Article

Doping control, providing whereabouts and the importance of privacy for elite athletes

March 2014
International Journal of Drug Policy 25(2):212-218

March 2014
25(2):212-218

DOI:10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.12.013

Authors:

Ivo Van Hilvoorde

Windesheim University

“Doing What Is Right and Doing It Right”: A Mapping Review of Athletes' Perception of Anti-Doping Legitimacy

Article

Oct 2020
INT J DRUG POLICY

Background The creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999 and the first implementation of the Anti-Doping Code in 2004 established institutional and legal level legitimacy for the anti-doping movement. Subsequently, a distinct line of research examining athletes’ perceptions of anti-doping has emerged. This study aims to review the literature on legitimacy via athletes’ perceptions of the underpinning values, fairness and effectiveness of anti-doping rules and procedures. Methods A systematic mapping review with computerised literature search of seven databases (EBSCOHost, PubMed, Ingenta, ScienceDirect, SCOPUS, SPORTDiscuss and Google Scholar) was used, followed by hand-search of reference lists and relevant journals. Based on Tyler's (2006) psychological components of legitimacy (proper, just, and appropriate), a bespoke conceptual map and analytical framework was developed and employed for retrospective categorisation. Results Thirty-nine studies representing 15,434 participants met the inclusion criteria. About half of the eligible studies discussed legitimacy components without identifying them as such. Identification of studies for legitimacy concepts faced considerable ambiguity in measures and interpretation, particularly in distinguishing between elements of being ‘just’ and ‘appropriate’. Single focus on one aspect was rare but only 11 of the 39 studies included all three elements of perceived legitimacy. Overall, athletes agreed that anti-doping is ‘doing the right thing’ to protect clean sport but their views differed on whether the existing anti-doping system is effective and implemented fairly (i.e., ‘doing anti-doping in a right way’). Owing to the ad hoc measurements and diverse methodology, quantitative meta-analysis was not feasible. Conclusion Legitimacy is an important concept in anti-doping. Attention to globally equal and fair implementation of testing and sanctioning is warranted. Legitimacy perceptions can be improved by better communication from anti-doping organisations to highlight progress with detection, greater transparency and explicit support for athletes who were affected by doping. Future research requires standardised conceptual framework and measures.

Anti-doping - a legitimate effort? Elite athletes' perspectives on policy and practice

Thesis

Full-text available

Feb 2019

Anna Qvarfordt

Abstract The global anti-doping enterprise in sport is a comprehensive system in which the athlete is at the centre of regulation, scrutiny and control. There is limited knowledge about the implications of this extensive control system for athletes and about how athletes perceive the system; little is known about possible consequences of these implications and perceptions for the legitimacy of the system. The overall aim of this thesis is to analyse the legitimacy of global anti-doping policy and practice from the perspectives of international elite athletes. Four articles are included in this compilation thesis. The first illustrates, based on a discourse analytical approach, how claims for legitimacy of the anti-doping system are produced in policy documents aimed at athletes. The second explores the perceptions and legitimacy of anti-doping policy and practice through a survey aimed at elite athletes in different sports and from different regions of the world. The third article examines, through an interview study, how athletes in different contexts experience the practice of anti-doping and what consequences this may have for the system’s legitimacy. The interview study was also the basis for the fourth article, focusing on the athletes’ experiences and perceptions of their opportunities for compliance and how this is related to their view of the system’s legitimacy. Using the four articles as a basis, the analysis of legitimacy within the anti-doping system is expanded in the thesis through an overarching analytical framework inspired by David Beetham. The results show that the legitimacy of the policy documents is based on essentially authoritative, but also rational, arguments for justifying the anti-doping enterprise. Elite athletes are generally in favour of anti-doping policy and the principle that doping should be prohibited. However, when the rules are implemented into practice, problems to do with lack of procedural justice arise which may have an impact on the system’s legitimacy. Procedures in the system are perceived as having a negative effect on sportspersons’ private life, and as ineffective and unequally implemented across the world; also, athletes have little influence over decision-making processes. Anti-doping practice is moreover perceived to cause structural inequalities due to inequality in access to technology, education and knowledge as well as supportive systems. Most athletes wish to comply with the rules, but many struggle with lack of control and have limited scope for taking responsibility regarding compliance with the doping rules. Even when athletes are dutiful and perform acts that confer legitimacy to the rules and the authorities, some experiences and perceptions could endanger the legitimacy of anti-doping, as seen in the overall legitimacy analysis of the thesis. Athletes’ perceptions of inequality, ineffectiveness and lack of leeway can be interpreted as a lack of rule conformity to the anti-doping authority. There also appears to be a lack of shared normative beliefs between sportspersons and the anti-doping authorities, as many athletes feel that their opinions are not taken into account. Decision-making processes that do not pay attention to the perceptions of those involved can result in a discrepancy between the rules and the norms. The international anti-doping system is a major international enterprise with comprehensive rules that need to be applied equally around the world, and that also need to be legitimated in different countries where athletes have different conditions to comply with the regulations. In this thesis, I have shown that these different conditions have consequences for the ability to comply with the rules and also for the application of the regulations. The far-reaching rules mean that procedures within the system are experienced as causing a number of negative consequences. I have shown that this poses a risk to the legitimacy of the system if these problems are not addressed.

Perception of the Current Anti-doping Regime – A Quantitative Study Among German Top-Level Cyclists and Track and Field Athletes

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2018

In recent years anti-doping organizations have implemented various measures to deter elite athletes from using performance-enhancing drugs. One of the main challenges in the fight against doping is that the effectiveness of these anti-doping measures is still unknown. Since the effectiveness of the measures depends primarily on the athletes’ perception, this study focuses on the following four objectives: (1) How effective do top-level athletes perceive individual anti-doping measures to be? (2) Are the results stable across different sports and (3) genders? (4) How can the anti-doping measures be structured into appropriate categories? To address these issues the perceived effectiveness of 14 anti-doping measures was surveyed among 146 top athletes from Germany (Cycling: N = 42; Athletics: N = 104) who are members of at least the National Testing Pool. Results reveal significant differences in the perceived effectiveness of the anti-doping measures. Improved diagnostics were considered to be the most effective remedy for doping, followed by increased bans and the implementation of an anti-doping law. In contrast, fines and a leniency program were considered significantly less effective. Second, with the exception of indirect detection methods and increased use of an Anti-Doping Administration and Management System, results were consistent across cyclists and track and field athletes. Third, no significant gender difference was observed. Finally, an exploratory factor analysis showed that all anti-doping measures can be classified into the three categories risk of detection (e.g., control frequency and efficiency), punishment (e.g., fines and bans) and communication (e.g., education program). The results of this study provide a guideline for future research and for anti-doping and sport organizations when developing strategies against doping and allocating their anti-doping budget.

Negotiating privacy. Athletes’ assessment and knowledge of the ADAMS

Article

Jul 2018

Elite athletes must comply with a complex system of controls in order to participate in international sports and competitions. The Anti-Doping Analysis Management System (ADAMS) is one of the control devices that subject athletes to a regime of control and surveillance. Anti-doping organisations (ADOs) and national and international sports federations, for example, make use of their whereabouts data for test planning and decision-making regarding test routines. Athletes’ participation is mandatory, otherwise they cannot take part in competitive sports. This, in return, means that they agree to have their privacy and that of others compromised. Thus, a tension exists between the fight against doping and the integrity of privacy. Through a qualitative study on doping, controls and control practices we have learned that athletes view ADAMS as a necessary nuisance, but we do not know what they actually know about the system. We conducted a survey among German elite athletes (summer and fall 2016) to further explore the usage routines of ADAMS, the athletes’ knowledge of the tool and their assessment of possible privacy infringements. A total of 523 German athletes registered in the Registered Testing Pool and National Testing Pool (N = 2,152) of the National Anti-Doping Agency of Germany, who provided us with a representative sample, took part. We found from the survey that athletes have rather contradictory views concerning ADAMS, and often little knowledge of the system as such and would (or know how to) engage in playing the system to avoid controls. Athletes generally voice strong feelings about privacy, while simultaneously accepting ADAMS despite the concerns raised. However, they want more transparency regarding the system and the fight against doping. We conclude our analysis with a discussion of ADAMS as a surveillance system that, by storing, processing and using data for the purpose of anti-doping measures, engages in social sorting among athletes and creates what we call spillover effects and apparent power asymmetries that have been established throughout the system. We argue for a new balance within the system of controls, in which athletes are to be treated as actors, i.e. equal stakeholders who take part in decision-making regarding the system, rather than simply users and clients of a control interface. It seems that ADAMS threatens athletes’ privacy and that of their social environment rather than guaranteeing fairness for them.

An (un)desirable trade of harms? How elite athletes might react to medically supervised ‘doping’ and their considerations of side-effects in this situation

Article

May 2018
INT J DRUG POLICY

Marie Overbye

Anti-doping and legitimacy: an international survey of elite athletes’ perceptions

Article

Full-text available

May 2016

Anti-doping work is a comprehensive enterprise that entails control and governance of elite athletes’ everyday lives. However, in policy-making regarding doping and anti-doping in elite sports, the athletes’ perspective has not been considered adequately. Focusing on elite athletes’ perceptions of anti-doping as both principle and praxis, the study aimed to analyse how these perceptions can be understood from a legitimacy perspective. A survey study involving 261 elite athletes from 51 different countries and four international sports federations was conducted. The results showed that the athletes did not question the legitimacy of the rules, but had concerns about the legitimacy of the way the rules and principles are enforced in practice, specifically with regard to matters of privacy, lack of efficiency and equal conditions as well as athletes’ involvement in the anti-doping work. The article describes how athletes’ perceptions of the legitimacy of anti-doping work constitute the basis for their willingness to follow regulations as well as a precondition for the work’s functionality and stability. In light of this finding, the article calls for the empowerment of athletes in anti-doping work.

Para sport and anti-doping: a study of Swedish Para athletes' experiences and perceptions

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2024

Introduction A well-functioning anti-doping system relies on being perceived by athletes as effective, fair, and practically feasible to implement. While research has highlighted the views of Olympic athletes on anti-doping over the past decade, the experiences and perceptions of Para athletes have not been extensively explored. The purpose of this study was to examine Swedish elite Para athletes' experiences and perceptions of the policy and practice of the anti-doping system. Methods A quantitative cross-sectional approach was used, with a web survey elaborated from a survey with Olympic athletes adjusted for Para athletes with physical, visual, and intellectual impairments. The sample consisted of 66 active Para athletes competing at national or international level (response rate 71%). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and differences between subgroups were examined Fisher's exact test. Thematic analysis was employed to analyze open-ended questions. Results Most of the respondents expressed a positive outlook on the anti-doping system, advocating for comprehensive efforts. A significant portion (35%) had not received anti-doping education, with those who did reporting increased confidence in avoiding unintentional doping. Despite their elite status, half of the respondents had not undergone doping control. Mistrust regarding the system's effectiveness and fairness was identified, with over half of the participants emphasizing the need for new technical solutions to enhance procedures specifically tailored for Para athletes. Discussion The athletes in this study advocate for a Para sports-focused approach in the anti-doping system, emphasizing equal testing opportunities, procedural adjustments for independence and privacy, and increased access to education. The findings illuminate the unique conditions faced by athletes with impairments within the anti-doping system, offering valuable insights for policymaking in the development of anti-doping strategies tailored to Para athletes and their various impairments.

Limitations and duties: elite athletes' perceptions of compliance with anti-doping rules

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2019
Sport Soc

The main purpose of this article is to examine how elite athletes perceive their own responsibilities and possibilities to be compliant with the anti-doping regulations, and to draw conclusions about what these perceptions mean in relation to the legitimacy of the anti-doping system. A qualitative research design, with interviews conducted with athletes globally, was employed to capture elite sportspersons' views on anti-doping policy and procedures. The analysis was based on a theoretical framework on legitimacy. The findings show that athletes' situation is characterized by limited information and a lack of leeway. At the same time, athletes find themselves obliged to be dutiful. We discuss the complex situation of simultaneously facing perceived limitations and duties, and consider the limits that athletes experience in relation to compliance, which may place the legitimacy of the anti-doping system at risk.

Attitude and practice of substance misuse and dietary supplements to improve performance in sport

Article

Jul 2019

Filomena Mazzeo

The knowledge of using performance-enhancing drugs and supplements is caused by psychological and social dynamics. Moreover, athletes used pharmaceuticals to improve their performance, which is commonly known as doping. Doping in sports is the “use of prohibited techniques and/or the assumption of prohibited substances by athletes in order to increase physical performances”. If an individual believes that capacity is not related to commitment, then they are more exposed to the use of performance-enhancing drugs. This misuse is ethically and legally incorrect. We will agree that sport is essentially under the current anti-doping campaign executed by a coordinated alliance between the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), law enforcement authorities and sports organizers. Doping is a public health issue and not simply a problem inside the professional sports community. Opinions are spreading in support of liberalization of doping. Some are based on the circumstances that currently the values of equality and health are not protected and, therefore, the liberalization of doping doesn’t result in a change in the current situation. Indeed, the prohibitionist attitude involves the search for substances and methods of administration increasingly dangerous. This review is a portrait of this issue and explores some arguments concerning various aspects of the problem.

Athletes’ perspectives on WADA and the code: a review and analysis

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2019

This article presents athletes’ perspective on the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and the Code (WADC). Following a brief historical overview on athletes’ view on doping controls, the article synthesizes existing empirical research on athletes’ attitudes with examples and quotes expressed through various media on both anti-doping and specific topics within WADA’s anti-doping framework. Although pockets of disconcert persist, the analysis shows that athletes generally express contentment with the current system and its ambitious aim to homogenise anti-doping efforts. However, athletes have also raised serious concerns on four specific issues, namely on a), the fair and consistent application of the rules for all athletes in a sport, b) the obligation to submit their whereabouts, c) the due processes when facing accusations of violations and d) the possibility for athletes to genuinely participate in the policy and decision making process. The chapter concludes with recommendations on how WADA could accommodate the athletes’ concerns.

Drugs in sport: Doping development and ethical analysis

Article

Jan 2018

Doping is a complex and ancient phenomenon considering the vast variety of substances, supplied through both legal and illegal trading routes, and the extensive connections between the people involved in the network. It occurs in elite athletes but also affects amateur athletes. Furthermore, it involves athletes’ friends and relatives, medical staff, managers, chemists, biologists and pharmacists, pharmaceutical industries, clandestine laboratories and criminal organizations. Over time, doping has shown a great ability to discover and always use new substances and appropriated the new scientific discoveries. Unfortunately, new discoveries for the human health have been used in distorted way by the athletes. In fact, the athletes may be able to use gene therapy to re-engineer their bodies for better performances. Drug dependence depends on several factors: the socio-environmental context of the subject and what effects have the substance in the body. The drug dependence could be connected to the indirect gratification.We will agree that sport is essentially under the current anti-doping campaign executed by a coordinated alliance between the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), law enforcement authorities, sports organizers and the media. Therefore, doping is a public health issue and not simply a problem inside the professional sports community. © 2019, DPTZK (Physical Education Pedagogues Association). All rights reserved.

Original Article Development of Doping in sports: overview and analysis

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2018

Doping is a public health issue and not simply a problem inside the professional sports community It is a complex and ancient phenomenon considering the vast variety of substances, supplied through both legal and illegal trading routes. It occurs in elite athletes but also affects amateur athletes and was generally considered as dangerous and unhealthy. Furthermore, it involves athletes' friends and relatives, medical staff, managers, chemists, biologists and pharmacists, pharmaceutical industries, clandestine laboratories and criminal organizations. Over time, doping has shown a great ability to discover and always use new substances and appropriated the new scientific discoveries. Unfortunately, new discoveries for the human health are been used in distorted way by the athletes. In fact, the athletes may be able to use gene therapy to re-engineer their bodies for better performances. Drug dependence depends on several factors: the socio-environmental context of the subject and what effects have the substance in the body. We will agree that sport is essentially under the current anti-doping campaign executed by a coordinated alliance between the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), law enforcement authorities, sports organizers and the media. This paper explores comprehensive description of the state of doping and its regulation in the modern Olympic Movement.

Geolocalisation of athletes for out-of-competition drug testing: Ethical considerations. Position statement by the WADA Ethics Panel

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2018

Through the widespread availability of location-identifying devices, geolocalisation could potentially be used to place athletes during out-of-competition testing. In light of this debate, the WADA Ethics Panel formulated the following questions: (1) should WADA and/or other sponsors consider funding such geolocalisation research projects?, (2) if successful, could they be proposed to athletes as a complementary device to Anti-Doping Administration and Management System to help geolocalisation and reduce the risk of missed tests? and (3) should such devices be offered on a voluntary basis, or is it conceivable that they would be made mandatory for all athletes in registered testing pools? In this position paper, the WADA Ethics Panel concludes that the use of geolocalisation could be useful in a research setting with the goal of understanding associations between genotype, phenotype and environment; however, it recognises that the use of geolocalisation as part of or as replacement of whereabouts rules is replete with ethical concerns. While benefits remain largely hypothetical and minimal, the potential invasion of privacy and the data security threats are real. Considering the impact on privacy, data security issues, the societal ramifications of offering such services and various pragmatic considerations, the WADA Ethics Panel concludes that at this time, the use of geolocalisation should neither be mandated as a tool for disclosing whereabouts nor implemented on a voluntary basis.

Deterrence by risk of detection? An inquiry into how elite athletes perceive the deterrent effect of the doping testing regime in their sport

Article

Mar 2017

Marie Overbye

Aims: A central paradigm of global anti-doping policy is detection-based deterrence, i.e. the risk of testing and exclusion from sport are effective doping deterrents. This paper investigates how elite athletes perceive the deterrent effect of the testing strategy in their sport and explores whether and how specific factors such as the frequency of testing influence athletes’ perceptions of testing as a deterrent. Methods: 645 Danish elite athletes completed a web-based questionnaire about their perceptions of testing efforts in their sport. Findings: 75% of the athletes considered the likelihood that a test would prove positive to be a deterrent. By contrast, only 40% found the risk of being selected for testing to be a deterrent. Athletes tested frequently and athletes from doping-risk sports were more likely to perceive testing as a deterrent. In total, 24% regarded neither the likelihood of testing nor detection as deterrents. 8% did not consider the likelihood of testing and detection nor the ban from sport as deterrents. Conclusions: Testing programmes – as a strategy to detect and deter doping – are no great deterrent for many athletes. The results highlight the limitations of detection-based deterrence and emphasise a need to give higher priority to additional prevention-orientated strategies. Recommondations are outlined.

Doping in sports: biomedical new developments

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2014

Doping in Italy: an analysis and its development

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2015

Doping in Italy: An Analysis of its Spread in Ten Years

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2016

Aim: Doping affects the sport. Its explosive spread has triggered the response of sports' and government's institutions. The aims of this study were to know the spread of doping in Italy, what were the most used substances and/or method and in which sports it was more common. Moreover, what instruments were used to contrast it. Methods: We have analysed the doping's spread in Italy since 2003. The data come from the databases of government and sports Italians institutions. We have compared those data and focused our attention on substances and/or methods discovered in athletes. Furthermore, data's combination showed the reason of drug addiction. Results: In Italy, only 3% of checked athletes are doped, many of them are men and young athletes dope less than the older ones. Doped athletes play mainly cycling, athletics, swimming and football. The prominent peak of them is in the Central and Southern Italy in 2008 and 2010. Moreover, the analysis of data relating to galenic preparations declared during the year 2012, shows that 75% of the prescribed substances are diuretics and masking agents, anabolic steroids and stimulant. Regarding the substances, cannabinoids and stimulants have recorded the highest consumption. Conclusion: The data show only the tip of the iceberg due to doping's secrecy. Every substance that give pleasant sensations or help the subject in his activity will bring him to repeat the consumption. Frequently, new substances and methods are discovered. For this reason, to contrast this phenomenon, there are legislation instruments together with various funded projects.

French speaking athletes’ experience and perception regarding anti-doping control practices and therapeutic use exemptions

Article

Jun 2014

French speaking athletes’ experience and perception regarding the whereabouts reporting system and therapeutic use exemptions

Article

Nov 2015

The introduction of two anti-doping measures by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) directly affects athletes lives: obligatory whereabouts reporting with the Anti-Doping Administration and Management System (ADAMS), and recorded applications for Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE). French-speaking elite athletes (N = 69) from France, Belgium and Switzerland responded to a web-based questionnaire about their perceptions and experiences under these two measures. The results showed a strong ambivalence towards the whereabouts system. Though 94% considered it necessary, and accepted it as part of an athlete's duties, 34% considered that it infringed too much on their private life, 54% felt that it reduced the pleasure of being an athlete, 74% felt to be under surveillance, 54% found it too time-consuming, 57% encountered technical hurdles, and 58% perceived its application between different countries and sports as unequal and unfair. Many athletes did not like the testing procedures and more than half felt that it causes anxiety. Trust in the system's capacity to detect doping in athletes was partial (83% of athletes under the whereabouts system trusted it, and 60% of athletes not under the system trusted it). Concerning the management of TUEs, 49% of athletes had low trust in their management by authorities, 47% suspected abuse by fellow athletes and 46% had refrained from medically justified treatment. Our findings suggest considerable dissatisfaction with the whereabouts system and TUE among French-speaking athletes. We conclude that there is a need to improve on the above aspects in order to increase athletes' satisfaction and adherence to WADA's anti-doping policies.

Lack of evidence that doping is harmful to the health of elite athletes

Article

Feb 2023

Jo Morrison

A common justification for anti-doping policy is that performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) are harmful to the health of the athlete. Training for elite performance is not a healthy activity. Sudden cardiac death is a leading cause of death in young athletes, but is not connected to banned PED use. Despite the negative impact of training for elite performance on the overall health of elite athletes, these negative health effects are reversible. There is evidence that the pattern of banned substance use in elite athletes is high, yet morbidity and mortality of elite athletes is not greater than the general population, and former elite athletes live longer and healthier lives than age-matched controls. There is evidence that misuse of PEDs, often obtained from the black market, without medical guidance or intervention contributes to morbidity and mortality in recreational athletes, but this pattern is not evident in elite athletes. This paper proposes that the health justification for anti-doping policy is not supported by the available evidence.

Elite level athletes' perspective on prohibited substances for performance enhancement: A cross- sectional study

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2022

The aim of this research was to explore the attitudes of elite athletes towards performance enhancement through banned substances. In this study, survey model, which is one of the quantitative research methods, was used. Purposive sampling method was used in the data collection process. Participants consisted of a sample group of elite athletes (n = 418: 49.3% female, 50.7% male;). Participants answered questions about sociodemographic characteristics as well as performance enhancement attitudes. A performance enhancement attitude scale was used to determine the participants' attitudes towards performance enhancement. Data were analyzed using SPSS Version 22.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Elite level athletes participating in the study were found to have low use of prohibited substances for performance enhancement. There was no difference between the attitudes of the participants to increase their performance according to their gender and educational status. Participation of the participants in individual or team sports did not lead to a difference between their performance enhancement attitudes. It was found that as the duration of being a national athlete of the participants in the study increased, their attitudes towards using prohibited substances for performance enhancement increased. From the point of view of elite athletes, the use of banned substances for performance enhancement was found to be low. However, as the duration of being an elite athlete increases, it has been found that the attitude towards the use of banned substances for performance enhancement increases. Policies should be developed to discourage elite athletes from using banned substances. Coaches and managers need to correctly manage success strategies at all levels of sports.

The evolution of European legislation on doping: new challenges in the age of NPS

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2022

The fight against doping in sport, formally started in 1960 with the constitution of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and culminated in 1999 with the birth of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), commissioned to chair various activities, including the publication of the annual list of prohibited substances and methods for doping. In Europe, as early as 1967, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted a resolution to stigmatise the intake of substances foreign to the body for the sole purpose of artificially and unfairly influencing sports performance. In 2002, the Council of Europe adopted an Additional Protocol to the 1989 Strasbourg Convention against Doping to ensure mutual recognition of doping controls and to strengthen the enforcement of the Convention. In Italy, the Law of 14 December 2000 n. 376 “Discipline of the health protection of sports activities and the fight against doping”, defines doping as “the administration or intake of drugs or biologically or pharmacologically active substances and the adoption or submission to medical practices not justified by pathological conditions and suitable to modify the psychophysical or biological conditions of the organism in order to alter the athletic performance of athletes”. The same law regulates the use of drugs or biologically or pharmacologically active substances and update an annual list in agreement with WADA. The article aims to analyse the legislation from a national perspective, offering as complete a view as possible of the current situation.

L'organisation politique de la lutte antidopage : une sociologie pragmatique des jeux de pouvoir à l'échelle internationale

Thesis

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Ekain Zubizarreta Zuzuarregi

L’Agence Mondiale Antidopage (AMA), organisation de droit privé suisse formée à parts égales par les représentants du mouvement olympique et des autorités publiques, est l’institution chargée de réguler la lutte antidopage. Cette responsabilité lui a été déléguée en 1999 et depuis sa création, elle a édité plusieurs versions du Code mondial antidopage, dispositif de référence dans le processus d’harmonisation globale. Plusieurs gouvernements ont exprimé récemment leur mécontentement vis-à-vis du pouvoir considérable qui a été pris par l’AMA. Notre thèse vise à expliciter cette relation de pouvoir en proposant de l’analyser par le « modèle de l’emprise » (Chateauraynaud, 2015). Ce modèle a été développé dans un contexte qui n’était pas institutionnel et un de nos enjeux théoriques est de pouvoir le tester dans un cadre nouveau. À cette fin, nous avons mené des études ethnographiques au sein de trois pays (Algérie, Colombie et Afrique du Sud) afin de pouvoir examiner attentivement l'action publique antidopage et observer comment la relation avec l'AMA affecte l’activité antidopage des autorités publiques. Il apparaît qu’il existe bien une relation d’emprise liée au fait que les États auraient lâché prise et n’auraient pas exercé de contrôle sur l’AMA. La thèse décrit le processus par lequel cette emprise a eu lieu et la difficulté rencontrée par quelques États désireux de reprendre le pouvoir.

A Supplementary Approach for Effective Anti-Doping Education: A Pilot Study Applying Refutation Texts to Modify Misperception of the Whereabouts System

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2022
Int J Environ Res Publ Health

Background: Over the past twenty years, a multifaceted anti-doping system was established to detect, deter, and prevent doping among athletes. However, perception of the whereabouts system has been a controversial issue. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the effects of refutation text intervention on the perception of the whereabouts system. Methods: In two studies, we tested whether (1) detailed refutation texts are perceived as more effective than simply refuting with a true or false claim among 132 athletes (47.73% female, mean age = 20.99 ± 2.11), and if (2) refutation text intervention can alter the perception of the whereabouts system among 177 athletes (53.11% female, mean age = 21.17 ± 2.27). Descriptive statistics were calculated, followed by a one-sample T-test, independent T-test, chi-square test, and a repeated-measures analysis of variance. Results: The results demonstrate that five true/false statements were developed as refutation texts, and the mean accuracy of the true/false test is less than the probability of guess (p < 0.05, d = -0.18). In addition, detailed refutation texts evoked significantly greater perceived effectiveness than the simple refutation texts (p < 0.01, d = 0.66). Furthermore, the refutation text intervention enhanced the positive perception of the whereabouts system (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.15). Conclusions: Our findings support the efficacy of refutation texts to improve the misperception of anti-doping regimes among athletes and have implications for future education prevention initiatives.

Racing Clean in a Tainted World: A Qualitative Exploration of the Experiences and Views of Clean British Elite Distance Runners on Doping and Anti-Doping

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

Background: Doping has been a prominent issue for the sport of athletics in recent years. The endurance disciplines, which currently account for 56% of the global anti-doping rule violations in athletics, appear to be particularly high risk for doping. Objective: Using this high-risk, high-pressure context, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the human impact of doping and anti-doping on “clean” athletes. The secondary aim of the study was to better understand the reasons for, and barriers to, competing “clean” among this group of athletes. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 elite distance runners from the UK to explore: (1) the reasons and motivations for competing clean. (2) Perceptions of the anti-doping system, and experiences of being part of that system. (3) Views on the prevalence and causes of doping and the impact of doping on the lives of clean athletes. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed using Reflexive Thematic Analysis. Results: Four major themes were identified: (1) The participants in this study have not been tempted to use prohibited substances or methods; they compete in their sport for the personal satisfaction of seeing how good they can be, rather than in pursuit of winning at all costs. (2) Anti-doping does not currently prevent doping effectively and is not implemented evenly across the globe. (3) Doping was perceived as a major issue and was felt to be borne out of certain sporting cultures in which doping is enabled. (4) Doping has impacted the careers of clean athletes in irreversible ways and presents a continuing challenge to the psychological preparation for competition. Conclusions: Clean athletes suffer negative consequences from both doping and anti-doping. ADOs must collaborate across borders to ensure a more even implementation of anti-doping activities, to facilitate a more level playing field on the global stage. ADOs must also acknowledge the existence of a large group of athletes who would never consider deliberately doping and make anti-doping work for these athletes too.

Anti-doping as solidarity: A philosophical inquiry into anti-doping in elite sport

Thesis

Jun 2020

Morten Renslo Sandvik

Link to the full publication: https://nih.brage.unit.no/nih-xmlui/handle/11250/2658015 ----------- Doping in elite sport is commonly understood as a moral problem. In line with this view, antidoping work is set out to protect ‘clean’ athletes and ‘the spirit of sport’ from individual athletes’ and accomplices’ lack of moral rectitude. Arguably, such ‘moralized’ and dogmatic descriptions of doping and anti-doping have warranted the development of a sophisticated control regime of biological testing and surveillance: a regime which raises numerous ethical concerns. Moreover, these descriptions have influenced a public anti-doping discourse of scandalization, mistrust and stigmatization. The main aim of this dissertation is to develop and examine the implications of a philosophical understanding of anti-doping that challenges the dogmatic descriptions and addresses the ethical issues of current anti-doping policy and discourse. Towards this aim, the philosophical methodology of redescription is employed. This approach draws on the neopragmatism of Richard Rorty. The main impetus of Rortyan redescription is the deepening and widening of solidarity. Thus, the dissertation endeavors to develop and examine the implications of a philosophy of anti-doping as solidarity. Four individual papers contribute towards the main aim. Paper 1 places anti-doping within a wider, historically qualified and fallibilistic endorsement of liberal values. The paper develops and examines the implications of ‘ironism’ as a philosophical basis for anti-doping commitment. It suggests that ironism contributes to more compassionate forms of commitment: more tolerant of intentionally doping athletes as persons and more aware of sport organizations’ responsibilities to all athletes. Paper 2 develops a philosophical basis for sport organizations’ anti-doping policy and rhetoric. Redescribing ‘fair play’ as athletes’ expression of loyalty to larger groups, the paper inserts a picture of sport organizations such as the International Olympic Committee, as coordinating bodies of larger groups that appeal, through policy and rhetoric, to athletes’ larger loyalty. Anti-doping policy and rhetoric, in this picture, are developed and critically scrutinized according to their potential for fostering a sense of common interest, interdependence, and reciprocal trust across larger sporting communities. Paper 3 examines whether, and if so how, the purposes of redescription can be served by doping-related stories, playing out in elite sport, narrated through the media and enacted by celebrity-athletes. The paper discusses two stories about athletes sanctioned for doping, interpreted as redescriptive narratives challenging dogmatic descriptions prevailing in respective sporting communities. The story of Justin Gatlin is seen to communicate to the international athletics community the idea that after serving a suspension, it makes sense for an athlete to be included as ‘one of “us”’. Similarly, the paper suggests that the story of Therese Johaug conveys to the Norwegian sporting community that some of these athletes remain ‘one of “us”’ throughout the judicial process. Paper 4 addresses the ‘confession dilemma’ faced by former elite athletes pondering upon the question of whether to publicly confess to doping. The paper sheds light on the dissertation’s main aim by rendering visible ethical problems with the dogmatic, moralized descriptions and introducing the idea of redescription as a means to foster and cultivate alternative understandings of doping-related dilemmas. Overall, the dissertation aspires to show that, conditional upon further development and refinement, there is promise to the philosophical understanding of anti-doping as solidarity. As a main contribution, the dissertation proposes the idea that for anti-doping policy and discourse to progress towards solidarity, what is needed in the current situation are ‘sociological’ redescriptions that draw attention to doping as a social phenomenon, playing out in social networks, fostered and made possible by the social structures of elite sport. Such redescriptions can alter the course of sport communities’ conversations away from prevailing moralized descriptions of doping and anti-doping, towards a wider discourse of cultural and political change in the organization of elite sport.

Gender Difference, Nutritional Supplements and Drug use in Sport to Enhancing Performance: an Italian Revision over the Last Decade

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2019

In last years, there has been a multitude of studies on doping, such as in recreational and in amateur sport. The extent of this phenomenon was clarified for special populations (like e.g. bodybuilders) and for special substances (mostly for anabolic steroids). Doping is present in sportsmen and women; the reasons why may be many and various. The aim of this study is to discover the gender disparity of drugs addiction as doping practice and breakdown by sport bodies and gender. The data show the anti-doping test took place on Italian professional athletes during the last years: from 2007 to 2017. Data showed are originated from the report commissioned by the Italian Ministry of Health. About checked doped athletes there are significant gender differences in doping attitude and/or in doping profiling. First of all, males seem to be more exposed to doping than females. The prohibited substances most frequently used by females athletes are diuretics and masking agents (10 athletes in 2014), cannabinoids (5 in 2007) and stimulants (5 in 2011) compared to males athletes who use mostly anabolic agents (27 in 2017), cannabinoids (20 in 2012) and diuretics and masking agents (17 in 2011 e 2014). The addiction of doping substances, depends on various factors related to gender, but what drives men and women is the sense of gratification and ego orientation. Nowadays a significant number of women joined official and Olympic competitions. Doping to enhance female sport performances took importance from the two last decades of the past century.

Ethical Aspects of Doping and Anti-Doping: In Search of an Alternative Policy

Thesis

Full-text available

May 2018

Bengt Kayser

The use of certain technologies, especially of specific pharmacological means, with the aim of improving performance, is forbidden in competitive sport. This practice, called doping, is repressed by increasingly strong anti-doping measures, which are overseen by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Even if these anti-doping developments essentially concern elite competitive sport, they influence society in general. Some agents present doping as a major societal problem, and the dealing with it is therefore considered a political priority. In several countries, the principles of anti-doping in elite sport are now applied outside of competitive sport, such as in the realm of fitness centres, and calls for further extension of regulations are regularly heard. Increasingly specific legislation has been introduced, in some countries in the form of criminal law that is also applicable to non-athletes. These developments have spawned academic interest, and doping inside and outside elite sport, as well as the anti-doping efforts aimed at eradicating this practice, have become the subject of an active field of scholarly study. There is considerable overlap with two other important societal and scientific debates, one on the regulation of psychoactive drug use and one on overall human enhancement, i.e. the use of technology to improve human performance in general. Regarding sport, two diametrically opposed discourses can be found in the scholarly, but also lay, literature. Today's most vocal discourse is that of a zero tolerance approach, enforced in elite competitive sport by surveillance, repression and punishment. On the other hand, an opposing discourse can also be heard that finds anti-doping illogical and calls for the liberalisation of doping. These opposing positions would seem to have their limitations. Past experience with prohibition has shown that a zero-tolerance stance using stringent repression to curb a forbidden behaviour may lead to important (unintended) side effects, while there is insufficient public and political support for the total liberalisation of currently forbidden substances. The general aim of this thesis is to contribute to the discussion on doping and anti-doping, and to sketch the outlines of an alternative way of dealing with doping inside and outside of sport. After a short introduction (Chapter 1) that sketches the historical background of the main issues, an analysis of modern anti-doping in elite sport is presented, highlighting some paradoxes and weaknesses at the basis of today's anti-doping policies (Chapter 2). Chapter 3 provides an analysis of the argument that allowing doping would merely result in a uniform shift of the playing field at the cost of greater health risks. It is shown that this is unlikely to be the case and a counterargument in favour of allowing some regulated forms of doping, because potentially leading to a more dynamic playing field, is then presented. Chapter 4 provides a perspective accounting for some of the side effects of modern anti-doping, also from a legal perspective. It highlights some of these side-effects and shows that anti-doping comes at a considerable cost to the individual athlete and the community. Chapter 5 then introduces the idea of using a harm reduction approach in the realm of doping in sport. First the principle of harm reduction is explained, building upon the evidence base in the field of recreational substance use. This is followed by a first attempt of applying its principles to doping practices in sport. Chapter 6 then takes the reasoning of the preceding chapter further by completing it with a specific analysis of the ethical implications of such a harm reduction approach for doping, concluding that such an approach can be defended. Chapter 7 finally provides a general discussion that ends with some conclusions and perspectives. The overarching conclusion of the thesis is that there is no society-wide solution to the problem of doping. Therefore practical ways of dealing with its presence aimed at containing its potential risks may represent preferable policy alternatives as compared to today's runaway effects of globalisation of anti-doping efforts, all while promising to enrich the spectacle of modern elite sport.

Global Sport Power Europe? The Efficacy of the European Union in Global Sport Regulation: EU in global sport regulation

Article

Nov 2016
J Common Market Stud

The effectiveness of the European Union (EU) as global regulator is controversial. Some scholars characterize the EU as one of the most important shapers of global regulations; others argue that the EU's effectiveness critically depends on its regulatory cohesion, the political opportunity structure and regulatory capacity of its interlocutors. Since global sport represents a regionally segmented industry and is governed by private actors of diverse regulatory capacity, global sport regulation represents an excellent domain to study these propositions systematically. Comparative case studies on global sport regulation support the idea that the EU can impose its regulatory ambitions on sport governing due to market size and regulatory capacity. However, the broader political opportunity structure is found to be relevant and the EU does not appear as a strong regulator of global sports.

Antidoping Education Using a Lifelong Situated Activity-Based Approach: Evidence, Conception, and Challenges

Article

Sep 2016
QUEST

Denis Hauw

Studies have shown that doping behavior emerges from contexts. Educational research would therefore be enriched by explorations of the situatedness of athletes’ activity and its dynamics of development inside sporting life courses. The principles can be summarized as (a) the connection between antidoping and athletes’ time-specific and meaningful concerns, (b) the creation of fields of possible activity that preserve athletes from doping, (c) the focus on propensities toward activities that pull athletes away from doping, and (d) the regular and timely updating of programs. Following this, the general framework for the antidoping education of elite athletes comprises four levels articulated by their distribution over the periods of athletes’ careers: (a) creating and maintaining a global antidoping culture via continuous socialization, (b) developing a sustained antidoping background via situated activities, (c) supporting punctual and specific needs with free services for all athletes, and (d) promoting tertiary prevention and post-career education.

Doping control in sport: An investigation of how elite athletes perceive and trust the functioning of the doping testing system in their sport

Article

Feb 2016

Marie Overbye

Doping testing is a key component enforced by anti-doping authorities to detect and deter doping in sport. Policy is developed to protect athletes’ right to participate in doping-free sport; and testing is a key tool to secure this right. Accordingly, athletes’ responses to anti- doping efforts are important. This article explores how the International Standards for Testing, which face different interpretations and challenges when policy is implemented, are perceived by elite athletes. Particularly, this article aims to investigate how elite athletes perceive the functioning of the testing system (i.e., the efforts of stakeholders involved in testing) in their own sport both nationally and worldwide. Moreover, it seeks to identify whether specific factors such as previous experience of testing and perceived proximity of doping have an impact on athletes’ perceptions of the testing system. The study comprises a web-based questionnaire (N = 645; response rate 43%) and uses qualitative findings to elaborate on and explain quantitative results. Results showed that two-thirds of the athletes reported the national testing programme in their sport to be appropriate. A majority of the athletes who had an opinion on the subject regarded testing programmes in some countries as not extensive enough or believed that in certain countries doping control was downgraded to win medals. Past experience of testing seemed to have a positive influence on trust in the concrete measures; however, if athletes experienced flaws during the control procedures, this could increase distrust and cause worry. The proximity of doping in an athlete’s sport influenced the athlete’s perception of the testing system. Particularly, athletes who need the testing system to be effective and to function well across the world show greater distrust of or dissatisfaction with the current testing system. The athletes’ diverging views indicate that contemporary anti-doping policy is simultaneously met with support, (dis)trust and frustration. By integrating the views and experiences of Danish elite athletes, this study confirms that the current testing system is confronted with obstacles, and it contributes knowledge about some of the challenges WADA faces when policy is implemented. Implications of results and recommendations for anti-doping authorities are outlined in the paper.

The good, the bad, and the ugly: A qualitative secondary analysis into the impact of doping and anti-doping on clean elite athletes in five European countries

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Protecting clean sport, and the rights of athletes to a clean sport environment, is at the centre of anti-doping policies. To better support and enable clean athletes and sport, an understanding of the clean athlete lifeworld is required. The current study explored the ways that clean athletes are personally affected by others’ actual or suspected instances of doping and anti-doping rule violations, and by aspects of the anti-doping system. Qualitative Secondary Analysis (QSA) was used to re-analyse and interpret 13 focus group transcripts generated from the ‘Research-Embedded Strategic Plan for Anti-Doping Education Clean Sport Alliance Initiative for Tackling Doping’ (RESPECT) project (see Petróczi et al., 2021b). The sample in the parent study included 82 self-declared clean elite athletes, from Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Slovenia, and the UK. Reflexive thematic analysis generated three overarching themes: The harm done by clean athletes having to coexist with dopers, how clean athletes are undermined by a disingenuous interest in clean sport, and the anxiety experienced by clean athletes over mistakes that could lead to anti-doping rule violations. The impacts of doping on clean athletes – direct or indirect – are experienced by all clean athletes in some way. The results indicate that current approaches to anti-doping rule compliance frequently undermine clean athletes and the perceived legitimacy of the anti-doping system.

WADA, the World Anti-Doping Agency: A Multi-Level Legitimacy Analysis

Book

Mar 2021

WADA’s Prohibited List from the perspective of elite athletes

Article

Aug 2020

Marie Overbye

This article has been withdrawn at the request of the author(s) and/or editor. The Publisher apologizes for any inconvenience this may cause. The full Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal can be found at https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal.

Using interdisciplinary tools to improve anti-doping: Utopia or necessity?

Article

Oct 2019

Marjolaine Viret

This article proposes a reflection on the value of interdisciplinary approaches applied to anti-doping. It aims to show that interdisciplinary research and collaborative work is central to establishing sound anti-doping policies. After presenting some fundamentals of interdisciplinary approaches, the article analyses how these can apply to doping as a “wicked” problem, highlighting the importance of clarifying policy goals as a prerequisite for applying interdisciplinary tools. The article then focuses on some features of “interdisciplinarity” that are critical to anti-doping practice and involve creating common ground on concepts, assumptions and methodologies. Having regard to the challenges involved in integrating scientific research and evidence for policy-making purposes, transparency and procedures may equally come to play a critical part, to which interdisciplinarity can contribute. If anti-doping policies inevitably incorporate some subjectivity rooted in stakeholder values, we should strive for such subjectivity to be an “informed” one. The legal profession can have a key role in this regard. Lawyers—whether academic researcher or practitioner—must evolve into being the (co-)actors of a broader reflection on the finalities and means of anti-doping, one that will encourage the creation of truly interdisciplinary platforms and ensure that the resulting insights are appropriately transposed into regulatory terms.

An investigation of drugs abuse in sport performance

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jan 2018

Doping in performance sport is a complex and controversial issues. The secrecy that characterizes it hinders the implementation of epidemiological investigations. It involves the entire society. Moreover, the forces that conspire behind doping have always been able not only to identify new substances and new methods but also to steal the new scientific discoveries aimed at the treatment of diseases, for their illegal purposes. The fight against doping has had a strong push, in 2004, with the birth of the first World Anti-doping Code drafted by WADA. The laboratories, the Code, the Biological Passport and the ADAMS are important tools for the fight against doping. The aim study is to show the data relating to the consumption of drugs from 2003 to 2017. A number of the commonly used substances have been discussed and their risks and side effects reviewed.

Sport and Genomics; prospects and ethical framing

Article

Full-text available

May 2012
Genom Soc Pol

Ivo Van Hilvoorde

The knowledge of the world anti-doping code among Polish athletes and their attitudes toward doping and anti-doping policy

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2007

Purpose. The study aims to answer three questions: (1) What do Polish athletes know about doping control and the World Anti-Doping Code? (2) What are their attitudes toward doping and anti-doping policies? (3) How are the athletes' knowledge and attitudes related to selected socio-demographic variables - age, sex, duration of sports career, type of sport (team, individual). Basic procedures. 830 athletes (including 263 females) filled in an anonymous questionnaire to assess their knowledge about and attitudes toward doping and anti-doping policy. Main findings. The subjects provided merely 45.22% of positive answers to questionnaire items assessing knowledge. The highest percentage of correct responses was observed in items related to the knowledge of athlete' rights and responsibilities (50.75%), while the lowest in items about anti-doping principles and procedures (41.77%). The respondents' attitudes were diagnosed as moderately positive (M 3.90, SD 0.07). The most positive was their attitude toward doping control (M 4.12, SD 0.82), while the least positive was their attitude toward sanctions (M 3.68, SD 0.79). Some differences in attitudes and knowledge were observed. In relation to attitudes significant differences were noted between female and male athletes (Wilks' λ 0.96; F (4,780) = 8.55; p = 0.000), with higher results achieved by female athletes; and between age groups (Wilks' λ 0.95; F(8,1558) = 4.63; p = 0.000) from which the group of 18-24-year-olds achieved higher results than the remaining two age groups. Differences in the knowledge were observed in relation to subjects' sex, age, type of sport and duration of sport career. Conclusions. Athletes' knowledge of doping control is far from satisfactory. The subjects' attitudes are positive; however, their strength is moderate. The results of the study suggest that campaigns aimed at anti-doping education among Polish athletes should be intensified in relation to their knowledge of the problem and attitudes toward it.

On the Efficacy of WADAs Whereabouts Policy: Between Filing Failures and Missed Tests

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2011

This study explores a controversial aspect of the new World Anti Doping Agency Code, which requires athletes in registered testing pools to submit accurate data concerning their whereabouts for one hour every day, three months in advance, to allow effective year round testing. In particular, the policy is designed to heighten the effectiveness of out-of-competition testing and close the loophole on athletes who have sought to use remote locations to avoid doping control officers. If an athlete misses three tests or records three filing failures they are deemed to have committed a doping offence, leading to a ban of up to two years. We present data from 20 National Anti Doping Organizations and 1 International Federation (cycling) regarding similar data. They reveal substantial variations in filing failures across organizations. We argue that the fairness of the system, however, is potentially vulnerable to variable interpretations of compliance, and to inaccurate and non-transparent administration regarding filing failures and missed tests. We conclude that there is a need for greater communication between anti-doping organizations and harmonization of interpretation and compliance of the rules.

Hilvoorde, I. van (2012). Sport and genomics; prospects and ethical framing. In: Genomics, Society and Policy, Vol.8 No.1, pp.1-12.

Article

Full-text available

Genom Soc Pol

Ivo Van Hilvoorde

The Establishment of the World Anti-Doping Agency A Study of the Management of Organizational Change and Unplanned Outcomes

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2008

This article examines the circumstances surrounding the establishment of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which was established following the World Conference on Doping in Sport convened by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and held in Lausanne in 1999. More specifically, the article draws upon Elias's game models to analyse: i) the way in which the IOC sought to manage this process of change in such a way that its longstanding position as the world's leading anti-doping organization would be reinforced; and ii) the IOC's inability to control this process, with the result that the IOC failed to achieve any of its objectives, its position as the world's anti-doping organization was actually undermined, and world leadership passed to a new organization which had a significant measure of independence from the IOC.

Surveillance and Control in Sport: A Sociologist Looks at the WADA Whereabouts System

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2010

Ivan Waddington

This paper draws upon the sociology of Norbert Elias to examine some central aspects of the whereabouts system introduced by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) as part of its anti-doping policies. More specifically, the paper aims to: (1) locate the whereabouts system within the context of broader social processes, including changing practices and ideas concerning surveillance and control, personal liberty, privacy and democracy; (2) examine the impact of the introduction of the whereabouts system on the relationship between elite athletes and WADA; and (3) examine some of the difficulties in developing and implementing anti-doping policy. In relation to the latter, it is suggested that the introduction of the whereabouts policy has had a number of unplanned consequences which, from WADA's perspective, will almost certainly be seen as unwelcome: the alienation of large numbers of athletes, whose cooperation is essential if the system is to operate smoothly and efficiently; the deteriorating relationship with other key organizations such as the EU; the emergence of a challenge, led by the European Elite Athletes Association, to the legitimacy of decision-making processes within WADA; and finally, the uneven application of the whereabouts requirements which has led to the creation of what many athletes see as a new form of unfairness.

Harmonization of Anti-doping Work: Myth or Reality?

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2010

In order to examine the implementation of the World Anti Doping Agency's (WADA) policy of global harmonization of anti-doping work, a survey was conducted among the members of the Association of National Anti-Doping Organizations (ANADO). It was revealed that in many countries, the Code was not implemented in accordance with the prescribed policy, with regard to (i) the requirement on national anti-doping organizations (NADOs) having a registered testing pool, (ii) the requirements of availability for testing of the athletes, and (iii) the requirements on sanctions. Only 23 of the 32 NADOs in the sample had a registered testing pool, only 11 NADOs required availability for testing every day, and one in five NADOs did not have any procedures for dealing with athletes who had not provided information about their whereabouts. Further, two in five did not count an incomplete test as a missed test, although this is WADA's definition. WADA's goal is harmonized anti-doping work. The implementation of anti-doping policy is challenging and is to a certain extent underpinned by processes of globalization. Even among NADOs that are considered to be among the global frontrunners in the struggle against doping significant variations exist. There is reason to believe that the global picture is even more diverse. One of WADA's key challenges is to define clearly and in operational terms which rules and sanctions are to be uniform and globally implemented, and which regulations can be open to interpretation depending on economic and socio-cultural contexts.

The Olympics and harm reduction?

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2012

The current anti-doping policy (‘war on doping’) resembles the ‘war on drugs’ in several aspects, including a zero-tolerance approach, ideology encroaching on human rights and public health principles, high cost using public money for repression and control, and attempts to shape internationally harmonized legal frameworks to attain its aim. Furthermore, even if for different reasons, both wars seem not to be able to attain their objectives, and possibly lead to more harm to society than they can prevent. The Olympic buzz is mounting and we can expect multiple headlines in the media on doping and anti-doping stories related to this event. In this article we describe current anti-doping policy, reflect on its multiple unplanned consequences, and end with a discussion, if lessons learned from harm reduction experiences in the illicit drugs field could be applied to anti-doping.

Attitudes towards use of performance-enhancing substances and body modification techniques. A comparison between elite athletes and the general population

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2009

Medical and technological developments open up new possibilities for modifying the body and enhancing performance in various areas of life. This study compares attitudes among Norwegian elite athletes (n = 234) with attitudes in the general population (n = 428). Whereas vitamins, nutritional supplements and hypoxic rooms were accepted by more than 65% of both athletes and population the rejection of EPO, anabolic steroids and amphetamines were similarly clear in both groups. The athletes were in general more reluctant to use performance enhancement means and body modification techniques than the general population. A significantly higher percentage of the population than the athletes accepted a) means to avoid memory failure in old age (61.6 versus 43.2, sig. 0.000), b) means to avoid decrease in physical fitness among old people (48.6 versus 34.7, sig. 0.005), c) liposuction (30.1 versus 12.4, sig. 0.000), d) surgery for obesity (15.3 versus 9.4, sig. 0.035), e) silicon implants (9.9 versus 5.1, sig. 0.001). The athletes were significantly more satisfied with their bodies than the population (sig. 0.000). Males were more positive about the use of performance enhancement means, whereas females were more positive about body modification techniques. Males were significantly more positive about the use of a) means that increase strength and endurance (sig. 0.002, and b) means that increase sexual performance (sig 0.000). Females were significantly more positive than males about the use of liposuction (sig. 0.000), plastic surgery on the face (sig. 0.013), surgery to combat obesity (sig. 0.000) and silicon implants (sig. 0.000).

Drug testing in sport: The attitudes and experiences of elite athletes

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2010

This study aimed to investigate, among a sample of elite Australian athletes, the extent to which this group supports drug testing as a deterrent to drug use. Data was collected from a convenience sample of (n=974) elite Australian athletes who self-completed a questionnaire, and semi-structured telephone surveys with key experts. The athletes surveyed endorsed testing for banned substances as an effective way of deterring drug use; believed that the current punishments for being caught using a banned substance was of the appropriate severity; and indicated that there should be separate policies regarding illicit drug (ID) and performance-enhancing drug (PED) use. A large proportion of elite athletes in Australia endorse drug testing as an effective means of deterring drug use. They perceive a difference between being detected using a PED and an ID and believe that penalties should reflect this difference. Future research may wish to investigate attitudes towards newer methods employed to detection drug use.

Clean Olympians? Doping and anti-doping: The views of talented young British athletes

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2010

Background: Review articles suggest a small but significant proportion (between 3 and 12%) of male adolescents have used anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) at some point (Yesalis and Bahrke, 2000; Calfee and Fadale, 2006). In sport, the use of prohibited substances or processes to enhance performance, collectively referred to as 'doping', is banned by both sports' National and International Governing Bodies, and by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) who run an extensive testing programme and educational initiatives designed to foster anti-doping attitudes. Method: A total of 40 talented male and female athletes (mean average age 19.6 years) from 13 different sports attended 12 focus groups held over the UK intended to investigate athletes' attitudes toward doping. Focus group transcriptions were analysed and coded with the use of QSR NVivo 8. Results: Athletes in general did not report a significant national doping problem in their sport, but exhibited sporting xenophobia with regard to both doping practices and the stringency of testing procedures outside of the UK. Athletes often viewed doping as 'unnatural' and considered the shame associated with doping to be a significant deterrent. Athletes perceived no external pressure to use performance enhancing drugs. In response to hypothetical questions, however, various factors were acknowledged as potential 'pressure' points: most notably injury recovery and the economic pressures of elite sport. Finally, a significant minority of athletes entertained the possibility of taking a banned hypothetical performance enhancing drug under conditions of guaranteed success and undetectability. Conclusions: The athletes in this study generally embraced those values promoted in anti-doping educational programmes, although there were some notable exceptions. That the social emotion of shame was considered a significant deterrent suggests anti-doping efforts that cultivate a shared sense of responsibility to remain 'clean' and emphasise the social sanctions associated with being deemed a 'drugs cheat', resonate with this atypical social group.

The Right to Privacy

Article

Jan 2005

Elite athletes' perspectives on providing whereabouts information: A survey of athletes in the Norwegian registered testing pool

Article

Jan 2009

Experiences, attitudes and trust: an inquiry into elite athletes' perception of the whereabouts reporting system

Article

Nov 2014

The duty of elite athletes to report whereabouts is a controversial and debated element of the World Anti-Doping Code. Though the obligation to provide whereabouts information has a real impact on athletes’ daily lives, knowledge about athletes’ perception of and trust in the system after the Code was revised in 2009 is still scarce. This study contributes to the discussion on the legitimacy and institutionalization of the whereabouts system by integrating the points of view of Danish elite athletes (with/without whereabouts obligations). In total, 645 athletes completed a web-based questionnaire about their perceptions of the whereabouts system. The results showed that elite athletes’ perceptions were ambivalent: a majority of athletes seemed to accept the system as a necessity, a duty or a compliment to their sporting level. On the other hand, the system did, to a greater or lesser degree, interfere negatively in everyday life: three quarters of the athletes felt reporting whereabouts was too time-consuming; fear of a warning was a concern for more than half of the athletes; four in ten found their joy of being an elite athlete was reduced; and four in ten experienced the system as surveillance. Athletes’ trust in the system was remarkably low when it came to questions concerning how it operated in other countries and its ability to catch doped athletes. A particular remarkable finding is that distrust seemed to increase once athletes had personal experience of reporting whereabouts. This must be considered a major challenge for future anti-doping policymaking.

The Right to Privacy

Article

Dec 1890
HARVARD LAW REV

Elite athletes’ duty to provide information on their whereabouts: Justifiable anti-doping work or an indefensible surveillance regime?

Article

Jan 2009

In this article, we explain and reflect critically upon the athlete whereabouts reporting system in top-level sports initiated by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). This system makes it compulsory for athletes who are in a registered testing pool in their national and/or international federation to submit information about their whereabouts. In this way, athletes are required to be available for a no advance notice doping test throughout the year. If an athlete provides incorrect information or cannot be found when a no advance notice test is supposed to be taken (a missed test), he or she may be given a warning. In most sports and national anti-doping regulations, three such warnings within 18 months may be regarded as a violation of the doping regulations and may lead to exclusion from sport for between 3 months and 2 years. The system is controversial. In this article, we examine the key objections to the system and, more specifically, objections connected to ideas of justice and athletes’ autonomy and right to self-determination. The argument will be a practical ethical one informed by a survey on attitudes towards the whereabouts system carried out among 236 athletes belonging to the registered testing pool in Norway. We conclude that if the basic principles of anti-doping work are accepted, WADA's whereabouts reporting system represents nothing other than an efficient extension of this work.

Scandinavian perspectives on doping – a comparative policy analysis in relation to the international process of institutionalizing anti-doping

Article

Nov 2011

This study investigates why, unlike Sweden, Denmark and Norway have decided to establish independent national anti-doping agencies. Starting off from a new institutional perspective, a qualitative comparative method is applied, and this study outlines variables that enable us to explain the differences and similarities of the two approaches. It is concluded that Sweden differs because doping is regarded as a broader public health issue and thus administratively dealt with in an area not only concerned with sport, while Sweden has a tradition of low political interference in elite sport. Despite various differences, the similar solutions chosen by Denmark and Norway are explained by their focus on doping in elite sport, combined with a high political profile in anti-doping. Although one can argue in favour of sport as an example of a world-society culture with a huge institutionalizing impact, this study reveals a space open for national interpretation. Finally, this article discusses future challenges for the two models analysed.

Between medical treatment and performance enhancement: An investigation of how elite athletes experience Therapeutic Use Exemptions

Article

Apr 2013
INT J DRUG POLICY

BACKGROUND: Athletes can be allowed to use substances from the prohibited list (the doping list) if they have a medical condition. If so, a Therapeutic Use Exemption (TUE) is required. The boundaries between the use of pharmacological substances due to a medical need and doping are sometimes blurred. Although manipulating the system of TUE granting potentially represents an entry stage for doping, few studies examine how athletes perceive TUE management and relate this to current anti-doping policy. METHODS: 645 Danish elite athletes (mean age 22.12, SD=5.82) representing 40 sports completed a web-based questionnaire about their experience and perception of TUE (response rate: 43%). RESULTS: 19% of the respondents had been granted a TUE. 85% of athletes granted a TUE regarded their use of the TUE system as necessary to compete on equal terms with other athletes. Administrative hurdles for TUE prevented 7% of athletes from applying. 53% of the athletes considered that being "allowed" to dope by means of a TUE was of importance for their (hypothetical) wish to try out doping. 51% believed that athletes in their sport received TUEs without a medical need. Athletes granted TUEs had more than twice as high odds to distrust the efficacy of the system than athletes never granted a TUE. The belief that TUEs were misused was especially common among endurance athletes, regardless of them having experience with TUEs or not. 4% believed it would be okay to receive a TUE without a medical need. CONCLUSION: The results confirm that TUE is a problem in anti-doping policy. The fact that distrust in TUE administration increases once an athlete has experience of TUEs represents a challenge for anti-doping policy. We suggest more critical research on TUEs be carried out in order to improve harmonization and increase transparency in the regulations. http://elsarticle.com/1ejDZ70

Civil Rights, Doping Control and the World Anti-Doping Code

Article

Sep 2004
Cult Sport Soc

Barrie Houlihan

The abstract for this document is available on CSA Illumina.To view the Abstract, click the Abstract button above the document title.

Respecting privacy in detecting illegitimate enhancements in athletes

Article

Aug 2007

Sarah Teetzel

This paper explores the degree of privacy athletes can expect and demand in the era of genetic technology in sport. Detecting genetic enhancements in sport, and consequently doping violations, using genetic tests is problematic because testing requires access to athletes' genetic information, and accessing genetic information creates many potential privacy issues and concerns throughout the world. Whether it is morally acceptable to subject athletes to the tests used to detect genetic modifications in sport is taken up in this paper, and I argue that the elite sport movement faces an ethical dilemma since rules prohibit athletes from utilising certain substances, methods and procedures, but the testing methods needed to ensure compliance with the rules are controversial and at odds with a reasonable expectation of privacy. Resumen Este artículo explora el grado de intimidad que los atletas pueden esperar y exigir en la era de la tecnología genética en el deporte. La detección de mejoras genéticas en el deporte, y consecuentemente de violaciones por dopaje, usando análisis genéticos es problemática porque tales pruebas requieren acceso a la información genética de los atletas, y el acceder a la información genética crea potencialmente muchos problemas y preocupaciones por todo el mundo que atañen a la intimidad. Este artículo considera si es moralmente aceptable el obligar a los atletas a someterse a los análisis utilizados para detectar modificaciones genéticas en el deporte, y discute que el deporte de élite encara un dilema, ya que las reglas prohíben a los atletas la utilización de ciertas sustancias, métodos, y procedimientos, mas los métodos de análisis que se requieren para asegurar conformidad con las reglas son polémicos y están en desacuerdo con una expectativa razonable de intimidad. Zusammenfassung Dieser Artikel befasst sich mit dem den Athleten zustehenden Grad an Privatheit in Bezug auf Sport im Zeitalter der Gentechnik. Die Suche nach genetischen Maßnahmen zur Leistungssteigerung im Sport und die damit verbundenen Verletzungen der Anti-Dopingrichtlinien machen konsequenterweise Gen-Dopingtests erforderlich. Die Verwendung solcher Tests ist aber nicht unproblematisch, da sie einen Einblick in die genetischen Informationen der Athleten erfordern. Der Zugriff auf solcherlei Daten wäre weltweit von einer Vielzahl von Problemen und Bedenken begleitet. Ob es moralisch vertretbar ist, derartige Tests bei Sportlern durchzuführen um genetischen Veränderzungen auf die Spur zu kommen, ist Gegenstand dieses Aufsatzes. Ich behaupte, dass sich der Leistungssport seit dem Verbot der Verwendung bestimmter Substanzen, Methoden und Verfahren einem ethischen Dilemma ausgesetzt sieht, denn die Testverfahren zur Sicherstellung des regelgerechten Wettbewerbs sind umstritten und sie stehen im Konflikt mit einer vernünftigen Wahrung der Privatsphäre.

The World Anti-Doping Agency: Constructing a hybrid organisation in permanent stress (dis-)order?

Article

Jul 2009

Ulrik Wagner

The aim of this article is to outline a modern system-theoretical explanation of the emergence of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). The approach embraced here is based on a conception of competitive sport as a functionally differentiated system organised around the binary coding ‘win/lose’. It is argued that sport produces a unique product beneficial for society as a whole, but the relationship between the sport system and its environment has been perturbed by the existence of doping. Therefore, the establishment of a new global governing body is regarded as a functional solution to a critical situation of increasing environmental criticism towards sport and its affiliated international organisations. WADA is characterised as a hybrid, heterophonic organisation because it refers to several functional systems without giving any of them primacy. On the one hand, this enables WADA to manoeuvre between several functional systems and build up its own complexity: on the other hand, the multiplicity of environmental demands can induce a state of permanent stress disorder. As such, WADA serves as a formulating agency that functions both as precondition and intermediary for a structural coupling between sport, law and politics.

A History of Drug Use in Sport 1876-1976: Beyond Good and Evil

Article

Sep 2007
J SPORT SCI MED

Paul Dimeo

DESCRIPTION The book explains how the usage of drugs in sport came to be considered in terms of "abuse" contrary to be thought of being ethical and supportive to the athletes in the early days of modern sport. PURPOSE The aim of this book is to question of using and abusing drugs in sport at length from a historical perspective. It proposes to discuss the issue as a dilemma of 'good anti-doping' versus 'evil doping'. FEATURES The issues addressed in this book are as following: 1.Sport, drugs and society; 2.Doping and the rise of modern sport, 1876-1918; 3.The science gets serious, 1920-1945; 4. Amphetamines and post-war sport, 1945-1976; 5.The steroids epidemic, 1945-1976; 6.Dealing with the scandal: anti-doping and the new ethics of sport, 1945-1965; 7. Science, morality and policy: the modernisation of anti-doping, 1965-1976; 8.Doping, anti-doping and the changing values of sport. ASSESSMENT This book will be great interest to the sportsmen as well as students, researchers and practitioners in the sport and exercise disciplines whether they work in the laboratory or in the field since it is about a popular topic in sport. It could also be valued as a reference book, because it targets to avoid easy answers to difficult questions in the controversial subject of drug use in sport

Combating drug use in competitive sports: An analysis from the athletes' perspective

Article

Oct 2002

Doping has developed into a widespread problem in competitive and high-performance sports due to increasing professionalism in, and commercialization of sports. In contrast, governments and sports organizations have limited financial resources to support all competitive sports. Therefore, further improvement of anti-doping measures can only be achieved through the inclusion and active participation of the athletes themselves. In this study, 101 German athletes who are subject to national and international anti-doping tests were asked if doping in sports should be combatted, and which anti-doping measures appeared effective from an athlete's perspective. Ninety-eight point zero two per cent of those questioned felt that measures should be taken against doping in sports. Improved methods of detection and more information on the health risks were favored, as opposed to more severe punishments. In addition, more than two thirds of the athletes supported the introduction of an anti-doping law. The desire for more frequent drug testing was also expressed, despite the distinct invasion of the athletes' privacy. An anti-doping law, as requested by the athletes, should include measures for educating the public about the health risks involved with doping. In addition, such a law would also make it possible to develop suitable methods of detection.

Self-Reported Attitudes of Elite Athletes Towards Doping: Differences Between Type of Sport

Article

Nov 2006

Although athletes' beliefs and values are known to influence whether or not an athlete will use banned drugs, little is known about the athletes' beliefs and attitudes in different sports. The aim of this study was to clarify the beliefs and attitudes of elite athletes towards banned substances and methods in sports. A total of 446 athletes (response rate 90.3 %; 446/494) financially supported by the National Finnish Olympic Committee completed a structured questionnaire during their national team camps in 2002. More than 90 % of the athletes reported to believe that banned substances and methods have performance enhancing effects, and 30 % reported that they personally know an athlete who uses banned substances. Of the male athletes 35 %, and 23 % of females reported they personally know an athlete using banned substances. A total of 15 % of the athletes reported that they had been offered banned substances: 21 % of the speed and power athletes, 14 % of the team sport athletes and of the athletes in motor skills demanding events, and 10 % of the endurance athletes. Stimulants were the most often offered substance group (to 7 % of all the athletes) followed by anabolic steroids (4 %). Subjects who regarded doping as a minor health risk seemed to be more often associated with doping users than those regarding doping as a significant health risk. Athletes in different sports have a different approach to doping. Risk of doping appears to be highest in speed and power sports and lowest in motor skills demanding sports. Males are at higher risk than females. Controlling doping only by tests is not sufficient. A profound change in the attitudes is needed, which should be monitored repeatedly.

Whereabouts, you are now complete for the next 3 months. I still wish I was just implanted with a GPS device for anti-doping to track me

Jan 2012

C Nesbitt

Nesbitt, C. (2012). Whereabouts, you are now complete for the next 3 months. I still wish I was just implanted with a GPS device for anti-doping to track me. https://twitter.com/CNezzy. Accessed 14.05.13

Doping in elite sport: The politics of drug testing in the Olympic movement

Jan 2001
129-152

A Schneider
R Butcher

Schneider, A., & Butcher, R. (2001). An ethical analysis of drug testing. In W. Wilson, & E. Derse (Eds.), Doping in elite sport: The politics of drug testing in the Olympic movement (pp. 129-152). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

The World Anti-Doping Program: Guidelines for implementing an effective athlete whereabouts program

Jan 2008

Wada

WADA. (2008). The World Anti-Doping Program: Guidelines for implementing an effective athlete whereabouts program. Montreal: World Anti-Doping Agency.

The World Anti-Doping Code. International standards for testing. Montreal: World Anti-Doping Agency

Jan 2003

Wada

WADA. (2003). The World Anti-Doping Code. International standards for testing. Montreal: World Anti-Doping Agency.

International standard for testing. Montreal: World Anti-Doping Agency

Jan 2009

Wada

WADA. (2009a). International standard for testing. Montreal: World Anti-Doping Agency.

World Anti-Doping Code

Jan 2009

Wada

WADA. (2009b). World Anti-Doping Code. Montreal: World Anti-Doping Agency.

Doping control, providing whereabouts and the importance of privacy for elite athletes

No full-text available

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