectful relation-

ship) yielded significant predictions of three of the

outcomes: satisfaction, percent of course learning

resulting from peer coaching, and contribution to

professional development. All of the multiple R

values were significant at the .001 level.

As we said earlier, our “ultimate” outcome of

interest was the likelihood that the person would

engage in peer coaching on his or her own in the

future. What factors predicted the adoption of this

new style of learning? First, we see from Table 2

that our significant predictors of the other three

outcomes failed to yield a significant R

as a pre-

dictor of future independent use of peer coaching.

To examine this issue further, we regressed all

of our relational predictors and the other course

learning outcomes against future use of peer

coaching on one’s own, as reported in Table 3. In

this combined model, no relational predictor was

significantly related to future independent use of

peer coaching. Of all the variables we studied, the

only aspect of the peer coaching experience that

was significantly related to future independent use

of peer coaching was one of the learning outcomes:

the extent to which the relationship was mutually

respectful and professional (

␤

⫽.35, p⬍.01).

Therefore, although it does appear that the pro-

cess of choosing the peer coach and the quality of

the relationship between the two parties have a lot

to do with their satisfaction and the success of

their peer-coaching work in a course, these quali-

ties do not appear to extend to the later indepen-

dent use of peer coaching in other courses. These

qualities affect the later independent use of peer

coaching indirectly, through their positive impact

on the person’s professional development.

Thus, to recap our results, as expected, when

students experienced the positive learning out-

comes of seeing an impact on their professional

development from peer coaching, they were more

likely to use it later on their own. In the correla-

tional results, we saw that all three course learn-

ing outcomes were significantly related to the

later, independent use of peer coaching: satisfac-

tion, percent of course learning resulting from peer

coaching, and contributions of peer coaching to

professional development. However, when we did

the regression analysis, which removed the effects

of the other variables, only one course learning

outcome was significantly related to the later use

of peer coaching: the contribution of peer coaching

to one’s professional development. That is, only

when students saw that peer coaching contributed

to their professional development, were they more

motivated to engage in peer coaching in later

courses.

Thus, on the basis of these regression results in

Tables 2 and 3, even though ours is not a longitu-

dinal study, the regression data are consistent

with the idea that there may be a 3-step process in

the acquisition of peer coaching skills and motiva-

tion as a life-long personal capability. Step 1 in-

volves building the developmental peer relation-

ship, through selection of a “good fit” partner,

accommodating to each other’s learning styles,

building emotional rapport, and creating a mutu-

ally respectful and professional relationship. Step

2 is building success—learning the actual skills of

doing the peer coaching effectively and having

peer coaching success that fosters one’s profes-

sional development. These steps are shown in the

relationships in Table 2.

Then, if this second step is successful, if each

person can see from personal experience that peer

coaching contributes to his or her professional de-

velopment, we move to Step 3. The person is thus

positively reinforced and is then motivated to con-

tinue using peer coaching as a learning tactic in

the future (based on data in Table 3). This 3-step

process in the development of peer coaching is

illustrated in Figure 1.

Pulling It all Together: Some Propositions

Our review of the literature related to relational

helping as well as our experiences in our class-

rooms and our survey of our students, has led us to

several conclusions. First, it is quite clear that the

nature of the relationship between two peers is

critical to the success of the venture. Our observa-

tions in the classroom, combined with qualitative

data from our students leads to several important

qualities in the peer relationship that we would

argue contribute to the positive outcomes of peer

coaching.

A Climate of Trust and Support

These qualities emerge over time and allow one

peer to understand fully the context of the other,

moving beyond more superficial networking.

Peers need to develop empathy with each other

and although they need not be friends, it may

happen. What is important is to establish trust

and safety at the outset of the peer relationship

so that roles, such as that of “critical friend,” may

be adopted successfully. Critical friends support

mutual development by asking provocative

questions, offering helpful critiques, and provid-

ing valuable feedback necessary for learning

(Arthur & Kallick, 1993). In spite of this, a tension

exists, and boundary setting is important to

496 DecemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

avoid slippage into being overly friendly in a

way that compromises the distance required for

an effective coaching role.

It is unlikely that trust and empathy will

evolve in a dyadic relationship without the sup-

port of the larger environment in which the rela-

tionship evolves. We know, for example, that the

quality of mentoring relationships is influenced

by the organizational culture in which these are

embedded (Kram, 1985; Ragins & Kram, 2007).

When individuals are recognized for taking the

time to develop others in their organizations,

they are more likely to prioritize this important

work. In addition, individuals are more likely to

develop the emotional competence necessary to

actively listen, provide constructive feedback,

and participate in a mutual learning relation-

ship if the organization provides opportunities to

learn and practice these critical skills (Cherniss,

2007; Kram & Cherniss, 2001).

Authenticity

Establishing trust requires both partners to be hon-

est and open both with the peer and with them-

selves to raise and express concerns and issues.

The dyad must provide a safe environment in

which concerns can be put out for examination and

analysis. Social processing is not purely logical

and rational and may contain emotional elements

associated with the event under examination.

Deep feelings may emerge from reflecting on crit-

ical events or the issue that either peer brings to

the table. Furthermore, emotions arise from the

process and are given expression within the dyad.

The appropriate handling of emotion is critical to

the reformation of self that occurs continually

through social relationships (Herriott, 2001).

There is a tension that arises to enter fully into

the feelings and personal meanings of the peer’s

world, respecting the feelings while at the same

time remaining separate and holding on to one’s

own feelings (Rogers, 1973). The tension may be

managed through appropriate expression of empa-

thy, warmth, and genuineness. In addition, estab-

lishing rapport through such expression provides a

backdrop for expressing authenticity. Authenticity

reflects congruence with personal values and con-

victions (Shamir & Eilam, 2005). Ultimately, the ca-

pacity to manage this tension effectively depends

on the individuals’ developmental position (Kegan,

1982) and their emotional competence (Goleman,

1995).

Dialogue vs. Conversation

A key aspect of peer coaching to accelerating ca-

reer learning is that of promoting learning and

FIGURE 1

3-Step Process in Acquiring the Life-Long Use of Peer Coaching as a Learning Tactic

2008 497Parker, Hall, and Kram

meaning-making between peers. Greater attention

has been placed on these fields and the use of

dialogue is a prime example. Issacs (1999: 9) de-

fines dialogue as a “shared inquiry, a way of think-

ing and reflecting together.” It is a learning pro-

cess that surfaces, in the safe presence of trusting

peers, “social, political and even emotional reac-

tions that might be blocking effectiveness” (Raelin,

2000: 2). There are many similarities between dia-

logue and conversation and many researchers use

the terms interchangeably (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb,

2005). However, we promote the concept of dia-

logue as posited by Issacs (1999) as it “raises the

level of shared thinking, it impacts how people act,

and in particular, how they all act together” (p. 22).

The process produces a learning space that is

held between the peers and enables issues to be

presented. While that space may assume different

forms such as temporal or emotional, attention is

drawn to its bounded nature to mark the area be-

tween peers (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 2005). In this

way it becomes like a neutral territory into which

issues can be placed and processed. The process

then allows for one peer to develop a personal

narrative around the issue he or she forwards and

within that to identify as many tensions, para-

doxes, and feelings of ambivalence or resonance

as possible. The role of the peer is to listen, ques-

tion to promote clarification (for the narrator), and

to hold the emotional and cognitive space open.

Developing a narrative of particular events is a

process grounded in the constructivist methodol-

ogy mentioned above (Savickas, 2001).

Reflection and Feedback

The purpose of building reflection and feedback

into peer coaching is to develop awareness of per-

sonal behavior and to uncover underlying needs,

mental models, and belief structures that affect

performance. Work experiences are insufficient on

their own for learning to occur, and often the as-

sistance of a partner is necessary (Raelin, 2000).

Reflection is a familiar process of learning to most

people, and encouraging it, by allocating time and

structure for it to occur, promotes learning (Daude-

lin, 1996). Peer coaching is an ideal structure for

reflection. However, as with any form of cognitive

coaching behavior, it will not be affected until the

inner thought processes are altered and rear-

ranged (Barnett, 1995).

Recalling critical incidents for review can often

be done largely uncritically and unreflectively,

particularly at the beginning. The role of the peer

coach is to facilitate improvement in the partner’s

ability to become reflexive, and thereby, to con-

sider and understand his or her individual as-

sumptions and mental models that underpin per-

formance. Peers support each other in the

development of deeper levels of analysis for the

explicit purpose of deepening reflection to uncover

their hidden assumptions. Through the peer-

coaching process peers become the catalyst to

deepen the level of consciousness in the other and

identify values, beliefs, and behavior stemming

from these assumptions.

Deep reflection, rather than surface recall, is es-

sential for double-loop learning (Senge, 1997). A

key way to facilitate increased depth is through

powerful questions. Some suggest that the most

essential talent a peer coach can possess is their

questioning skill (Barnett, 1995). Skillful question-

ing by a peer may challenge an individual’s orien-

tation and encourage alternatives to the specific

way he or she looks at the world. A practical out-

come of a peer relationship is the opportunity to

understand the orientation of the other, thereby

facilitating a reflective knowledge of their world, a

concept of “co-orientational grasping” (Van

Manen, 1977). The advantage of such reflexivity is

the broadening of understanding underlying as-

sumptions and how to uncover them. There is a

flexibility to examine situations from a different

perspective, which gives rise to an increased

range of possible responses to any particular

situation.

The scope of peer coaching embraces the whole

person, as mentioned previously. Feelings and

knowledge “go hand in hand in the learning pro-

cess” (Van Manen, 1977). The skill of one peer to

facilitate deeper reflection in the other requires an

active engagement (Amundson, 2003), to establish

a mattering climate, and then to listen actively and

mirror back aspects of cognitive (usually the con-

tent) and also aspects of the affective (feeling) di-

mensions of the person.

In the end, peer coaching differs from counsel-

ling in that the boundary around appropriate areas

is career related and not intended to be therapeu-

tic. Coachees must identify personal developmen-

tal edges and then construct their own knowledge

by generating it from their experience. New acqui-

sitions can then be shared and defended in con-

sultation with the peer. Peer coaching has an inte-

gral emphasis on process, and therefore, those

through which exchange of information occurs are

critical to its success. These include reflection on

practice, building dialogue (rather than conversa-

tion), attending and listening skills.

Although these several qualities—trust and

support, authenticity, dialogue, reflection and

feedback—appear to play major roles in the devel-

498 DecemberAcademy of Management Learning & Education

opment of effective peer coaching, it is important

to note that these conclusions are based on data

collected in university settings in the United States

and Australia. While these data are encouraging

in terms of the potential of peer coaching as a

basis for ongoing learning, and supported by liter-

ature describing similar processes in the work-

place, we are cautious about generalizing to work-

place settings without further empirical data. We

are currently gathering data from several work

settings.

Finally, putting together all of the theory and

literature, plus our own survey research, we

would summarize our discussion with the follow-

ing propositions:

Proposition 1: Peer coaching is more effective to

the extent that the peers have par-

ticipated in the matching process.

Proposition 2: The peer-coaching process is more

likely to be effective to the extent

that it contains an emotional com-

ponent.

Proposition 3: Peer-coaching outcomes are more

likely to be positive when the rela-

tionship has the following qualities:

trust, mutual respect, professional-

ism, and mutual accommodation.

Proposition 4: Positive outcomes are more likely to

be reached when both peers are mo-

tivated to learn and when both con-

tribute actively and equally to the

process.

Proposition 5: People are more motivated to en-

gage in peer coaching indepen-

dently when they have previously

experienced positive learning out-

comes from peer coaching, such as

professional development.

CONCLUSION

Summary of Findings

Our aim here has been to introduce a previously

largely overlooked method of learning: peer coach-

ing. Currently our data are drawn from university

settings, which may have limited generalizability

to the workplace. However our students are adult

learners, and many are executives studying part

time to increase career qualifications. Therefore,

we suggest that these learners are capable of

adopting learning processes that are representa-

tive of workplace demands. Furthermore, such stu-

dents are those likely to be leading and modeling

learning processes in their own workplaces.

We posit peer coaching as a type of helping

relationship in which two people of equal status

actively participate in a process of helping each

other on specific tasks or problems with a mutual

desire to be helpful. It works best when there is an

emotional component in the process, when the par-

ticipants have an input into choosing the peer

coach, and when it is a professional (but unpaid)

relationship characterized by mutual respect and

accommodation. The effective peer coach adopts

the role of “critical friend,” providing a balance of

support and challenge.

Peer coaching is related to, but different from,

other forms of relational helping, such as mentor-

ing, dialogue, or professional coaching. It involves

skills that can be learned in classroom settings.

Thus, it presents an attractive learning resource—

with a ubiquitous, low-cost source of supply and

with powerful positive outcomes. And, best of all,

not only are the outcomes positive, but also the

process itself is intrinsically rewarding, with two

peers, who can become close friends, coming to-

gether to help each other on activities of shared

professional interest.

Toward Future Research

Based on our research, we have concluded here

with a set of propositions related to the way that

people acquire the skill of peer coaching as a

life-long learning tactic. It appears that internal-

izing peer coaching as part of a person’s ap-

proach to learning happens in a 2-step process.

As shown in Figure 1, the first step is to have a

positive experience with peer coaching in a

learning situation. This positive experience is

created through learning how to accommodate

each other’s learning styles, through having an

input to the matching process that creates peer-

coaching dyads, through bringing one’s emo-

tional self to the peer-coaching work, and

through working to create a mutually respectful

and professional relationship. These activities

lead to learning experiences that generate pro-

fessional development. Since these learning ex-

periences are intrinsically rewarding, they in-

crease the likelihood that the parties will utilize

peer coaching on their own in the future. Thus,

they will have internalized peer coaching into

their own personal portfolio of personal and pro-

fessional competencies. In this way they become

“metalearners,” as they perfect the art of

leadership.

How might this model be tested? Our model in

Figure 1 would be especially amenable to an ex-

perimental design, similar to Daudelin’s (1996), but

conducted in the classroom rather than a labora-

2008 499Parker, Hall, and Kram

tory. Interventions aimed at Building the Develop-

mental Relationship (Step 1) could be employed as

experimental treatments. For example, one inter-

vention could be devoting class time for students

(or participants in a workplace seminar) to get to

know one another’s skills, experience, and learn-

ing styles, to create more input into choice of the

peer coach and to help provide accommodation of

learning. Another could be providing specific

training to participants about how to recognize

and express emotions in peer-coaching discus-

sions, or Rogerian-style training in how to develop

mutually respectful and professional helping rela-

tionships. And, further, different interventions

could be studied as separate experimental treat-

ments, as Daudelin did, to help determine which

would provide the greatest payoff. The control

group would not receive these interventions and

would instead receive basic instructions to work

with a peer coach and to provide help to each

other. There could be a check for treatment effects,

to see if the four elements in Step 1 were in fact

more present for the experimental group. And then,

of course, we would expect to see higher scores for

the experimental group for Step 2 (creating suc-

cess) and Step 3 (future independent use of peer

coaching).

Another approach would be longitudinal survey

research, with a large sample, employing struc-

tural equation modeling, to get at causal relation-

ships suggested by the model. In particular, linear

growth modeling could be especially relevant for a

developmental process such as that in Figure 1.

The Practice of Peer Coaching

We must add a caution, however. Peer coaching

does not always work. It has to be done well to

have a developmental impact. Accelerating career

learning through peer coaching requires commit-

ment by each career actor to the other. The pro-

cess may be transformational and allow peers to

develop holistically. However, herein lies the ca-

veat—without such commitment and training or

education to engage fully in the process, disap-

pointment and frustration may result. Peer

coaching is a reflexive process that requires en-

gagement, and also takes time, practice, on-

going dialogue and debriefing continuously to

hone the prerequisite skills.

The benefits, however, are many, and the poten-

tial for a long-term impact of such a skill cannot be

overestimated. Indeed, this is why we included the

Step 3 variable, future independent use of peer

coaching, in our research. We are interested in the

way that peer coaching can promote individuals’

longer term adaptability. Peer coaching provides a

low-cost effective learning process that may ad-

dress the adaptive challenges posed by the VUCA

(volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous) en-

vironment that we described at the beginning of

this article. The requirement for the workers of

today and in the future to be self-directed, confi-

dent, capable learners indicates the need to pro-

vide the tools for learning that extend well beyond

graduation. And these need to be simple, accessi-

ble tools that can be used in one’s everyday work.

Many who write about contemporary learning

organizations strongly indicate that the pace of

learning must increase. They are alluding to both

technical learning as well as leadership learning.

In both kinds of learning we can imagine that peer

coaching offers an important tool. Peers working

on product development teams, for example, can

coach one another on the latest analytic tech-

niques, relevant innovations, and approaches that

are so new they may only reside in one or two

individuals with unique backgrounds. By tapping

in to one another’s unique resources, all parties

will learn, and the productivity of the team will

increase. Similarly, in terms of leadership learn-

ing, if peers can provide direct and honest feed-

back to one another, and hold each other account-

able for personal development goals and actions,

they are likely to keep leadership development as

a priority, equal in importance to technical knowl-

edge acquisition.

Not only do we have to have a longer term career

focus on helping individuals build life-long learn-

ing skills such as peer coaching, but we have to

conduct more research on the future impact of our

developmental and educational efforts upon our

students’ careers. When participants learn a tactic

such as peer coaching, do they actually use it 5 or

10 years later, and what factors influence whether

it is used or how well it is used? We need more

long-term development work and more long-term

research on developmental outcomes.

In summary, we believe that peer coaching in

our management classrooms, in corporate settings,

as well in everyday work settings, has great po-

tential to accelerate career learning. Our hope is

that this examination of the nature and potential of

peer coaching will guide future efforts to equip

executives with a relational learning tool that

promises to greatly facilitate self-directed devel-

opment throughout their careers.

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Fostering ego development through group coaching in a postgraduate program

Article

Sep 2023

Björn Peters

Objectives Literature review evidences several studies on structured programs to promote ego development, but none use a group coaching approach although impact factors and effectiveness of group coaching appear well-suited to potentially foster ego development. This study aims to address the void by examining effects of a group coaching program (that also includes peer coaching) on ego development in a postgraduate program of a German University. Design We conducted an intervention study that is based on ego development theory, the (cognitive-) developmental approach to coaching, and a theory-based conceptual framework to ego development. We applied different coaching tools in the program that addressed ego stage-specific development issues, e.g. reflection and development of multiplicity of self-concepts, and underlying beliefs and meaning systems. Methods The program consisted of twenty-nine participants who self-selected and were drafted via lottery. The coaching program extended over ten weeks. Ego development was assessed using the Washington University Sentence Completion Test (WUSCT) eight weeks before the coaching program (pretest) and again ten weeks after it began (posttest). Pairwise t-tests were applied to test whether the mean values of ego stage are different at pretest and posttest. Results Findings suggest that the group coaching program fostered ego development. Compared to pretest ego level was significantly higher at posttest. The program was more effective for participants at the self-aware ego stage than for coachees at the conscientious ego stage at pretest. Conclusions The findings provide empirical support that group coaching can promote ego development in adults. In addition to the specific design and the impact factors of group and peer coaching on ego development we consider the relationship with the coachees and the creation of a trusting and shame-free space important impact factors. Considering the high demand for the program from the post-graduate students, group coaching for advancement of ego development should be considered as an important part of the curriculum. More research is needed and should include larger sample size, a control group, and should control for factors such as coaching setting or role of coach.

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A relational approach to empowerment

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Jun 1998

Subordinate and supervisor leader-member exchange (LMX) were examined as correlates of delegation and as moderators of relationships between delegation and subordinate performance and satisfaction. Raw score analyses of data on 106 dyads showed both to be significantly related to delegation and to have similar main and moderating effects for subordinate performance and satisfaction. Finally, within-and between-groups analyses largely supported the level-of-analysis predictions of the LMX approach. Implications for future LMX research are discussed.

Performance, Learning, and Development as Modes of Growth and Adaptation throughout our Lives and Careers

Chapter

Mar 2000

The topic of careers has become both increasingly important and increasingly complex. Contemporary economies have bought about changes in the nature of careers, and uncertainty in the structure and longevity of firms and their ability to offer long-term employment. Corporate policy-makers struggle with alternatives to traditional employment structures, while individuals struggle to decide whether and how they ought to become more independent of such structures, pursuing what some have called 'post-corporate' or 'boundaryless' careers. This volume is an integrated survey of some of the best current thinking and research on careers. Presented as a series of chapters by an international group of experts and knit together through themes and dialogues, it advances our understanding of the deeper meaning of changes in careers, and of the interrelationships and longer-term consequences of those changes.

Careers in and out of Organizations

Book

Jan 2002

Douglas Hall

Linking Ways of Knowing with Ways of Being Practical

Article

Jan 1977

Max Van Manen

Re-visioning career concepts: A feminist invitation

Article

Jan 1989

Judi Marshall

Communities of leaders and learners

Article

Jan 1997
HARVARD BUS REV

P.M. Senge

Toward a comprehensive theory of career development: Dispositions, concerns, and narratives Contemporary models in vocational psychology: A volume in honor of Samuel H

Article

M.L. Savickas

Linking Ways of Knowing with Ways of Being Practical

Article

Jan 1977

Max van Manen

An interpretation of the concept of the practical for the field for curriculum must pay critical attention to the philosophies of knowledge in which the interpretation is grounded. The main traditions of social science (broadly conceived as the empirical-analytic, the hermeneuticphenomenological, and the critical-dialectical) each have associated with them quite distinct ways of knowing and distinct modes of being practical. This paper seeks to demonstrate that it is only through such critical reflection that the questions of greatest significance to the field can be adequately addressed.

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