Chapter 3. Uber's trajectories in the Nordic countries

Full text

Chapter 3. Uber’s trajectories in
the Nordic countries
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3.1 Introduction
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3.2 Uber in the Nordics: Regulatory entrepreneurship and taxi
market deregulation
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Table 3.1 Overview of Uber’s transportation services by car
Name Characteristics Form of employment
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Table 3.2 Post-Uber regulation of the taxi markets in the Nordic countries
Country Taxi licence
requirement
Numerical
restrictions on
licence
Criteria for
obtaining taxi
licence
Criteria for
obtaining
professional
licence
Vehicle
requirements
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

3.2.1 Denmark
&H!?HG;LE2<?LCHCNC;N?>CNMIJ?L;NCIHMCH IJ?HB;A?HCH+IP?G<?LI@@?LCHA
2<?L-IJ1B?!;HCMB1L;HMJILN IHMNLO=NCIH;H>%IOMCHAONBILCNSCGG?>C;N?FS
L?JILN?>2<?LNINB?JIFC=?@IL<L?;ECHANB?F;Q<SJLIPC>CHAOHFC=?HM?>J;MM?HA?L
NL;HMJILN;NCIH&H;+IP?G<?L=IOLN=;M?NQI>LCP?LMQ?L?=B;LA?>QCNB
PCIF;NCHANB?=NIH1;RC!LCPCHA;H>NB?=NIH/I;>1L;@rC=1B?";MN?LH%CAB IOLN
;LAO?>NB;N2<?LMBIOF><?L?A;L>?>;M=IGG?L=C;FNL;HMJILN#OLNB?LGIL?;H
;>>CNCIH;F>LCP?LMQ?L?=B;LA?>QCNBMCGCF;LPCIF;NCIHM;H>@ILG?L2<?L>LCP?LM
L?=?CP?><CFFM@ILOHJ;C>N;R?M&H;>>CNCIH2<?LmM!ON=BMO<MC>C;LS2<?L/3Q;M
=B;LA?>QCNB=IFF;<IL;NCIH;H>;==?JN?>NB?!(("2/rCH?CH*;L=B
0I?MN?>*OHEBIFG
2<?LmM?HNL;H=?CH!?HG;LEMJ;LE?>;JIFCNC=;F>?<;N?IH>?L?AOF;NCIH;L?MOL@;=CHA
I@CMMO?M>CM=OMM?>;@?QS?;LM?;LFC?L!;HCMBJIFCNC=C;HMCHCNC;N?>;JLI=?MMI@
;G?H>CHANB?=IOHNLSmMN;RCL?AOF;NCIH;H>H?QL?AOF;NCIHMQ?L?CGJF?G?HN?>CH
';HO;LSOH>?L;FC<?L;Fj=IHM?LP;NCP?=I;FCNCIHAIP?LHG?HNMOJJILN?><SNB?
LCABNQCHAJIJOFCMNJ;LNS0I?MN?>*OHEBIFG1B?!;HCMB>?L?AOF;NCIH
I@NB?N;RCG;LE?NQ;M>LCP?H<SNB?>?MCL?NIFIQ?LNB??HNLS<;LLC?L;H>NBOM
?H;<F?H?Q<OMCH?MMGI>?FM;H>CH=L?;M?=IGJ?NCNCIH,MFI"=IHIGC=M
%IQ?P?L;@N?LNB?IONFCH?MI@NB?H?QN;RCL?AOF;NCIHQ?L?JO<FCMB?>CH#?<LO;LS
2<?LMN;N?>NB;NNB?=IGJ;HSQIOF>HIFIHA?L<?;<F?NIIJ?L;N?CHNB?
=IOHNLS;H>>CM=IHNCHO?>CNM!;HCMBIJ?L;NCIHMCHJLCFFNBIOABNB?
;G?H>G?HNM?HN;CF?>;FC@NCHAI@NB?HOG?LC=;FL?MNLC=NCIHMIHFC=?H=?MNB?H?Q
L?AOF;NCIHMMNCFFL?KOCL?><INB;N;RCFC=?H=?@ILNB?P?BC=F?M;H>;JLI@?MMCIH;FFC=?H=?
@ILNB?>LCP?LMNIJ?L@ILGN;RCM?LPC=?M1B?GIMNCGJILN;HNI<MN;=F?M??H@LIG
2<?LmMJ?LMJ?=NCP?BIQ?P?LQ;MNB;NN;RCP?BC=F?MGOMNMNCFF<??KOCJJ?>QCNB
N;RCG?N?LMM?;NM?HMILM;H>PC>?IMOLP?CFF;H=?;H>GOMN>CMJF;SNB?FC=?H=?HOG<?L
H;G?I@>CMJ;N=B=?HNL?;H>@;L?IHNB??RN?LCILI@NB?=;L0I?MN?>*OHEBIFG

NCNMBCAB?MN2<?LMN;N?>CNB;>L?ACMN?L?>>LCP?LM;H>OM?LMCH
!?HG;LE0I?MN?>*OHEBIFGFNBIOAB;FFI@2<?LmMM?LPC=?MQ?L?
QCNB>L;QH@LIGNB?!;HCMBG;LE?N2<?L=IHNCHO?>CNM;LBOMI@rC=?QB?L?NB?
=IGJ;HS?GJFISM;LIOH>MI@NQ;L?>?P?FIJ?LM!/@?QGIHNBM;@N?L
QCNB>L;Q;FNB?NB?H>CL?=NILI@2<?L!?HG;LEQLIN?NB;N2<?LGCABNL?NOLHNINB?
=IOHNLS;H>?RJL?MM?>NB;NQBCF?2<?LQ;HN?>NI@IFFIQNB?F;QNB?S;FMI<?FC?P?>
NB;NNB?N;RCG;LE?NMBIOF><?>?L?AOF;N?>@OLNB?L+C?FM?H
3.2.2 Finland
2<?LF;OH=B?>NQIM?LPC=?MCH%?FMCHECCH+IP?G<?L2<?LF;=E;H>2<?L-IJ
1B?F?A;FCNSI@2<?L-IJQBC=BQ;MIJ?L;NCHAQCNBOHFC=?HM?>>LCP?LML?G;CH?>
OH=F?;LOHNCF;=IOLN;LAO?>NB;NJLIPC>CHAJ;MM?HA?LNL;HMJILN;NCIHNBLIOAB2<?L
-IJPCIF;N?>NB?L?AOF;NCIHI@NB?N;RCG;LE?N;H>NQI>LCP?LMQ?L?M?HN?H=?>NI
MOLL?H>?LNB?CL?;LHCHAMCH!gFPCE'?MH?M0O<M?KO?HNFS
>LCP?LMQ?L?rCH?>@ILJLIPC>CHAJ;MM?HA?LNL;HMJILN;NCIHQCNBION;FC=?H=?6F?
&H'OH?;%?FMCHEC=IOLNIL>?L?>NB?=IHrCM=;NCIHI@"2/@LIG
'I?F'_LPCH?HmM;==IOHNNB?H$?H?L;F*;H;A?LI@2<?L#CHF;H>HIQ$?H?L;F
*;H;A?LI@2<?L+IL>C=M<ONNB?P?L>C=NQ;M;JJ?;F?>;H>F;N?LIP?LLOF?>/?ON?LM
GIHNBF;N?LCH'OFS2<?LnJ;OM?>o2<?L-IJCH#CHF;H>;FNBIOABNB?


IJ?L;NCIHI@2<?LF;=EQ;M=IHNCHO?>2<?L;
==IGJ;HC?><S;B?=NC=>?<;N?;<IONNB?NBL?;NMI@OH@;CL=IGJ?NCNCIH;H>
QILM?HCHAQILECHA=IH>CNCIHM;H?QN;RCL?AOF;NCIHQ;MCGJF?G?HN?>CH#CHF;H>CH
'OFSJLIPC>CHA2<?LQCNBNB?F?A;F=IH>CNCIHM@ILL?F;OH=BCHACNMIJ?L;NCIHMCH
#CHF;H>1B?>?L?AOF;NCIHL?GIP?>NB?HOG?LC=;FL?MNLC=NCIHMIHN;RCFC=?H=?MNB?
G;RCGOGJLC=?L?AOF;NCIH;H>NB?I<FCA;NCIHNI<?ILA;HCT?><S;>CMJ;N=B=?HNL?
1;RC>LCP?LMGOMNMNCFFB;P?;JLI@?MMCIH;FFC=?H=?<ONPI=;NCIH;F=IGJ?N?H=?;H>
EHIQF?>A?I@FI=;FA?IAL;JBS;L?HIFIHA?L;L?KOCL?G?HN@ILI<N;CHCHA;N;RC
FC=?H=?!LCP?LM;H>FC=?H=?BIF>?LMGOMNIHFS>CMJF;S;M;NCM@;=NILSEHIQF?>A?I@
#CHHCMBIL0Q?>CMB;H>B;P?NB?;<CFCNSNI;MMCMN=OMNIG?LMQCNBMJ?=C;FH??>M
1;RCG?N?LM;L?HIFIHA?LL?KOCL?>;MFIHA;MNB?P?BC=F?CM?KOCJJ?>QCNB;NIIFIL
N?=BHIFIAS?ANB?2<?L;JJ@IL=;F=OF;NCHANB?NCG?>CMN;H=?;H>JLC=?I@?;=B
LC>?,MFI"=IHIGC=M%?CEECF_%?CEECF_
1B?H?QN;RCF?ACMF;NCIH?MM?HNC;FFSF?A;FCT?>NB?JL?PCIOMFSnJ;OM?>o2<?L-IJ;H>
G;>?CNJIMMC<F?@IL2<?LNIL?CHNLI>O=?;M?LPC=?ILA;HCT?>QCNBM?F@?GJFIS?>
>LCP?LMOMCHANB?CLIQH=;LM=;FF?>2<?L5CH%?FMCHEC2<?L;1B?
>?L?AOF;NCIH;FMIIJ?H?>OJ@ILINB?L2<?LFCE?=IGJ;HC?MMO=B;MNB?/OMMC;H
6;HAI;H>NB?"MNIHC;HIFN@ILG?LFS1;RC@S6?NNB?CH>OMNLSCM=IHMN;HNFS
=B;HACHAQBC=BCM?R?GJFCrC?><SNB?=FIMOL?I@IFNCH?;LFS4CNBIHFS
>LCP?LM2<?LCMMNCFF;MG;FFIJ?L;NILCHNB?#CHHCMBN;RC<OMCH?MM;H>CNIJ?L;N?MIHFS
CH%?FMCHEC&NCMOH=F?;LBIQG;HS>LCP?LMNB?INB?L=IGJ;HC?MB;P?<ONIP?L;FF
NB?L?;L?;JJLIRCG;N?FSN;RCMCH#CHF;H>1L;rC=IG
1?HGIHNBM@IFFIQCHANB?>?L?AOF;NCIHNB?HOG<?LI@FC=?H=?BIF>?LMB;>CH=L?;M?>
<S;H>NB?HOG<?LI@CMMO?>FC=?H=?M<S;LB;OA0EIFF?LO>1B?
G;DILCNSI@H?QN;RC;H>JF;N@ILG=IGJ;HC?M;L?IJ?L;NCHACHNB?<CAA?MN=CNC?M;M
NB?H?QN;RCJF;N@ILGM;L?HINCHN?L?MN?>CHIJ?L;NCHACHMG;FF;H>F?MMJLIrCN;<F?
G;LE?NM%?CEECF_%?CEECF_==IL>CHANI=;F=OF;NCIHM<S0N;NCMNC=M#CHF;H>
NB?N;RC@;L?MCHCNC;FFS>LIJJ?>CHNB?rCLMNGIHNBM@IFFIQCHANB?>?L?AOF;NCIH<ON
B;P?MO<M?KO?HNFSCH=L?;M?>NI;MCAHCrC=;HNFSBCAB?LF?P?FNB;HJLCILNINB?
>?L?AOF;NCIH%?FMCHEC1CG?M,MFI"=IHIGC=M#OLNB?LGIL?NB?N;R?M
J;C><SN;RCIJ?L;NILMB;P?>?=L?;M?><SIH?NBCL>JIN?HNC;FFS>O?NIN;R?P;MCIH
%?CEECF_%?CEECF_
3.2.3 Norway
MCH#CHF;H>2<?LF;OH=B?>NB?M?LPC=?M2<?LF;=E;H>2<?L-IJCH,MFICH
+IP?G<?L;H>MIIHL;HCHNIL?AOF;NILSI<MN;=F?M&H;H>@IL
CHMN;H=?2<?L-IJ>LCP?LMQ?L?rCH?>@ILJLIPC>CHAN;RCM?LPC=?MQCNBIONNB?
L?KOCL?>FC=?H=?>LCP?LMFIMNNB?CL>LCP?LmMFC=?H=?;H>B;>NB?CL?;LHCHAM
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

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1;RA?H=S$-$
3.3 Discussion: The politics of Uber
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 NB?LIF?I@JIFCNC=;FQCFF
3.3.1 Regulatory entrepreneurship and the avoidance of direct involvement and
responsibilities
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CHN?LG?>C;LC?M&H<INBCHMN;H=?M2<?L;PIC>M?GJFISCHANB?>LCP?LM;H>IQHCHA;HS
P?BC=F?M1B?LCMEI@>?G;H>MC>?MBI=EM;H>F?A;F;=NCIH;A;CHMNNB?IJ?L;NCIHM;L?
NBOMNL;HM@?LL?>IHNINB?>LCP?LM
4BCF?<?CHA@ILG;FFSnB;H>MI@@o2<?LmM;JJLI;=BNICNM>LCP?LM=;HHIN<?
=B;L;=N?LCT?>;M;FII@&H#CHF;H>;H>0Q?>?H2<?LCM?HA;A?>CHB?FJCHACNM>LCP?LM
I<N;CHNB?L?KOCL?>FC=?H=?M?P?HAICHAMI@;L;MNIF?NNCHANB?GF?;M?;=;LNBIOAB
2<?LIO>L?;O;H>%;ACO;LAO?NB;NJF;N@ILGM@OH=NCIH;MnJLCP;N?
L?AOF;NILMoAIP?LHCHA?=IHIGC=;=NCPCNS<S>?N?LGCHCHANB?=LCN?LC;@IL;==?MMNI;H>
OM?I@NB?N?=BHIFIAS;MQ?FF;MCH=?HNCPCTCHA;H>MB;JCHA<?B;PCIOL2<?L
>?N?LGCH?MNB?@;L?I@;LC>?NBLIOAB;=;F=OF;NCIHI@L?;FNCG?rFO=NO;NCIHMCH
MOJJFS;H>>?G;H>NBOMCHBC<CNCHA;HSJIMMC<CFCNS@IL>LCP?LMNIH?AINC;N?NB?CL
Q;A?M%IQ?P?L2<?LmM;FAILCNBGC=G;H;A?G?HNILG;LE?NAIP?LH;H=?CMHIN
FCGCN?>NIJLC=?M?NNCHA<ONCH=FO>?MNB?L;NCHAMSMN?Gj;<?B;PCIOL=IHNLIF
CHMNLOG?HNM;H=NCIHCHA<INB>LCP?LM;H>J;MM?HA?LMQBIL?=?CP?FIQL;NCHAM
JIN?HNC;FFSQCNBn>?;=NCP;NCIHoj;H>;ONIG;NC=NLCJ;MMCAHG?HN;FFI=;NCHA
J;MM?HA?LMmL?KO?MNMNI>LCP?LM1BCMNSJ?I@G;LE?NL?AOF;NCIHMO<MNCNON?M
AIP?LHG?HN;FKO;FCNSL?AOF;NCIHMQCNB;JLCP;N?FSIQH?>;H>=IHNLIFF?>@ILGI@
AIP?LH;H=?1B?>?L?AOF;NCIHI@NB?+IL>C=N;RCG;LE?NNBOM>I?MHINH?=?MM;LCFS
?HN;CF;F?MML?AOF;N?>G;LE?N<ON;NL;HM@?LI@L?AOF;NILSJIQ?L@LIGNB?
AIP?LHG?HNMNINB?NL;HMJILN;NCIHJF;N@ILGMM??,JJ?A;;L>


3.3.2 The consumer coalition and the neglect of workers’ interests
4BCF?=IHMOG?LMB;P?;FQ;SM<??HCGJILN;HN@IL=IGG?L=C;F=IGJ;HC?M/;BG;H
;H>1B?F?H;LAO?NB;NNB?JF;N@ILGMB;P?nJLIP?>NI<??RNL;IL>CH;LCFS
;>?JNCHF?P?L;ACHANB?CLFIS;F=IHMOG?L<;M?CHNI;H;=NCP?JO<FC=H;LL;NCP?;H>
JIFCNC=;F;>PI=;=SMNL;N?ASCHIL>?LNIM?=OL?F?ACMF;NCP?;H>F?A;FMOJJILNo&HNB?
+IL>C==IOHNLC?M2<?LQ;MMO==?MM@OFCH?RJFICNCHA=IHMOG?LMmMOJJILNCH;>PI=;NCHA
@ILNB?F?ACNCG;=SI@CNM<OMCH?MMGI>?FS?GJB;MCTCHABIQCNM<OMCH?MMGI>?F
@;PIOLM=IHMOG?LMJLCG;LCFS<S=IGJ;LCHANB?CL@;L?MNINBIM?I@NL;>CNCIH;FN;RC
=IGJ;HC?M2<?LB;M<??H;<F?NIJL?M?HNCNM?F@;M;MI=C?N;FAII>&H;FFNB?+IL>C=
=IOHNLC?M=IHMOG?LMmCHN?L?MNMB;P?<??H=CN?>;ME?SL?;MIHM@IL>?L?AOF;NCHANB?
N;RCG;LE?NMQCNBFIQ?L@;L?M<?NN?LM?LPC=?;H>>CACN;FMIFONCIHM;MHIN;<F?
?R;GJF?M&HJL;=NC=?2<?LmMG;MMCP?MOJJFSI@P?HNOL?=;JCN;FB;M?H;<F?>NB?
=IGJ;HSNIMO<MC>CT?NB?@;L?MA?NNCHANB?J;MM?HA?LMIH<I;L>QCNBCNM<OMCH?MM
GI>?F;H>@ILACHA;JIN?HN=IHMOG?Lj=IGJ;HS=I;FCNCIH;A;CHMNnIF>@;MBCIH?>o
L?AOF;NCIHM/;BG;H1B?F?H1B?F?H1IQ;L>MNB?AI;FI@M;NCM@SCHA
=OMNIG?LM;HINB?LPCN;FMNL;N?ASCM?HMOLCHANB;NNB?L?;L?>LCP?LM;P;CF;<F?NIJC=E
OJJ;MM?HA?LMj;N;HSNCG?;H>CH;HSJF;=?1B?=IGJ;HSNBOMnrFII>MNB?=CL=OCNo
FII>QILNBJONNCHAGIL?>LCP?LMIHNB?LI;>NB;HQB;NCMH?=?MM;LSNI
?KOCFC<L;N?NB?>?G;H>,P?LJIJOF;NCHANB?MOJJFSMC>?H?=?MMCN;N?M;F;LA?JIIFI@
>LCP?LM@ILQBIG2<?LmMMNL;N?ASI@nrFII>CHANB?=CL=OCNo=L?;N?M;MCAHCrC=;HN
;GIOHNI@NCG?MJ?HNQ;CNCHAMNB?2<?L>LCP?LM;L?JLCG;LCFSJ;C>IH=IGGCMMCIH
NB?CLC>F?NCG?CMHIN;JLI<F?G@ILNB?=IGJ;HSNB?>LCP?LMBIQ?P?LJ;SNB?JLC=?
I@NIIFIQ>?G;H>
4BCF?NB?JF;N@ILGGI>?FL;CM?MMJ?=CrC=CMMO?M=IH=?LHCHAQILE?LMmLCABNMQILECHA
?HPCLIHG?HN;H>J;SNB?M?B;P?HIN<??HJLIGCH?HNNB?G?MCHNB?JIFCNC=;F
JLI=?MM?MNIQ;L>MN;RCG;LE?N>?L?AOF;NCIH1B?H;NCIH;FN;RC;MMI=C;NCIHMQBC=B
ILA;HCT?NB?FC=?H=?BIF>?LMB;P?PIC=?>NB?CH>OMNLSL?MJIHM? <ONNB?JLIJIH?HNM
B;P?>CMGCMM?>NB?CL;LAOG?HNM;M;H?@@ILNNIFCGCN=IGJ?NCNCIH1B?L?B;P?<??H
HIMCAHCrC=;HN?@@ILNMNIQ;L>MILA;HCTCHA2<?L>LCP?LMJ;LNFS>O?NINB?CFF?A;FCNSI@
NB?=IGJ;HSmMIJ?L;NCIHMJL?>?L?AOF;NCIH;H>J;LNFS>O?NINB?>C@rC=OFNC?MCH
ILA;HCTCHANBCMALIOJI@QILE?LM,JJ?A;;L>?N;F&H;>>CNCIHNB?N;RC
>LCP?LMmQILECHA=IH>CNCIHMJL?2<?L>?L?AOF;NCIHMQ?L?;FMIJLI<F?G;NC=QCNBFIQ
;H>OHJL?>C=N;<F?Q;A?M;H>FIHAQILECHABIOLM'?HM?H?N;F
1B?F?HL?G;LEMNB;NNB?JIFCNC=MI@2<?LCHNB?2HCN?>0N;N?M=;H
JLCG;LCFS<?=B;L;=N?LCT?>;M;F?A;F<;NNF?=;LLC?>IONCH=IOLNM&HNB?2HCN?>
0N;N?M;MQ?FF;MCHNB?2HCN?>(CHA>IG>LCP?LMB;P?<LIOABNGCM=F;MMCrC=;NCIH
CMMO?MNI=IOLNj;H;=NCIHQ?B;P?HINS?NM??HCH;HS+IL>C==IOHNLS4BCF?NB?
=IOLN>?=CMCIHMB;P?AIH?<INBQ;SMCHNB?2HCN?>0N;N?M-L;MMF<HI@?>?L;F
LOFCHAMB;P?<??HN;E?HQCNBJL?DO>C=?#O?FF?><SCNMG;MMCP?P?HNOL?=;JCN;F
L?M?LPICLM2<?LmMMNL;N?ASCMNI;JJ?;F?P?LS>?=CMCIH;LAOCHANB;NNB?>LCP?LM;L?
2<?LmM?GJFIS??ML;NB?LNB;HCH>?J?H>?HN=IHNL;=NILM&H2<?LFIMNCNM;JJ?;F
I@;LOFCHACHNB?2(?GJFISG?HNNLC<OH;F<ONNB?=IGJ;HS;JJ?;F?>;A;CH
NBCMNCG?NINB?0OJL?G? IOLNFNBIOABHIGCM=F;MMCrC=;NCIH=;M?MB;P?<??H
<LIOABNNI=IOLNCHNB?+IL>C==IOHNLC?MNB?=IOLNMB;P?H?P?LNB?F?MMJF;S?>;
MCAHCrC=;HNLIF?CH2<?LmM+IL>C=;>P?HNOL?MCH=F;LC@SCHANB?FC=?H=?L?KOCL?G?HNM;H>
NB?CFF?A;FCNSI@2<?L-IJCH;FFNB?=IOHNLC?M
 1B?OHCIHCT;NCIHL;N?;GIHAN;RC
>LCP?LM
CMP?LSFIQ'?HM?H?N;F


3.3.3 Political will
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=;N?LCHANINB?CLOL<;H;H>nGCFF?HHC;FoPIN?L<;M?MOJJILN2<?L;M;nJLIAL?MMCP?o
;H>nCHHIP;NCP?oJB?HIG?HIH4BCF?G?LC=;HNL;>?OHCIHMB;P?<??H=LCNC=;FI@
2<?LNB?SF;=ENB?CHrFO?H=?NI<?;>?=CMCP?PIC=?CHNB?JIFCNC=MI@2<?LCHNB?
2HCN?>0N;N?M1B?F?H&HNB?+IL>C=MNIINB?L?B;M<??HL?F;NCP?FS<LI;>
JIFCNC=;FMOJJILN@IL2<?LjJLCG;LCFSBIQ?P?L;M;G?;HMI@rCRCHANB?lG;LE?N
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L?AOF;N?CH>OMNLC?MI@JO<FC=CGJILN;H=?
4BCF?NB?L?;L?CGJILN;HNCHMNCNONCIH;F>C@@?L?H=?M<?NQ??HNB?+IL>C==IOHNLC?M
H>?LM?H?N;F;@OH>;G?HN;F@;=NILCHOH>?LMN;H>CHA2<?LmMNL;D?=NILSCH
NB?+IL>C=N;RCG;LE?N>?L?AOF;NCIHMCMJIFCNC=;FQCFF&H;FFNB?=IOHNLC?M;
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PIN?MQ?L?A;NB?L?>NIL?GIP?NB?P?BC=F??KOCJG?HN=LCN?LC;&H!?HG;LENB?L?
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GI>?F IHM?KO?HNFS2<?L>CM=IHNCHO?>CNMN;RCM?LPC=?IJ?L;NCIHMCHNB?=IOHNLS
#CHF;H>IHNB?INB?LB;H>CMNB?+IL>C==IOHNLSQB?L?2<?LmM?HNL;H=?JLIPIE?>NB?
@;MN?MN;H>GIMNL;>C=;F>?L?AOF;NCIH?@@?=NCP?FS=L?;NCHA;N;RCG;LE?N@OFFS
;>DOMN?>NI2<?LmMGI>?F1B?+ILQ?AC;H>?L?AOF;NCIHQCFF<?CGJF?G?HN?>IH'OFS
;MNB?L?MOFNI@;JIFCNC=;FJLI=?MMNB;N<?A;HQCNBNB?n0B;LCHA
"=IHIGSoL?JILN+,2<ONNL?MM?><S>CMM;NCM@;=NCIHQCNBNB?n?@rC=C?H=SoI@
NB?N;RCG;LE?NC?NB?N;RC@;L?M&HNBCM=IHN?RN0Q?>?HmM?;LFS>?L?AOF;NCIH
G;E?MCNNB?I>>G;HION+?P?LNB?F?MMNB?=OLL?HNAIP?LHG?HNmM=IGGCNG?HNNI
@;=CFCN;NCHAnCHHIP;NCIHoCHNB?NL;HMJILN;NCIHM?=NILL?MOFN?>CHNB??MN;<FCMBG?HNI@
;nH?Q=;N?AILSI@N;RCMoj=;LJIIFCHAoj?R?GJN?>@LIGNB?N;RCG?N?L
L?KOCL?G?HNMNI<?=IGJF?N?FSCGJF?G?HN?>@LIG';HO;LS
3.3.4 Conclusion
&H;FFNB?+IL>C==IOHNLC?M2<?LmM?HNL;H=?CH>O=?>;G?H>G?HNMNINB?=IOHNLC?Mm
N;RCL?AOF;NCIH IG<CH?>QCNB;
JIFCNC=;FQCFF
NI>?L?AOF;N?NB?CH>OMNLSNB?
NL;HMJILN;NCIHJF;N@ILGmML?AOF;NILS?HNL?JL?H?OLMBCJL?MOFN?>CHNB?L?GIP;FI@
G?;HMN?MNCHA;H>HOG?LC=;FL?MNLC=NCIHMIHN;RCFC=?H=?MCH!?HG;LE#CHF;H>;H>
+ILQ;SQBCF?NB?0Q?>CMBM?=NILQ;M>?L?AOF;N?>CHFNBIOABNB??HNLS
<;LLC?LMNINB?+IL>C=N;RCG;LE?NMJLIPC>?>2<?LQCNB>C@rC=OFNC?MQB?H?HN?LCHANB?
G;LE?NMJ;LNC=OF;LFSCHNB?@ILGI@F?A;FJLIM?=ONCIHI@>LCP?LMJLCP;N?BCL?P?BC=F?
FC=?H=?MCH#CHF;H>;H>+ILQ;S?H;<F?>2<?LNI=IHNCHO?IJ?L;NCHA;@N?L2<?L-IJ
Q;M>CM=IHNCHO?>&H<INBNB?M?=IOHNLC?MBIQ?P?L;JLI=?MMI@>?L?AOF;NCIHQ;M
JLIGJN?><S2<?LmM;LLCP;FjCH#CHF;H>CGJF?G?HN?>CH'OFS;H>CH+ILQ;SCH
'OFS&H!?HG;LENB?>?L?AOF;NCIHI@N;RCFC=?H=?MQ;MHIN?HIOAB@IL2<?LNI
L?G;CH;MNB?H?Q!;HCMBL?AOF;NCIHMNCFFL?KOCL?>N;RCMNI<??KOCJJ?>QCNB
N;RCG?N?LMM?;NM?HMILM;H>PC>?IMOLP?CFF;H=?FNBIOAB;FL?;>S>?L?AOF;N?>NB?
0Q?>CMBN;RCG;LE?NL?AOF;NCIHMQCFF<?@OLNB?L>?L?AOF;N?>>O?NI2<?LmM?HNL;H=?


CHNB?=IOHNLSNBLIOABNB?=L?;NCIHI@;H?Q=;N?AILSI@J;MM?HA?LNL;HMJILN;NCIH
l=;LJIIFCHAm?R?GJN?>@LIGNB?N;RCG?N?LL?KOCL?G?HN%?H=?NB?L?MNLC=NCIHMIH
N;RCFC=?H=?MMBIOF>HIN<?M??H;MNB?<CAA?MNI<MN;=F?@;=?><S2<?LCHNB?+IL>C=M
;MrCLMNNB?=IGJ;HSQ;M;<F?NIOM?INB?LFC=?H=?M;H>M?=IH>HOG?LC=;F
FCGCN;NCIHMQ;ML?F;NCP?FS?;MCFSL?GIP?>CH;FF=IOHNLC?M;H>>C>HINH?=?MM;LCFS
L?MOFNCH;JLIFC@?L;NCIHI@2<?LMNSF?N;RC;LL;HA?G?HNM
"P?HNBIOAB;FFNB?N;RCG;LE?NMQ?L?>?L?AOF;N?>JIMN2<?LL?AOF;NCIHCH
!?HG;LE#CHF;H>+ILQ;S;H>0Q?>?HMNCFFL?KOCL?MN;RCIJ?L;NILMNII<N;CH;N;RC
FC=?H=?,<N;CHCHAN;RCFC=?H=?MB;MILQCFF<?=IG??;MC?LCH>C=;NCHA;>?
JLI@?MMCIH;FCT;NCIHI@NB?N;RCCH>OMNLS%IQ?P?LNB?G;CHN?H;H=?I@NB?N;RCFC=?H=?
L?KOCL?G?HN;FMIMOAA?MNMCH;M?HM?;JLI@?MMCIH;FCT;NCIHI@2<?L>LCPCHA2<?L
>LCP?LMQCFFMNCFFB;P?NI;JJFS@IL<INBN;RCFC=?H=?;H>JLI@?MMCIH;FFC=?H=?;H>@OFrCF
NB?=LCN?LC;;FNBIOABNB?S;L?GCHCG;F&H;>>CNCIH2<?L>LCP?LMGOMN@OFrCFNB?
=IGJ;HSmMIQH=LCN?LC;@IL<?=IGCHA;H2<?L>LCP?L1BCMNL;HM@?LI@L?AOF;NILS
;ONBILCNS@LIGAIP?LHG?HNMNINB?JF;N@ILGCM;HCGJILN;HN;MJ?=NI@NB?
>?L?AOF;NCIHI@NB?+IL>C=N;RCG;LE?NM4BCF?AIP?LHG?HNMQCFFHIFIHA?L=IHNLIF
NB?MOJJFSI@N;RCMHILNB?@;L?M2<?LmMJF;N@ILG>?N?LGCH?MNB?JLC=?I@;LC>?;H>
NBOMNB?>LCP?LMmQ;A?M;H>?H;<F?MNB?L;NCHA;H>JIN?HNC;Fn>?;=NCP;NCIHojC?
rCLCHAjI@>LCP?LM1B?H?QN;RCG;LE?NL?AOF;NCIHMmB;H>MI@@;JJLI;=BNBOM;FFIQM
2<?L;H>INB?LJF;N@ILGMNI>C=N;N?>LCP?LMmQILECHA=IH>CNCIHMNI;AL?;N?L?RN?HN
3.4 Working as an Uber driver in Oslo and Helsinki
&HNBCM=B;JN?LQ??RJFIL?QILECHA=IH>CNCIHMI@2<?L>LCP?LMCH,MFI;H>%?FMCHEC
JIMN>?L?AOF;NCIH;H>NB?CL;NNCNO>?MNIQ;L>MNB?QILE1B?=IGJ;HSI@@?LM
>C@@?L?HNM?LPC=?MCHNB?NQI=IOHNLC?M;H>QBCF?NB?CH@ILG;HNMCH%?FMCHEC>LCP?@IL
2<?L5NB?CH@ILG;HNMCH,MFIQILE@IL2<?LF;=E2<?L5CH#CHF;H>;FFIQMFC=?HM?>
>LCP?LMNI>LCP?@IL2<?LOMCHANB?CLJLCP;N?=;L2<?L>I?MHIN?GJFISNB?M?>LCP?LM
<ON=IHMC>?LMNB?GCH>?J?H>?HN=IHNL;=NILM&H,MFI2<?LF;=ECMILA;HCT?>
NBLIOABFCGIOMCH?=IGJ;HC?MNB;NIQHL?F;NCP?FSFOROLCIOM=;LM1B?M?=;LM;L?
FC=?HM?>QCNB;FCGIOMCH?M?LPC=?IJ?L;NILFC=?H=?&H=IHNL;MNNINB?CL=IFF?;AO?M
QILECHANBLIOABINB?L2<?LM?LPC=?MNB?2<?LF;=E>LCP?LMCH,MFI;L??GJFIS??Mj
HINBIQ?P?LI@2<?L>CL?=NFS<ONI@NB?FCGIOMCH?=IGJ;HC?M@OH=NCIHCHA;M
CHN?LG?>C;LC?M<?NQ??H2<?L;H>NB?>LCP?LM
4BCF?NB?#CHHCMB=;M?CM<;M?>IHNBL??CH>?JNBCHN?LPC?QMQCNB2<?L5>LCP?LM;H>
IH?CHN?LPC?QQCNB;L?JL?M?HN;NCP?I@NB?"MNIHC;HN;RCJF;N@ILGIFN@ILG?LFS
1;RC@S=IH>O=N?>CHNB?MJLCHAI@NB?+ILQ?AC;H=;M?CM<;M?>IHMBILN
CHN?LPC?QMQCNB2<?LF;=E>LCP?LMCH,MFI=IH>O=N?><?NQ??H*;L=B;H>
'OH? 1B?NQI=;M?M>C@@?LCHNB?M?LPC=?MNO>C?>NB?FI=;FN;RCG;LE?N
L?AOF;NCIH;H>NB?MNILC?MNB?2<?L>LCP?LMN?FFQBC=BCFFOMNL;N?MNB?CGJILN;H=?I@
=IHN?RN@ILOH>?LMN;H>CHA;=IGJ;HSMO=B;M2<?L4BCF?NB?H;LL;NCP?JL?M?HN?><S
NB?2<?L>LCP?LMCH%?FMCHECCMNB;N>LCPCHA@IL2<?LCM;AII>Q;SNI?;LHCH=IG?
QBCF?;FMI>LCPCHA@ILINB?LN;RC=IGJ;HC?MNB?,MFI<;M?>2<?LF;=E>LCP?LMJ;CHN
;ALCGG?LJC=NOL?
 1B?M?=NCIHIH2<?L>LCP?LMCH,MFICM<;M?>IH,JJ?A;;L>mMG;MN?LmMNB?MCM,JJ?A;;L>


3.4.1 Working as an Uber X driver in Helsinki: the story of an Uber driver
&HNB?@IFFIQCHAQ?MNO>SNB?=;M?I@2<?LCH%?FMCHEC#CHF;H>;H>?RJFIL?NB?
QILECHA=IH>CNCIHM;H>QILE;NNCNO>?MI@2<?L>LCP?LMCH#CHF;H>#CLMNQ?N?FFnNB?
MNILSI@;H2<?L>LCP?Lo<S=IH=?HNL;NCHAGIMNFSIHIOLCHN?LPC?QQCNB!LCP?L4?
OM?CN;M;n=IL?MNILSo;H>NB?H?HLC=BCN<S=IGJ;LCHACNQCNBINB?L>LCP?L
CHN?LPC?QML?@?LL?>NI;Mn!LCP?Lo;H>n!LCP?Lo&HNB?@IFFIQCHAQ?>?M=LC<?NB?
JLI=?MMI@<?=IGCHA;H2<?L>LCP?LCH#CHF;H>NB?CLQILECHA=IH>CNCIHM;H>NB?CL
OH>?LMN;H>CHAI@NB?CLIQHQILE;M2<?L>LCP?LM1B?;H;FSMCMCM<;M?>IHNBL??CH
>?JNBCHN?LPC?QMQCNB2<?L5>LCP?LM;MQ?FF;MIH?CHN?LPC?QQCNB;L?JL?M?HN;NCP?
I@NB?N;RCJF;N@ILGIFN1B?CH@ILG;HNMQ?L?L?=LOCN?>OMCHANB?MHIQ<;FFG?NBI>
C?;NNB??H>I@?;=BCHN?LPC?QQ?;ME?>;<IONINB?L>LCP?LMQBIGCABN<?QCFFCHA
NI<?CHN?LPC?Q?>1B?CH@ILG;HNMQ?L?;FF#CHHCMBGC>>F?;A?>;H>G;F?;H>KOCN?
L?JL?M?HN;NCP?I@#CHHCMBN;RC>LCP?LM
?=IGCHA;H2<?L5>LCP?L
!LCP?L<?=;G?;H2<?L>LCP?LMBILNFS;@N?LNB?=IGJ;HSL?F;OH=B?>CH#CHF;H>CH
'OFS%CMGINCP;NCIH@IL>LCPCHA@IL2<?LQ;MNB;NB?H??>?>;J;LNNCG?DI<%?
>LCP?ML?F;NCP?FSFCNNF?IHFSNQIILNBL??>;SMJ?LQ??E1B?INB?L>LCP?LMB;>INB?L
GINCP;NCIHM!LCP?LQ;M<?NQ??HDI<MQB?HB?>?=C>?>NIQILE@IL2<?LB;PCHA
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3.4.2 Working as an Uber Black driver in Oslo
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NIIQH;HS;MM?NMjCH>??>2<?LB;M<??H>?M=LC<?>$II>QCH;MNB?QILF>mM
F;LA?MNN;RC=IGJ;HSQCNBION;HSP?BC=F?MIL?GJFIS??MA;CHNB?OM?I@FCGIOMCH?
=IGJ;HC?MMOJJFSCHA=;LMNI2<?LF;=ECH,MFI>C@@?L?HNC;N?MCN@LIGNB?
lNL;>CNCIH;Fo2<?L;LL;HA?G?HNMQCNBCHQBC=BNB?>LCP?LMNB?GM?FP?MJLIPC>?NB?
P?BC=F?M0NCFF2<?LG;H;A?MNIFCGCNCNML?MJIHMC<CFCNC?M;H>LCMEM<S<;MCHANB?CL
IJ?L;NCIHIHNB?rCR?>=;JCN;FI@INB?LM
4BI;L?NB?2<?LF;=E>LCP?LM
1B?nC>?;FNSJC=;Fo2<?LF;=E>LCP?LCH,MFI=;H<?;M=LC<?>QCNBNBL??
=B;L;=N?LCMNC=M#CLMN;MC>?@LIG;MG;FFALIOJI@H;NCP?+ILQ?AC;H>LCP?LMNB;N
B;P?QILE?>CHNB?FCGIOMCH?<OMCH?MM@ILG;HSS?;LM2<?LF;=E>LCP?LM;L?
JLCG;LCFSI@;H?NBHC=GCHILCNS<;=EALIOH>GIMNB;PCHAGCAL;N?>NI+ILQ;S
L?F;NCP?FSL?=?HNFS0?=IH>NB?M?>LCP?LMOMO;FFS=;G?NI2<?L@LIGFIQJ;C>;H>
JBSMC=;FFS>?G;H>CHADI<MI@N?HMNLOAAFCHANII<N;CHJ?LG;H?HN?GJFISG?HN*;HS
B;><??H?GJFIS?>NBLIOABN?GJIL;LSQILE;A?H=C?MCHG;HO@;=NOLCHA;H>
=IHMNLO=NCIHILNB?M?LPC=?M?=NILQBCF?INB?LMGCAL;N?>NI2<?LF;=E;@N?L2<?L
-IJQ;M>CM=IHNCHO?>FNBIOAB;<F?<I>C?>;H>I@N?HQCNB?>O=;NCIH;F=L?>?HNC;FM
NB?SMO@@?L?>n?NBHC=J?H;FNC?Mo*C>N<g?HNB;NJL?P?HN?>NB?G@LIG
=;JCN;FCTCHAIHNB?CLMECFFMCHNB?+ILQ?AC;HF;<IOLG;LE?N&H+ILQ;SNB?L?;L?
L?F;NCP?FS@?QDI<M;P;CF;<F?@ILQILE?LMQCNBFCNNF?EHIQF?>A?I@NB?+ILQ?AC;H
F;HAO;A?jNB?N;RCCH>OMNLSCHJ;LNC=OF;LCM;HIN;<F??R=?JNCIHLIR1BCL>
NB?>LCP?LMJ?L=?CP?2<?L;M;HIJJILNOHCNSNIQILEGIL?rF?RC<F?BIOLMCH
=IG@ILN;<F?QILECHA=IH>CNCIHM0CNNCHACHMC>?FOROLCIOM=;LM>LCPCHAJ;MM?HA?LMNB?S
;LAO?CM<?NN?LNB;HQILECHACH=IHMNLO=NCIH,JJ?A;;L>
==IL>CHANIFMIM?N;FjNB?L?Q?L?2<?L-IJ>LCP?LMCH,MFICH
I@QBIG;G;DILCNSB;>H;G?MCH>C=;NCHA?NBHC=GCHILCNSMN;NOM);LA?
JLIJILNCIHMI@CGGCAL;HNMQILECHA;M2<?L>LCP?LM;L?;FMI@IOH>CHINB?L=IOHNLC?M
;MQ?FF;MQILECHANBLIOABINB?LJF;N@ILGM/IM?H<F;N3??H?N;F
IHNL;LSNINB?LIG;HNC=CT?>CG;A?I@@L??>IG;H>rF?RC<CFCNS=OL;N?><S2<?L
/IM?H<F;N0N;LE<?=IGCHA;H2<?LF;=E>LCP?LCH,MFICM;=BIC=?>LCP?H<S
H?=?MMCNSMIH?I@NB?>LCP?LMMN;N?Mn&DOMNH??>?>;DI<&B;P?FCP?>CH+ILQ;S@IL
MCRS?;LM;H>&B;P?M?HNG;S<?NBL??DI<;JJFC=;NCIHM?P?LSGIHNBMCH=?&=;G?;H>
NBCMCMNB?DI<&AINo&NCMBIQ?P?LCGJILN;HNNIE??JCHGCH>NB;NNB?NL;>CNCIH;FN;RC
CH>OMNLSL?=LOCNMF;<IOL@LIGNB?M;G?M?AG?HNI@NB?F;<IOLG;LE?N;M2<?LM??
'?HM?H?N;F
FAILCNBGC=G;H;A?G?HN
&HA?H?L;F2<?L@ILG;FFS;FFIQMNB?>LCP?LMNI=BIIM?BIQGO=BNB?SQ;HNNIQILE
<ONNBCM;LL;HA?G?HNH?=?MMCN;N?M;@ILGI@=IHNLIFNB;N?HMOL?MNB;NNB?>LCP?LM
JLIPC>?NB?CLF;<IOLQB?H;H>QB?L?NB?S;L?H??>?>2<?LmMJF;N@ILGB;M<??H
=B;L;=N?LCT?>;M;@ILGI@n;FAILCNBGC=G;H;A?G?HNo)???N;F;>CACN;F
CH@L;MNLO=NOL?NB;NL?AOF;N?MNB?F;<IOLJLI=?MM;H>NB?LOF?M>LCP?LMGOMN@IFFIQ
7SMG;H(?HH?S1BCMCM;H?R;GJF?I@;H;ONIG;NCIHI@NB??GJFIS?L
@OH=NCIHQB?L?>?=CMCIHM=IH=?LHCHANB?F;<IOLMOJJFS;H>=IHNLIF;L?J?L@ILG?>
NBLIOABIL?P?H<SNB?>CACN;FCH@L;MNLO=NOL?I@NB?JF;N@ILG'?MH?M1B?
NBL??@IFFIQCHAN?=BHCKO?M?H;<F?2<?LNIILA;HCT?NB?>LCP?LMmF;<IOLJLI=?MMNB?
L;NCHAMSMN?G>SH;GC=JLC=CHA;H>;FAILCNBGC=N;ME;MMCAHG?HN)???N;F
,JJ?A;;L>1B?M?N?=BHCKO?MAOC>?NB?>LCP?LMNBLIOABNB?JLI=?MMI@
>?FCP?LCHALC>?MG;ECHANB?IJ?L;NCIH@OH=NCIHCH>?J?H>?HNFSI@NB?QILE?LMmMECFFM
;H>EHIQF?>A?;H>L?H>?LCHANB?G?;MCFSCHN?L=B;HA?;<F?&HNB?@IFFIQCHAQ?


>CM=OMMNB?@OH=NCIHI@2<?LmM;FAILCNBGC=G;H;A?G?HN;H>BIQNB?M?N?=BHCKO?M
;L??RJ?LC?H=?><SNB?2<?LF;=E>LCP?LMCH,MFI
The rating system: 2<?LmML;NCHAMSMN?G;FFIQM>LCP?LM;H>J;MM?HA?LMNIL;N??;=B
INB?L@LIGIH?NIrCP?MN;LM;@N?L?;=BLC>?!LCP?LM=IHMCMN?HNFSL?=?CPCHAnFIQo
L;NCHAM<?FIQ;HOH>CM=FIM?>NBL?MBIF>G;S<?>?;=NCP;N?><S2<?L2<?LH>>
<ONNB?HILGj@IL>LCP?LM;H>J;MM?HA?LM;FCE?jCMNIACP?rCP?MN;LM#ILGIMN2<?L
F;=E>LCP?LMCH,MFICNCMHIN>C@rC=OFNNIG;CHN;CHBCABL;NCHAMOMO;FFSIL
MN;LMIH;P?L;A?;H>NB?>LCP?LMMN;N?NB;NNB?SL?=?CP?L?KO?MNMCH>?J?H>?HNFSI@
NB?CLL;NCHA,HNB?INB?LB;H>NB?HILGI@L?=?CPCHArCP?MN;LL;NCHAMG;E?M;HS
>?PC;NCIH@LIGNBCM;MNL?MM@OF;H>@LOMNL;NCHA?RJ?LC?H=? B;H==IL>CHANI
NB?2<?LF;=E>LCP?LMCHN?LPC?Q?>NB?JIMMC<CFCNSI@<?CHAn>?;=NCP;N?>o;FMIG;E?M
NB?GJ;LNC=OF;LFSNIF?L;HNNIQ;L>MJ;MM?HA?LMm<?B;PCIOL;MNB?J;MM?HA?LMm
?P;FO;NCIHI@NB?>LCP?LMCMNB?MIF?G?;MOL?I@NB?KO;FCNSI@NB?M?LPC=?JLIPC>?>
==IL>CHANI%INP?>NNB?L;NCHAMSMN?G;H>JIN?HNC;Fn>?;=NCP;NCIHoI@
>LCP?LMCMIH?I@NB?@;=NILMCH>C=;NCHANB;NNB?2<?L-IJ>LCP?LMm=IHNL;=NMG;S
?HN;CF;H?GJFIS?Lj?GJFIS??L?F;NCIHMBCJC@NLC?>CH=IOLN&HNB?=;M?I@2<?LF;=E
IHNB?INB?LB;H>QB?L?NB?>LCP?LM;L?=F;MMCrC?>;M?GJFIS??MCHNB?FCGIOMCH?
=IGJ;HC?MCNCMHIN=?LN;CHNB;Nn>?;=NCP;NCHAojILrCLCHAj>LCP?LM<;M?>IHFIQ
;P?L;A?L;NCHAMQIOF><?=IHMC>?L?>;@;=NO;FL?;MIH@IL>CMGCMM;F
Dynamic pricing: 2<?LmM>SH;GC=JLC=CHAM=B?G?L?@?LL?>NI;MnMOLA?JLC=CHAoM?NM
BCAB?L@;L?MCHMJ?=CrC=;L?;M>OLCHAJ?LCI>MQB?HNB?>?G;H>@ILLC>?MCMBCAB
GOFNCJFSCHANB?@;L?<S?N=?N?L;NInGINCP;N?o>LCP?LMNIMOJJFSNB?CL
F;<IOLJIQ?LQB?H;H>QB?L?NB?CLM?LPC=?M;L?CH>?G;H> B?H?N;F#IL
NB?>LCP?LMMOLA?ML?JL?M?HN;Q?F=IG?IJJILNOHCNSNICH=L?;M?NB?CLINB?LQCM?FIQ
?;LHCHAM<ONNB?S@??FNB?G?=B;HCMGM>LCPCHANB?JLC=?CH=L?;M?;L?MIG?QB;N
GSMN?LCIOM0OLA?M;L?L?F;NCP?FSL;L?@IL2<?LF;=ECH,MFI;H>JLCG;LCFS=IG?CHNI
?@@?=NIHQ??E?H>HCABNM#OLNB?LGIL?NB?>SH;GC=JLC=CHAMSMN?G>?N?LGCH?MNB?
>LCP?LMm?;LHCHAML?H>?LCHAQ;A?H?AINC;NCIHMj;=IL?JLCH=CJF?I@NB?+IL>C=
GI>?FMjCGJIMMC<F?!gFPCE'?MH?M
Algorithmic task assignment: 2<?LmMJF;N@ILG;MMCAHMJ;MM?HA?LMmLC>?L?KO?MNMNI
NB?>LCP?LMQBIB;P?M?=IH>MNI;==?JNIL>?=FCH?!?=FCHCHA;L?KO?MNCM;
@IL?CAH=IH=?JNNIGIMN2<?LF;=E>LCP?LMCH,MFI;MNB?S;L?J;C>IH=IGGCMMCIH
;H>>?J?H>?HNIHM?LPCHA;MG;HS=OMNIG?LM;MJIMMC<F?NI?;LH;MNCFFF?MMNB;H
>?=?HNFCPCHA4B?HNB?SL?=?CP?;L?KO?MNNB?2<?L>LCP?LM;L?JLIPC>?>QCNB
CH@ILG;NCIH;<IONNB?J;MM?HA?LMmFI=;NCIHH;G?;H>;P?L;A?L;NCHA4BCF?NB?
>LCP?LM;L?CH@ILG?>C@NB?NLCJCM?MNCG;N?>NI<?FIHA?LNB;HGCHON?MNB?S
=;HHINM??NB?J;MM?HA?LMm>?MNCH;NCIHM==IL>CHANINB?>LCP?LMNBCM=;HG;E?CN
>C@rC=OFNNIJF;HNB?CLQILE>;S&@NB?SB;P?;>CL?=N<IIECHANBLIOABNB?FCGIOMCH?
=IGJ;HS;N;MJ?=CrC=NCG?NB?SGOMNMNIJ;==?JNCHAL?KO?MNM@LIG2<?L
J;MM?HA?LMIH?BIOL<?@IL?NI?HMOL?NB;NNB?S=;H;==IGGI>;N?NB?>CL?=N
<IIECHA#OLNB?LGIL?NB?=IG<CH;NCIHI@;FAILCNBGC=N;ME;MMCAHG?HN;H>
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;=NCIH,H?I@NB?L?;MIHMG;S<?NB?>LCP?LMmCMIF;NCIH1B?SP?LSM?F>IGG??N?;=B
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MCAHCrC=;HN=IMNNI2<?LNB?>LCP?LMm<;LA;CHCHAJIMCNCIHPCM]PCMNB?=IGJ;HSCM
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3.4.3 Comparing Uber drivers in Helsinki and Oslo
1B?L?;L?CGJILN;HN>C@@?L?H=?M<?NQ??HNB?MNILC?MNIF><SNB?2<?L>LCP?LMCH
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3.5 Conclusion
&HNBCM=B;JN?LQ?B;P?M??HNB;N2<?LB;M<??H;>LCP?LI@N;RCG;LE?N>?L?AOF;NCIH
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