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The Foundations of Cognitive Grammar
... Siguiendo a Palmer (1986), la modalidad epistémica se asocia con las creencias, el conocimiento, la verdad de la proposición contenida en su enunciado por parte del hablante, mientras que la deóntica está más relacionada con la obligatoriedad de que se dé el contenido de un enunciado, con la acción de los otros y del propio hablante. Fillmore (1990) Es decir, desde esta concepción, son las lecturas epistémicas o no temporales las originales y, por tanto, las temporales derivarían de ellas (Traugott, 1978, Bertinetto, 1979, Langacker, 1991, Giannakidou y Mari, 2012, Stojanovic, 2014, Rosique, 2019. ...
... Para Langacker (1991) el futuro sería un evento en la realidad proyectada, que conlleva el recorrido desde la realidad concebida hasta llegar al evento proyectado, ya sea porque está localizado en un momento posterior al de enunciación (valores temporales) o porque se queda en el plano de la realidad potencial (valores epistémicos). De esta manera, el futuro queda equiparado epistémicamente a la realidad desconocida. ...
... La noción de evolutionary momentum (Langacker, 1991), predice que los acontecimientos que no se excluyen constituyen una realidad potencial, su impulso permite proyectarlos e hipotetizar. Cuando hay una pérdida en la cantidad de información que el conceptualizador experimenta sensorialmente por estar en un espacio distinto al del evento, es imposible aceptar dichos eventos como factuales (hechos inamovibles por la cantidad de información que los apoya) o incluso como deónticos, y se producen las lecturas epistémicas (acceso a la información parcial o bajo). ...
El futuro es más que una marca temporal. En ciertos contextos su lectura puede moverse entre los valores prospectivos, los epistémicos e incluso los discursivos y conversacionales. Los estudios sobre el futuro se centran, principalmente, en la comparación entre las frecuencias de uso de cada futuro y su estratificación (Sedano, 1994; Blas, 2000). Otras investigaciones examinan los valores asociados a cada forma para delimitar los factores que determinan sus significados (Soto, 2008; Aaron 2007; Escandell, 2018). Este trabajo intenta determinar qué factores lingüísticos y extralingüísticos restringen la lectura temporal a favor de la no temporal en el futuro morfológico y cuáles pudieran favorecer la modal en el perifrástico. Pensamos que ambas estructuras del futuro promueven lecturas que van de lo temporal a lo no temporal en un continuum y que la presencia de una marca explícita de tiempo es necesaria para que prevalezca la temporal en el futuro morfológico. Al mismo tiempo, la persona gramatical y la clase semántica del verbo son factores que determinan el tipo de lectura posible. Se analizaron 36 entrevistas sociolingüísticas del Corpus Sociolingüístico de la Ciudad de México y 36 del Corpus Sociolingüístico de La Habana. En ambos se encontró que las lecturas no temporales muestran mayores porcentajes de uso que las temporales. Se confirmó la necesidad de una marca explícita de tiempo para que se preservara el valor prospectivo (el 86 % de las lecturas temporales la presentó). Además, se comprobó el peso de la clase semántica –verbos con procesos dinámicos en su núcleo semántico se correlacionan con las lecturas prospectivas; mientras que los eventos estativos se correlacionan con las lecturas no temporales– y de la persona gramatical –la primera persona del singular favorece las lecturas prospectivas; mientras que, con la tercera persona emergen lecturas no temporales– en los valores del futuro. Por último, se encontró que, en el proceso de pragmaticalización del futuro, se ha llegado a un nivel más y se pudieron reportar usos como marcador discursivo. Palabras clave: deixis, español de Cuba, español de México, futuro, modalidad, marcadores discursivos, temporalidad.
... This doctrine cuts across most branches of the generative tradition, as well as many other frameworks (e.g. Langacker, 1987;Goldberg, 2006). I focus on generativism in this paper due to the centrality of phrase-structure in BERTology. ...
... The mentalist view that language arises from cognition is ubiquitous in linguistic theory, especially in the generative framework (Chomsky, 1965(Chomsky, , 1986Gleitman, 2021) but also elsewhere, as in cognitive grammar (Langacker, 1987) and construction grammar (Goldberg, 2006). I focus on generativism due to the centrality of phrasestructure in BERTology. ...
... Other linguistic frameworks have rejected these (e.g. Langacker, 1987;Croft, 2001;Goldberg, 2006), and perhaps BERTology should as well. Without denying that this approach might be the right direction overall, I raise three challenges that arise with it. ...
The field of “BERTology” aims to locate linguistic representations in large language models (LLMs). These have commonly been interpreted as representing structural descriptions (SDs) familiar from theoretical linguistics, such as abstract phrase-structures. However, it is unclear how such claims should be interpreted in the first place. This paper identifies six possible readings of “linguistic representation” from philosophical and linguistic literature, concluding that none has a straight-forward application to BERTology. In philosophy, representations are typically analyzed as cognitive vehicles individuated by intentional content. This clashes with a prevalent mentalist interpretation of linguistics, which treats SDs as (narrow) properties of cognitive vehicles themselves. I further distinguish between three readings of both kinds, and discuss challenges each brings for BERTology. In particular, some readings would make it trivially false to assign representations of SDs to LLMs, while others would make it trivially true. I illustrate this with the concrete case study of structural probing: a dominant model-interpretation technique. To improve the present situation, I propose that BERTology should adopt a more “LLM-first” approach instead of relying on pre-existing linguistic theories developed for orthogonal purposes.
... Bolinger, W. Chafe, C. J. Fillmore y J. Haiman (Langacker, 1987, pp. 3-4 apud Cuenca y Hilferty, 1999. ...
... La unidad básica, bajo esta perspectiva, es la «construcción», que es un conjunto de rasgos de forma y de significado que supera la noción de signo lingüístico (Ibarretxe-Antuñano y Valenzuela Manzanares, 2021, pp. 44-45).En relación con esto, es importante señalar que, desde la lingüística cognitiva, se entiende que todo cambio en la forma supone automáticamente un cambio en el significado(Delbecque, 2008, p. 49 apud Fernández Jaén, 2019, p. 56), puesto que todas las unidades son simbólicas.En este sentido, el estudio del dominio conceptual por parte de la lingüística cognitiva ha motivado diferentes desarrollos y conceptos, entre los que destacan «marco semántico»(Fillmore, 1982(Fillmore, , 1985, «espacios mentales»(Fauconnier, 1985), «esquema de imagen»(Johnson, 1987), «modelo cognitivo idealizado»(Lakoff, 1987), «dominio cognitivo»(Langacker, 1987), «integración conceptual» o «amalgama»(Fauconnier y Turner, 2002), etc.Vinculado con el postulado anterior, la lingüística cognitiva también afirma que el lenguaje está motivado, ya que expresa nuestra concepción del mundo, además de nuestra interacción con él a través del cuerpo, lo que se conoce como «corporeización» (embodiment).El lenguaje está corporeizado, además de las emociones, porque la cognición está corporeizada 18 . Quizás el origen, como sugiere de forma interesanteDamasio (1996, p. 213), sea algo evolutivo: «si lo primero para lo que se desarrolló evolutivamente el cerebro es para asegurar la supervivencia del cuerpo propiamente dicho, entonces, cuando aparecieron cerebros capaces de pensar, empezaron pensando en el cuerpo».En este sentido, la metáfora conceptual(Lakoff y Johnson, 1980 Gibbs, 2008; Kövecses, 2010; Soriano, 2012 apud Ibarretxe-Antuñano y Valenzuela Manzanares, 2021, p.18 Además de «corporeizada», las ciencias cognitivas afirman que es «extendida», «situada» y «enactiva», como mencionaré después a propósito de la poética cognitiva. ...
Este trabajo, que nace del interés personal en la poética lingüística y, más concretamente, la lingüística y poéticas cognitivas, pretende completar los siguientes objetivos:
1. Investigar si la lingüística cognitiva, a través de la poética cognitiva, puede aportar respuestas originales y satisfactorias al estudio de la literatura y producir trabajos que complementen o amplíen otras perspectivas.
2. Descubrir hasta qué punto la poética cognitiva sigue de manera fiel los presupuestos de la lingüística cognitiva y señalar las posibles desviaciones y propuestas heterodoxas.
3. Indagar los límites teóricos y prácticos del estudio del lenguaje literario a través de la poética cognitiva y presentar una revisión crítica y horizonte de futuro.
... Jeli chodzi o zastosowaną do analizy językowej metodologię, to biorąc pod uwagę cykl, w który wpisuje się ten artykuł, przyjęta została perspektywa gramatyki kognitywnej -proponowane przez nią postulaty oraz aparat terminologiczny (np. Langacker 1987Langacker , 2003Langacker , 2009Langacker , 2017. Zakładając, iż język jest kluczem do zrozumienia ludzkiego poznania (Langacker 2017: 45), gramatyka kognitywna przyznaje centralne miejsce procesom poznawczym, takim jak kategoryzacja, asocjacja, schematyzacja czy automatyzacja (Langacker 2009: 34-36) i postuluje opis struktury języka oparty na uzusie językowym (ibidem: 290). ...
... Istotę rozszerzenia stanowi niezgodność między prototypem i celem, która symbolizowana jest za pomocą strzałki przerywanej: P ---> C (np. Langacker 1987Langacker : 370-372, 2003Langacker : 34-35, 2009. Niezgodność ta może dotyczyć zarówno odmienności domen wiedzy przywoływanych przez te dwie porównywane struktury (mowa wtedy o rozszerzeniu metaforycznym), jak i odmienności elementów przywoływanych przez te struktury w ramach tej samej domeny wiedzy (w tym przypadku charakter rozszerzenia określany jest jako metonimiczny). ...
Artykuł wpisuje się w cykl publikacji poświęconych językowym strategiom stosowanym do opisu muzycznych wrażeń słuchowych. Przedmiotem analizy przedstawionej w artykule jest jeden z typów figuratywnych wyrażeń językowych używanych w języku polskim do opisu brzmień muzycznych – wyrażeń, które typowo odnoszą się do człowieka, zwierzęcia czy też, bardziej ogólnie, do istoty żywej. Celem badania jest opis pojęciowych struktur motywujących te wyrażenia. Analiza wskazuje, iż u podstaw tych wyrażeń leżą schematyczne relacje kategoryzujące, które na wysokim poziomie abstrakcji są reprezentowane przez dwa wzorce: metaforyczny oraz metaforyczno-metonimiczny. Ich konkretyzacjami są relacje kategoryzujące, które reprezentują odpowiedniości między elementami wiedzy pochodzącymi z domeny muzyki oraz istot żywych.
... In regard to the nature of the categories, the research reported in this article concerns the so-called categories with a prototype, which differentiates this research from our previous studies into cognitive semantics of autonomous membership statements covering the case of categories described by the so-called classical theory of categorization. The latter theory has been widely recognized for many centuries, based on the ideas developed by Aristotle, and often referred to as the necessary and sufficient condition model [9] or criterialattribute model [10]. Its basic assumptions are [11] as follows: ...
... Recalling the infeasibility of an overly strict criterial-attribute model [10], our attention has been successfully shifted to Rosch's theses formulated for the prototype semantics [13,14]. On this basis, the cognitive model including categories with a prototype has been defined, and the cognitive agent's architecture has been developed, allowing for the learning of the category model. ...
This article presents a model of an architecture of an artificial cognitive agent that performs the function of generating autoepistemic membership statements used to communicate beliefs about the belonging of an observed external object to a category with a prototype. The meaning of statements is described within the model by means of cognitive semantics. The presented proposal builds upon a pre-existing architecture and a semantic model designed for a simpler case of categories without a prototype. The main conclusion is that it is possible to develop an interactive cognitive agent capable of learning about categories with prototypes and producing autoepistemic membership statements fulfilling requirements of Rosch’s standard version of prototype semantics and satisfying pragmatic and logical rules for generating equivalents of these statements in natural languages. Detailed results include the following: an original proposal for an agent’s architecture, a model of an agent’s strategy of learning categories with a prototype, a scheme for determining the computational complexity of particular implementations of the learning strategy, definitions of cognitive semantics for particular cases of autoepistemic membership statements, and an analytical verification of properties of the proposed cognitive semantics. Finally, this article discusses the directions of further development and potential variants of the proposed architecture.
... La question sur la nature de la syntaxe, formelle et autonome ou instrumentale et iconique, traverse comme une véritable faille théorique toute la linguistique contemporaine. Traditionnellement, l'alternative entre autonomie et motivation de la syntaxe est vue comme exclusive : la syntaxe dans son ensemble est ou autonome (Bloomfield, 1933 ;Harris, 1946 ;Wells, 1947 ;Chomsky, 1957) ou instrumentale vis-à-vis des contenus conceptuels et donc iconique (McCawley, 1970(McCawley, (1971Lakoff, 1971 ;Fillmore, 1968 ;Haiman, 1985 ;Langacker, 1987 ;Dik, 1997). Pour Chomsky (1957 : 17), « grammar is autonomous and independent of meaning », et « uniquely determines […] semantic interpretation » (Chomsky, 1966 : 5). ...
Interclausal relations are traditionally studied within the framework of the complex sentence of endocentric subordinative form. However, there is no essential correlation between interclausal linkage and complex sentence. Interclausal relations are not meanings of subordinate clauses but conceptual relations that bridge saturated processes of equal rank. According to this premise, complex sentence is only one option for the expression of interclausal relations, along with text. Moreover, if we compare the competing structures, it turns out that the unmarked form of expression is not complex sentence but text. While a complex sentence imposes a hierarchic syntactic structure on a symmetric conceptual structure, the structure of the text and the conceptual structure of interclausal relations are isomorphic. As a marked option, the choice of complex sentence requires a specific functional motivation, which does not involve the ideation of the link itself but the communicative perspective: its function is to impose a layered communicative perspective on the connexion, which is distributed between foreground and background information.
... Decidimos aproximarnos al entendimiento de la percepción de la pobreza a partir de las propias categorizaciones semánticas de las personas y no a partir de nosotros como investigadores. Para lograrlo nos apoyamos en la técnica de las redes semánticas naturales (Figueroa, González y Solís, 1981;García y Jiménez, 1996, y Valdez, 1998 y la lingüística cognoscitiva (Quillian, 1968;Langacker, 1987, y Cuenca, 1999. A través de ellas definimos y entendimos la manera en que los individuos experimentaban y enfrentaban a la pobreza. ...
La percepción social de la pobreza urbana en Colima aporta una mirada cualitativa e interdiscipli-naria sobre la desigualdad social que sufren las fami-lias urbanas estudiadas en dos ciudades colimenses. Permite ver que si bien no hay pobreza extrema en estas zonas, traducida ésta como la ausencia total de alimento y vivienda, las condiciones psicosociales en las que viven las personas, la calidad de su dieta, vivienda y vestido, así como las escasas oportunidades laborales y los bajos salarios, los obligan a formar redes familiares y sociales para mitigar los efectos de la desigualdad y la exclusión, el reducido acceso a servi-cios médicos y el limitado uso de la tecnología. La pobreza referida en este libro tiene dos particulari-dades: la primera es su presencia en amplios brotes y condiciones de desigualdad y exclusión social asocia-dos a ese fenómeno, más que condiciones agudas de miseria, y la segunda es la ubicación y esparcimiento de la desigualdad y exclusión en la localidad, sobre todo de la primera, ya que las familias y los hogares estudiados se encontraron también en zonas históricas de la ciudad.
... " In the study, "爱心" (aixin, "love") becomes bounded and shaped with the help of the concrete numeral-classifier sequence "一片" (yi-pian, "one piece"). "一片爱心" (yi-pian aixin, "one piece of love") is thus "structuralized or grammaticalized into a temporary syntactic structure (with highly fixed form-meaning sentence pattern) in linguistic world" (Langacker, 1991). Accordingly, the temporary association and the semantic compatibility between the numeralclassifier sequence "一片" (yi-pian, "one piece") and the modified head noun "爱心" (aixin, "love") are quite weak. ...
Recent years have witnessed much research on semantic analysis and syntactic anatomy in ordinary language processing. However, it is still a matter of considerable debate about when and how the semantic integration of single word meanings works and interacts with syntax during on-line comprehension. This study, in an eye-tracking paradigm, took 38 native speakers of Mandarin Chinese as the participants and took Chinese relative clauses as stimuli to figure out the functions of semantics by investigating the conditioning semantic factors influencing and governing the word order variation of Chinese relative clauses during different processing stages. Accordingly, this study manipulated two syntactic variables, i.e., relative clause type and the position of the numeral-classifier sequence (NCL) in the relative clause, as well as a semantic variable, i.e., the abstractness of the head noun that the relative clause modified. Specifically, the study addressed two questions: (1) when semantics is activated and interacts with syntax and (2) how semantics affects syntax during the time course of Chinese relative clause processing. The results indicated that: (1) Semantics was activated and interacted with syntax during the early and late processing stages of Chinese relative clauses, which challenged the sequential order of syntactic and semantic processes, and supported the claims of the Concurrent Processing Model. (2) The syntactic order of the Chinese relative clause was affected by the semantic information of the head noun that the clause modified. Object-extraction relative clauses (ORCs) had a conjunction preference for the order “an object relative clause preceding the numeral-classifier sequence and the head noun.” Instead, the subject-extraction relative clause (SRC) which modified a concrete noun (CN) had a co-occurrence preference for the order “numeral-classifier sequence preceding the subject relative clause and the head noun,” while the subject-extraction relative clause which modified an abstract noun (AN) had a co-occurrence preference for the order “subject relative clause preceding the numeral-classifier sequence and the head noun.” The findings of this study were evaluated in light of the perspectives of truth value semantics of the syntactic components, the semantic compatibility of numeral-classifier sequence and its modified noun as well as the discourse functions of outer modifier nominals and inner modifier nominals.
... A salient feature of "the framing of concepts is the interdependence of the latter leading to the formation of conceptual configurations which cannot be represented as taxonomies, but as networks of networks which possess a more complex structure." Such cognitive models denoting knowledge configurations, apart from 'frames', are known as 'idealized cognitive models' (addressed by Lakoff, 1987), 'image schema' (described by Johnson 1987), 'domain' (elaborated on by Langacker, 1987), 'script' (Shank & Abelson, 1977), etc. However, they vary as far as their coverage is concerned. ...
Any form of life ends in death. Human death is a difficult moment for an individual’s family. Various cultures observe diverse rituals and traditions connected with the end of life and perform different burial rites. Memorial services assume a range of forms depending on the culture and religious tradition an individual was brought up in and followed throughout their life. However, memorial ceremonies are also diversified within a given culture. The funeral of a monarch is much more complex as compared to this of any of his/her subject’s. The death of the British Monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, in September 2022 was followed by a period of mourning and state funeral. The analysis in the present paper focuses on the semantic frame of the royal funeral. The methodological framework adopted for the discussion is the cognitive linguistic one, focusing on cognitive-linguistic models such as frames and scripts, exemplified here by the frame of the ROYAL FUNERAL and the [ROYAL FUNERAL] script. Both of the presented models contain unique elements that are not to be found in other contexts. The components of frame and script which are specific to this event are highlighted. The data for the detailed description of the frame are gathered from the online news reports provided by the British Broadcasting Corporation. The study shows how different the discussed model is from the standard description of the frame of FUNERAL and the [FUNERAL] script respectively. Also, many of its elements are culture-specific.
... Researchers have developed various theoretical frameworks to explain the complex nature of language processing. These theories sought to identify speci c brain regions associated with language processing, including the modular view (Fodor, 1983), connectionist models (Rumelhart & McClelland, 1986), and cognitive-functional approaches (Langacker, 1987). Each theory offers unique approaches to how linguistic information is processed and organized in the brain, highlighting the interconnectedness between different cognitive and neural systems. ...
This article presents the Multi-Stratal Model of Language Processing (MSMLP) as an innovative neurolinguistic approach. The MSMLP is a framework that aims to advance the understanding of language processing (henceforth LP) in the human brain. A systematic review of the available models from various linguistic disciplines, cognitive psychology, and neuroscientific research was conducted to critically explore and synthesize the current trends and identify the theoretical gap regarding the technical modeling of the phenomenon under investigation (LP). The article provides a detailed overview of the theoretical foundations and key components of the MSMLP. It highlights the importance of studying language processing from a multi-stratal perspective, acknowledging the interconnectedness and mutual influence of different linguistic strata. The MSMLP integrates multiple strata of analysis: phonological, morphosyntactic, semantic, and pragmatic. By considering these interdependencies, the MSMLP offers a neurolinguistic explanation of naturalistic language processing. Furthermore, the article discusses the implications and potential applications of the MSMLP in the field of medical research and clinical practice. It emphasizes the model’s relevance in studying language disorders, such as aphasia, and its potential to inform diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.
... En el marco de la lingüística cognitiva, el significado del lenguaje no es estático, aislado ni unilateral, sino dinámico, relacionado y global; la manera de expresar no es unitaria (conceptual) ni discreta, sino multidimensional y sistemática; el contenido central de la expresión no es "gramática + vocabulario", sino "vocabulario + reglas + construcciones + relaciones sistémicas" en su totalidad (LANGACKER, 1987;1991;2000). Por lo tanto, los usuarios de la adquisición de una segunda lengua deben aumentar su experiencia y capacidad cognitiva para manejar adecuadamente las relaciones entre conceptos y gramática en los complejos fenómenos lingüísticos, y comprender de manera científica y precisa el significado fundamental del lenguaje. ...
Conforme las relaciones entre China y el mundo hispánico van intensificándose, el interés por el estudio del chino va en aumento, y los lexicógrafos y expertos han compuesto y publicado un gran número de diccionarios para el aprendizaje del chino en consecuencia. Sin embargo, la mayoría de estos diccionarios están diseñados con una mentalidad centrada en el editor, siguiendo la experiencia lingüística de los lexicógrafos chinos y las bases de datos de la lengua china, sin considerar las características cognitivas del aprendizaje de un segundo idioma para hispanohablantes. Esto ha resultado en una baja aceptación de estos diccionarios por parte de los estudiantes extranjeros. Nuestro artículo toma el Nuevo Diccionario Chino-Español (1999) como objeto de estudio, analizando desde la perspectiva de la adquisición de una lengua extranjera, tales como las expectativas del usuario, la construcción de corpus, la anotación de palabras, los términos y frases hechas en el diccionario, factores transculturales, para explorar cómo los diccionarios chino-españoles pueden satisfacer las necesidades de los hispanohablantes, a fin de proporcionar un modelo digno de consideración para la futura compilación de diccionarios bilingües.
... Nasprotno formalnemu je funkcijski pristop pri opisu jezika, ki so ga začeli razvijati prav nekateri sodelavci in učenci Chomskega. Predstavnik enega izmed številnih funkcijskih pristopov je tudi vodilni teoretik kognitivne lingvistike R.W. Langacker (1987Langacker ( , 1991, čigar glavna ugotovitev v odnosu do tvorbeno-pretvorbene slovnice je bila, da se naravni jezik izmika eksaktnim pravilom logike, da je v njem veliko posebnosti in prav te se morajo odraziti tudi v opisu jezika. Tudi predpostavke generativistov o relativni samostojnosti posameznih sestavin jezika so kognitivisti interpretirali drugače, da namreč le-te tvorijo celovit kontinuum in da jezik ni samostojna entiteta, marveč neposredni odraz človekove sposobnosti dojemanja sveta. ...
Tworzenie nazw wykonawcy czynności i nosiciela stanu od tej samej podstawy słowotwórczej w języku słoweńskimW artykule wykorzystano materiał słoweńskiego słownika SSKJ 2 oraz korpusu Gigafida 2.0 w celu ukazania potencjału tworzenia od tej samej podstawy słowotwórczej par rzeczowników reprezentujących kategorię nazw wykonawców czynności (A) i kategorię nazw nosicieli stanów (CofS). Przeprowadzona analiza pozwala na wyciagnięcie wniosku, że możliwość równoległego tworzenia dwóch typów struktur słowotwórczych uzależniona jest od dwóch czynników: gramatycznych i semantycznych właściwości bazowego czasownika. Jeśli idzie o własności gramatyczne podstawy słowotwórczej, to ważną rolę odgrywa aspekt czasownika. Analiza pokazała bowiem, że czasowniki dokonane prefiksalne wykazują znacznie większą produktywność w zakresie tworzenia rzeczowników z rozpatrywanych kategorii. Możliwość równoległego tworzenia nazw A (w planie konceptualnym profilujących trajektor relacji) i CofS (profilujących landmark) od tej samej podstawy słowotwórczej jest typowa dla czasowników związanych z procesem komunikacji, zmianą, posiadaniem czegoś oraz z ciałem, natomiast czasowniki mentalne najrzadziej umożliwiają taką operację słowotwórczą. Znamienne jest także to, że analizowane pary rzeczowników nie są tworzone od czasowników ruchu. W dalszych badaniach nad tego typu parami derywacyjnymi należałoby uwzględnić również inne kategorie gramatyczne, m.in. przechodniość czasownika, a także role semantyczne jego argumentów.
... It is also referred to as "(abstract) subjective motion" (Langacker 1987) and "fictive motion" (Talmy 1996). Importantly, empirical studies have shown that in the processing of abstract motion the conception of physical motion is also activated or "simulated" (see Matlock 2006Matlock , 2010 and, for an overview of the relevant research, Matlock 2017). ...
Analizowanie języka i dyskursu multimodalnego za pomocą schematu wyobrażeniowego „blisko – daleko”Koncentrując się na zbieżnych dowodach na pojęciową naturę metafor, których domenę źródłową stanowi schemat wyobrażeniowy blisko–daleko, takich jak: podobieństwo to bliskość, różnica to odległość, czułość/uczucie to bliskość fizyczna, dystans emocjonalny to dystans fizyczny, artykuł omawia zastosowanie schematu blisko–daleko nie tylko w praktyce badań nad językiem, ale i w badaniach multimodalnych. Jako inny rodzaj zbieżnych dowodów na psychologiczną realność omawianych metafor konwencjonalnych oraz schematu blisko–daleko przedstawione są też wyniki kilku badań eksperymentalnych. Dyskusja prowadzi do wniosku, że schemat blisko–daleko stanowi wiarygodne i użyteczne narzędzie badawcze, na którym językoznawcy kognitywni mogą polegać. W Postscriptum autorka rozważa pokrótce ramowanie pandemii Covid-19 w terminach „dystansowania społecznego” zarówno w odniesieniu do metafory dystans społeczny to dystans fizyczny, jak i czułość/uczucie to bliskość fizyczna.
... Yet, in many respects situated body conceptualizations have the same gestalt invariants that govern imagery of "things in the world" and are therefore amenable to similar construal operations. The latter notion was coined by Langacker (1987) who proposes that language triggers conceptualized "scenes" and that the specific semantics make us imagine in specific ways. Different linguistic constructions can induce mental gestalt operations such as picking a particular perspective or a fitting degree of zoom, performing foreground-background switches, highlighting components or their relations, assuming a process or an end-point focus, as well as composing or assembling images. ...
Somatic practices frequently use imagery, typically via verbal instructions, to scaffold sensorimotor organization and experience, a phenomenon we term “introjection”. We argue that introjection is an imagery practice in which sensorimotor and conceptual aspects are co-orchestrated, suggesting the necessity of crosstalk between somatics, phenomenology, psychology, embodied-enactive cognition, and linguistic research on embodied simulation. We presently focus on the scarcely addressed details of the process necessary to enact instructions of a literal or metaphoric nature through the body. Based on vignettes from dance, Feldenkrais, and Taichi practice, we describe introjection as a complex form of processual sense-making, in which context-interpretive, mental, attentional and physical sub-processes recursively braid. Our analysis focuses on how mental and body-related processes progressively align, inform and augment each other. This dialectic requires emphasis on the active body, which implies that uni-directional models (concept ⇒ body) are inadequate and should be replaced by interactionist alternatives (concept ⇔ body). Furthermore, we emphasize that both the source image itself and the body are specifically conceptualized for the context through constructive operations, and both evolve through their interplay. At this level introjection employs representational operations that are embedded in enactive dynamics of a fully situated person.
... In (10) the event is construed as habitual and illustrated what different authors have labeled non-canonical or relative usage of the present tense (Comrie 1985, Katičić 1991, Langacker 1991, Cutrer 1994, Barić et al. 2003. The point of view assumed in (10) is not that of a direct description of what is given in the actual world at the present moment. ...
In Istro-Romanian, there are two main groups of verbs, one inherited from Romance, one borrowed from the co-territorial Chakavian Croatian variety. The Croatian-derived verbs are specified for aspect, while the Romance ones are not. Generally, these groups do not interact. However, for a number of verbs previous scholars have claimed that they form suppletive aspectual pairs consisting of a prefixed Croatian-derived perfective verb and a simplex Romance imperfective. Given the anaspectual status of most Romance verbs such an analysis deserves scrutinous empirical verification. In this paper, we survey a comprehensive corpus of Istro-Romanian spanning from the second half of the 19th century to the 21st century with respect to seven alleged suppletive pairs. After describing their behaviour with respect to Vendlerian verb classes, as well as the semantics of their arguments, we come to the conclusion that we cannot speak of aspectual suppletion in the case of these seven verbs. Rather, some verbs are semantically specialized, so that they cannot conceivably form a pair. Where there is no obvious specialization, the prefixed Croatian verb focuses telicity, while the Romance one does not.
... In line with the cognitive approach to language (see, for example, Langacker, 1987), values "can be built into the perceptive apparatus, and hence into language" (Krzeszowski, 1997, p. 16). In other words, values are inherent in conceptualisations rather than in language. ...
The aim of the paper is to describe evaluative language in letters written by Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska to her husband. The study focuses on examples that illustrate the evaluation of objects related to culinary topics. Over sixty cases of evaluation have been identified in the purpose-built corpus of culinary contexts, where the primary part of speech with the evaluative function was the adjective. The theoretical framework of the study adheres to axiolinguistics. The methods and tools employed in the investigation involve a corpus-based analysis, i.e., frequency, distribution and sentiment analysis in the quantitative part, and axiolinguistic typologies and expert annotation in the qualitative part. The results of the study have shown that the predominant evaluation type is the lexical one, followed by the grammatical and connotative. The study also shows that the majority of the culinary contexts in the corpus are negatively charged.
... Space and time are two core elements of human cognition (Langacker, 1987;Evans, 2004;Croft & Cruse, 2004), and time is in the long run more complex since it could be understood in terms of another concrete concept. For some reason, time can be compared to an entity, within which time frame is compared to a container. ...
Directional verbs in modern Chinese, notably chū, are crucial. Previous studies on chū pay little attention to colexification and its mechanisms; they primarily focus on polysemy, syntactic restriction, and diachronic evolution in Mandarin Chinese. Research on Chinese topolects has also been neglected. Development of the Database of Cross-linguistic Colexifications (CLICS3) facilitates its cross-linguistic and topolectal exploration. This paper first discusses colexified pairs of chū in Modern Chinese, and constructs its colexificational network based on the CLICS3. It also argues for colexificational mechanisms of colexified extensions. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy are considered two core mechanisms accounting for the colexified extensions of chū. Metaphoric colexified extensions map onto the space, time, and state domain, following the order of “space > time > state”. As for the metonymic colexified extensions, the extended concepts result from different substructures of the image schema profiled in the motion event of chū.
... In a particular sense, language serves as a mirror which re ects the characteristics of a society. In fact, as language is the result of human cognition and social interactions (Langacker, 1987), every frequent concept in a society is usually encoded in language. For instance, the prevailing emotional state of a society, whether it is one of 3. ...
This paper seeks to demonstrate the rate and cognitive model of hopelessness and hopefulness in the Iranian society over a period of five decades spanning from the 1970s up until the 2010s, in response to the perspective that Iranians are currently experiencing more hopelessness than in the past. The prevailing emotions within a society, including but not limited to hopelessness and hopefulness, could be reflected through language. In fact, these two, alongside others, are encoded in language using cognitive mechanisms such as the conceptual metaphor and linguistic construction. Based on the written and spoken corpus encompassing movies, novels, news broadcasts, official speeches and the models employed, namely Kövecses (2020) and the findings of Construction Grammar, it can be observed that hopefulness and hopelessness have exhibited a fluctuating pattern in every subset of the corpus over the mentioned five decades. The rationale for selecting these five decades is associated with pivotal political and social events, such as the Islamic revolution of Iran, the Iran-Iraq war, the reconstruction period, the reformation decade, and the post-reformation era. The results illustrate that the emotion of hopelessness has significantly and consistently increased in the Iranian society over the fifty-year period. Moreover, regarding the cognitive model of hope, it is worth mentioning that Iranians consider "hopelessness" as ‘inability’ and contrast it with "hopefulness" which is conceptualized by ‘object’ and ‘reliance on another entity’.
... The methodology we have used is a pragmatically-based discourse analysis. The analysis model used is the one developed by Gallardo Paúls (2014; 2021 in press), which links the three linguistic levels described by Morris (1985) with the assumptions of cognitive linguistics (Fillmore, 1976;Langacker, 1987;Lakoff, 1990). To the modalities of discursive framing presented by Gallardo Paúls (2014; 2021 in press), or in other words, to the enunciative, textual and interactive, we incorporate the analysis of some formal aspects of journalistic works, which represent what we call "formal or external" framing (Villar Hernández, 2015) [ Table 2]. ...
This research study is based on the analysis of a corpus of 413 news headlines of eight Spanish newspapers during the election coverage of Vox in the Spanish general elections held in April of 2019. By following the model developed by Gallardo Paúls (2014; 2021 in press), which examines pragmatic categories according to their textual, interactive and enunciative levels, we have identified discursive framing strategies that cognitively guide the headlines of all the newspapers in our corpus. Even though representative illocutivity, was the most frequently used in the texts compiled, a detailed analysis reveals that some of the media (e.g. ABC, La Vanguardia, El País and El Diario) used a conspicuous lexical strategy (by utilising, for example, metaphors, metonyms, nominalisations with ironic value, etc.), which was able to cause pre-activations contrary to this political party.
... Researchers have developed various theoretical frameworks to explain the complex nature of language processing. These theories include the modular view (Fodor, 1983), connectionist models (Rumelhart & McClelland, 1986), and cognitive-functional approaches (Langacker, 1987). Each theory offers unique insights into how linguistic information is processed and organized in the brain, highlighting the interplay between different cognitive and neural systems. ...
This article presents the Multi-Stratal Model of Language Processing (MSMLP) as an innovative neurolinguistic approach. The MSMLP is a framework that aims to advance the understanding of language processing (henceforth LP) in the human brain. A systematic review of the available models from various linguistic disciplines, cognitive psychology, and neuroscientific research was conducted to critically explore and synthesize the current trends and identify the theoretical gap regarding the technical modeling of the phenomenon under investigation (LP). The article provides a detailed overview of the theoretical foundations and key components of the MSMLP. It highlights the importance of studying language processing from a multi-stratal perspective, acknowledging the interconnectedness and mutual influence of different linguistic strata. The MSMLP integrates multiple strata of analysis: phonological, morphosyntactic, semantic, and pragmatic. By considering these interdependencies, the MSMLP offers a neurolinguistic explanation of naturalistic language processing. Furthermore, the article discusses the implications and potential applications of the MSMLP in the field of medical research and clinical practice. It emphasizes the model's relevance in studying language disorders, such as aphasia, and its potential to inform diagnostic and therapeutic approaches.
... This study is also in accordance with Lakoff (1987), Evans and Green (2007), and Langacker (1987) who happen to be on the polysemy side. They believe that the distinct senses that prepositions have are actually semantically related and they originate from their primary senses. ...
This study aims to present a mathematical linguistic analysis in establishing the relations between TRs, LMs, potential senses, and actual senses by using the case of the preposition on found in academic texts under the framework of Trajector (TR) and Landmark (LM) configurations. Data were corpora taken from 10 bachelor's theses written by Indonesian students. To sort the data, Ant Conc 3.4.1.0 was used to parse clauses or sentences based on the TR-LM configurations. Based on the TR-LM configurations, a mathematical model was developed to discover how these variables are quantitatively related to the number of potential senses produced by using a geometric representation of TR and LM. This study indicates that the relation between TRs and LMs, on the one hand, and the sum of potential senses, on the other, follows the integral function of ∫ , which means that the total number of potential senses of Ps equals the integral of TR with respect to LM. Meanwhile, the total number of actual senses, ∑As can be obtained by the integral function of ∫ , which equals TR.LM + C where C is-Ls representing the constant of the number of lost senses. This mathematical modeling confirms that TR-LM configurations may be used to generate senses which prove the polysemous nature of prepositions. R. Dallyono, et al. A Mathematical Model of the Cognitive Semantics of the ...| 134
... Cognitive grammar (CG) is a relatively recent approach within the functional family of linguistic theories. It originated in the late 1970s but did not gather real momentum until in the 1980s with seminal publications such as Lakoff (1987) and Langacker (1987a), followed by Talmy (2000), Croft and Cruse (2004), Geeraerts and Cuyckens (2007), and Evans (2019). CG is not a static monolith but a vibrant enterprise constantly undergoing developments and improvement. ...
This entry offers a short description of the fundamental assumptions of grammar within the broad framework of Cognitive Linguistics. It presents the principles of usage‐based cognitive grammar (CG), classic works in the framework, and more recent treatments of grammatical structure and content in the form of examples of grammatical notions. Central to the CG approach is the meaningful functioning of language in all its guises and uses in text and discourse in speech and writing. The entry is structured around three main tenets, namely, (a) the primacy of meaning in the analysis of grammatical phenomena in language, (b) the encyclopedic nature of meaning in language, and (c) the perspectival nature of language in use.
... p. ex. Wertheimer, 1945 ;Köhler, 1920 ;Battistella, 1990 ;Langacker, 1991). ...
When it comes to language, it’s not just the grammatical structure and the literal meaning of words that matter. The way a predicate imposes inferences on its propositional arguments is crucial to understanding the true meaning of a message. However, these inferences are influenced by many factors, such as prosody, world knowledge, speakers’ expectations regarding language use, situational stereotypes, and other implicit or contextual elements.In this paper, we examine the inferential status of the verbs referred to by Karttunen as “implicative verbs”. On the one hand, two-way implicative verbs, and on the other, one-way implicative verbs. The latter have been little studied from this perspective. This will lead us to highlight the fundamental role, too often forgotten, of prosody and focus/theme in this type of analysis and in determining the inferential status of predicates. Our analyses show that, once prosody has been considered, the classification of theoretically possible verb inferences accepted until now needs to be modified. We do not have 4 groups of one-way implicative verbs, as has been argued, but 2, namely the groups: [+/+/– // –/–] [affirmed > true or false // denied > false] of the type être capable, pouvoir and [+/+/– // –/+] [affirmed > true or false // denied > true] of the type hésiter à.The remaining two groups, considered as distinct and autonomous one-way implicative verbs with the suggested characteristics: [+ + // – +/–] [affirmed > true // denied > true or false] of the type forcer to and [+ – // – +/–] [affirmed > false // denied > true or false] of the type refuser de, belong to the canonical groups of two-way implicative verbs, respectively: forcer à to the group of verbs of the type réussir à: [+/+ // –/–] [affirmed > true // denied > false] and refuser de to the group of verbs of the type oublier de: [+/– // –/+] affirmed > false // denied > true].Naturally, this classification differentiation, important as it is, only reflects the different behaviour of certain types of predicate, and this is the most important element of these analyses with a view to automating the recognition of predicate inferences.
... In contrast, the CL theory argues that a certain linguistic expression is connected with a certain conceptualized situation. Langacker is of the opinion that language is a system consisting of symbolic units or constructions, including fixed, partially-fixed expressions and schematic constructions [1]. ...
Cognitive Linguistics holds a view that linguistics forms are usage-based and motivation-based, especially on humans’ embodied conceptualizations. The image schema theory, as a new attempt to make language learning both interesting and effectively, plays a key role in Cognitive Linguistics and Neurology, featuring strong generality and explanatory power. Thus, this paper aims to examine a review of the existing literature on image schema. Besides, applying schematic constructions in teaching has sparked heated discussion among the scholars in the field of Cognitive Linguistics. For example, how to make constructions on idioms and phrasal verbs has also been greatly discussed in L2 acquisition. However, there has been a scarcity of research on the teaching of schematic constructions. To achieve this, this paper also aims to provide some suggestions for teaching practice.
... As a num ber o f linguists[e.g. Bolinger 1977;Haim an 1980;Langacker 1987] have rightly observed, this isom orphism betw een form and co n ten t, b o th in a single w ord o r a gram m atical co n stru ctio n , precludes the existence o f true synonym s o r exact parap h rases, as different form s m ust have different m eanings. T h e n atu ra l consequence o f o u r thinking in term s o f this m etap h o r, is the expectation th at M O R E O F F O R M IS M O R E O F C O N T E N T [La koff and Johnson's form ulation, 1980: 10-11]. ...
W artykule zebrano wiele przykładów na to, że forma języka jest znacznie mniej arbitralna, niżby to wynikało z twierdzeń strukturalistów. Takie ogólne metafory pojęciowe jak MYŚLENIE TO WIDZENIE, prowadzą do pojmowania treści w kategoriach formy, np. utożsamiania fizycznej wielkości kodu z jego informacyjną zawartością, fizycznej odległości między elementami kodu z odległością pojęciową, a nawet przestrzennego porządku elementów kodu z czasowym porządkiem wydarzeń (co umożliwia inna metafora pojęciowa, CZAS TO PRZESTRZEŃ). Obserwacje te prowadzą do wniosku, że forma językowa jest ściśle związana z naszym postrzeganiem rzeczywistości, szczególnie za pomocą zmysłu wzroku.
... O th er linguists w ho have called on these concepts, their conceptual synonym s foreground and background, o r the m ore general " degrees o f salience" , include Hopper [1979], Hopper andThompson [1980, 1984], Wallace [1982], L a к o f f [1987]. Langacker's [1987] " traje cto r" is also qu ite co m p arable to T alm y's F igure, while his " la n d m a rk " com pares w ith T alm y 's G ro u n d . ...
Autorka zwraca uwagę na to, że główne zasady psychologii postaci, formułowane pierwotnie w celu wyjaśnienia mechanizmów percepcji wizualnej, odnoszą się również do mechanizmów językowych na różnych poziomach. Ogólna zasada prymatu całości – „postaci” nad częścią, fakt, że postać nie da się sprowadzić jedynie do sumy jej elementów, jest również jedną z głównych zasad języka. Podział pola postrzegania na figurę i tło, jak i bardziej szczegółowe prawa determinujące ten podział (np. tendencja zamknięcia całości) znajduje odzwierciedlenie lub analogię w wielu konstrukcjach językowych. Sugeruje to, że język jest związany z percepcją wizualną bardziej niż przyznawały to tradycyjne teorie językoznawcze.
This article examines how the concept of narrative crystallized within the framework of the philosophy of mind, cognitive linguistics and narrative psychology can shed light on the role of intentional state attribution in the process of communication. The primary aim of this investigation is to shed new light on the presupposition that narrative can be regarded as a tool of communicating representations of intentional relations and events between individuals by verbal and nonverbal means. The paper argues that by illuminating the meaning-creating role of conceptual relationships emerging within narrative frameworks, we can also grasp how to attribute intentionalstates (eg. intention, belief, desire, hope, or fear) to our communication partners using narrative-oriented interpretation schemes, and thus to infer their intentions in communication. Based on this tenet the present article suggests possible answer to questions like what basic types of narratives determine the effectiveness of everyday communication processes; and how this concept-meaning connection embedded in narrative structures can become a factor of self-creation in everyday discourse.
Language behaviour is complex, but neuroscientific evidence disentangles it into distinct components supported by dedicated brain areas or networks. In this Review, we describe the 'core' language network, which includes left-hemisphere frontal and temporal areas, and show that it is strongly interconnected, independent of input and output modalities, causally important for language and language-selective. We discuss evidence that this language network plausibly stores language knowledge and supports core linguistic computations related to accessing words and constructions from memory and combining them to interpret (decode) or generate (encode) linguistic messages. We emphasize that the language network works closely with, but is distinct from, both lower-level - perceptual and motor - mechanisms and higher-level systems of knowledge and reasoning. The perceptual and motor mechanisms process linguistic signals, but, in contrast to the language network, are sensitive only to these signals' surface properties, not their meanings; the systems of knowledge and reasoning (such as the system that supports social reasoning) are sometimes engaged during language use but are not language-selective. This Review lays a foundation both for in-depth investigations of these different components of the language processing pipeline and for probing inter-component interactions.
In this chapter we address Lakoff and Johnson’s (J Philos 77(8):453–486, 1980) Conceptual Metaphor Theory, which, building on the earlier philosophical tradition, argues that people “speak in metaphors” because they “think in metaphors” and therefore “act in metaphors” and which emphasizes the role of metaphor in our thought and language processes. After an introduction to Conceptual Metaphor Theory, we will give examples that demonstrate the ubiquity of metaphor in our everyday language. We will then distinguish between a conceptual and a linguistic level of metaphor, reflected in the distinction between conceptual metaphor and metaphorical expression, and we will offer a typology of metaphorical expressions showing how, according to Lakoff and Johnson, the different types of metaphor can be traced back to the same semantic-conceptual structure and understood through the same process. Finally, we will analyze the main criticisms of Conceptual Metaphor Theory.
This article has as its purpose the enumeration of various conceptual metaphors of death from the viewpoint of cognitive linguistics. It used library research based on linguistics and semantics methodologies. The main theory used here is Lakoff and Johnson's conceptual metaphors and the system used is that of source and target domains. After citing the Quranic verses (Ayas) on the subject of death and pointing out theories related to conceptual metaphor in cognitive linguistics, it has been concluded that to define the abstract concept of death the Quran has adopted image schemas like path, trajector and landmark, and has employed some conceptual metaphors for death as a living, dynamic and tastable entity, and for the world as a receptacle through which man departs when dying. Also, death, in its metaphorical sense of time within place, is presented as the point of returning to the Creator. The educational function of this view on death, in terms of cognitive linguistics, is to create an awareness of the true meaning of it as far as it could lead to better mental and behavioral capacities.
This article has as its purpose the enumeration of various conceptual metaphors of death from the viewpoint of cognitive linguistics. It used library research based on linguistics and semantics methodologies. The main theory used here is Lakoff and Johnson's conceptual metaphors and the system used is that of source and target domains. After citing the Quranic verses (Ayas) on the subject of death and pointing out theories related to conceptual metaphor in cognitive linguistics, it has been concluded that to define the abstract concept of death the Quran has adopted image schemas like path, trajector and landmark, and has employed some conceptual metaphors for death as a living, dynamic and tastable entity, and for the world as a receptacle through which man departs when dying. Also, death, in its metaphorical sense of time within place, is presented as the point of returning to the Creator. The educational function of this view on death, in terms of cognitive linguistics, is to create an awareness of the true meaning of it as far as it could lead to better mental and behavioral capacities.
Since at least the time of Apollonius Dyscolus (The syntax of Apollonius Dyscolus, Benjamins, Amsterdam, 1981), On Syntax I: 78 it has been recognized that proper names express idia poiotēs literally “individual quality”, loosely “a unique identifier”. But on closer inspection they do more. I do not subscribe to the check-list account of proper names of Frege (Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik 100:25–50, 1892), Russell (Mind 14:479–493, 1905), Searle (Mind 67:166–173, 1958), Strawson (Individuals: an essay on descriptive metaphysics, Methuen, London, 1959), preferring the Kripke (Semantics of natural language, Reidel, Dordrecht, 253–355, 1972) notion of the name as rigid designator. I argue that proper names need to be included in a lexicon because they have certain lexical properties. Proper names for animates typically indicate the gender of the referent (cf. Searle in Mind 67:166–173, 1958), which is why transgender folk usually change their forename, and why John washed herself sounds anomalous/ungrammatical. Moreover, names often indicate the ethnic origin of the referent, compare the names Agyeman, Chen, Cohen, Françoise, Giancarlo, Kwame, Lyudmila, Mei, Nguyen, Papadopoulos, Shevardnadze, Tomiko, Wojciech. Although it is often claimed that names uniquely identify, they only do so in limited contexts: There are numerous individuals named Jesus or Elizabeth Taylor. Names are linked with roles (not merely gender roles): Robert Zimmerman may name the same person as Bob Dylan, but it was only the latter that is properly the creator of ‘Blowin’ in the Wind’. It is Marilyn Monroe and not Norma Jeane Mortenson who appeared in ‘Gentlemen Prefer Blondes’. A man may be Bill to his friends but William as a legal person. Names may vary across languages: London = Londres, = Shevardnadze. Names vary across-time: Byzantion ⇒ Kōnstantinoupolis ⇒ Kostantiniyye ⇒ İstanbul. Naming, Kripke’s ‘baptism’, is influenced by the role of the name-bearer in a certain spatio-temporal context. There is semantic content to a name but there is also pragmatic (encyclopaedic) information that cannot be ignored, cf. My boss is a little Hitler. I extend the discussion to all kinds of names, proper names, natural kind names, common names.
I propose a way to manage all these characteristics of names, beginning with the suggestion that lexicon entries supply one means of access to encyclopaedia entries, and that the lexicon forms a part of an encyclopaedia.
The study explores how language is used by feminist political activists who speak English, including those from Arabic and foreign backgrounds. The study aims to analyze the impact of gender on the social functions of language in political discourse. It uses a socio-cognitive approach to examine language in feminist speeches, highlighting how language shapes meaning and influences our understanding of gender roles and power dynamics in political contexts. The study reveals that gender significantly influences language use in political discourse, with feminist activists strategically using language to address issues such as peace, poverty, and societal conditions. It also notes variations in language use across cultures, with Arabic English speakers playing a key role in shaping gender perceptions. The study relies on R. O. Jacobson's examination of the social functions of language and employs the Lexical Constructional Model theory to analyze language's expressive, referential, and directive functions. By emphasizing the importance of understanding language use in political discourse, especially in relation to gender, the study sheds light on how language influences power dynamics and perceptions. The findings have implications for political communication, gender studies, and language policy, highlighting how language can be a tool for promoting social change.
Celem artykułu jest pokazanie przydatności podejścia kognitywistycznego do badania mnogości procesów semantycznych i konstruowania nowych znaczeń w złożonych jednostkach leksykalnych. Refleksja odbywa się przy użyciu metodologii językoznawstwa kognitywnego, stąd zgłębione zostają zjawiska metaforyzacji, integracji pojęciowej, relacji trajektor – landmark oraz profilowanie znaczenia jednostek złożonych. Materiał badawczy stanowią czasowniki zawierające przymiotnik w podstawowej formie (np. leichtfallen), w tym czasowniki zawierające nazwy barw (np. blaumachen). Ta grupa czasowników jest, w przeciwieństwie do polskiego, w języku niemieckim dość licznie reprezentowana. Opisane czasowniki integrują odniesienia specyficzne kulturowo, mogą i powinny być badane także przez odwołanie do konceptu umysłu ucieleśnionego. Zastosowane podejście może zostać z powodzeniem przyłożone do innego materiału badawczego.
This chapter moves the argument from metaphor to metonymy. In the previous chapter, I demonstrated that 'doing metaphor' in the sense of managing novel metaphor receptively and productively-the ability to metaphorize-involves the selection of features, the recognition of part-whole relations between signs and parts of signs. This is the essence of metonymy and is the sense I shall be using for the remainder of this book. Recognizing that metonymy is a stage, or 'sub-process', within metaphor allows us to draw the conclusion that metonymy is more fundamental as a phenomenon than metaphor, and for this reason it is appropriate that metonymy now becomes the focus of the present study. In this chapter, I develop a General Theory of Metonymy by demonstrating the significance of metonymy across a whole range of linguistic and multimodal phenomena. I show that metonymy has a far wider 'reach' than just the creation of lexical formulations used for referring; it plays a vital role at every level of the language hierarchy , from phonemes to pragmatics, as well as serving a whole variety of essential communicative functions. I argue that metonymy offers a means by which existing semiotic resources can be exploited to give salience and nuance, and that it is here we find the explanation of language's great subtlety, flexibility and fitness for purpose. METONYMY IN THE LANGUAGE SYSTEM I am defining metonymy in this chapter as the highlighting of relatedness, usually part-whole, between closely-related concepts, things and signifiers. Whether we are concerned with a physical part, eg give me a hand , a part in the sense of an attribute, eg the small screen , or a part in the sense of an effect, eg smoke standing for FIRE , they have in common that they involve 'relatedness' and it is this which distinguishes metonymy from metaphor. Definitions of metonymy and relatedness will be examined in detail in the next section; in this section I outline the vital role metonymy plays in the language system itself and in our conceptual system in general. I consider a whole range of linguistic phenomena which all have in common that, to operate, they rely on the recognition of part-whole relations. I consider the following headings in turn below: 'sense and
The previous chapter has considered metonymy as a phenomenon in conceptual-ization, in the language system and in communication. In this chapter, I look at metonymy in a number of specific contexts. I look first at the use of metonymy in giving nuance, emphasis and spin. I suggest that processing near equivalents and partial matches is the key to explaining the flexibility of linguistic communication and why language is so well suited to the social purposes to which it is put. I then look at the conspicuous role played by metonymy in personal and popular culture and recreational activities. I consider pursuits such as games, puzzles and jokes, activities which are inessential in a sense but nonetheless important in our lives, certainly when we consider them in terms of the time, money and enthusiasm invested in them. They have in common that they have at their centre the exploration of metonymic processing for its own sake. I consider the following phenomena: TV quiz shows, lookalikes, humour, formal metonymy, alternative names, in-family expressions and avoiding cooperation, and suggest that the surprising prominence of metonymy in these activities indicates an emotional acknowledgement of the importance of metonymy in many practical aspects of our lives. THE USE OF METONYMY TO GIVE NUANCE, EMPHASIS AND SPIN In the introduction to this book, I gave examples of metonymy occurring in everyday interactions which I had collected in my field notebooks during a two-day period over New Year 2010. They included a discussion about the short form of a name, the solutions to crossword clues, the etymology of the word buff , and so on. All involved the identification of part-whole relations for their success. Here, I offer some further examples, again taken from my data notebooks. These illustrate just how widespread and diverse metonymic processing is in everyday interaction. These data include conventionalized expressions, such as pay with plastic , the small screen , white-collar worker , scratch card , go for a bite , a roof over your head , fight tooth and nail , head for the door , win hearts and minds , go under the knife , slap and tickle , bums on seats , get money from the hole in the wall ; expressions , such as prick and ping 'ready meals' (the containers are 'pricked' with a Metonymy in Culture and Recreation 5
This study presents a quantitative study of the polysemy of the
Chinese perception verb kàn ‘look/see’ by using a corpus-based
behavioural profile approach. The analysis yields the following
findings. First, two significant meaning clusters of kàn can be
distinguished: the first represents physical perceptual senses, and
the second groups together cognitive senses. Second, both the
frequency and behavioural profiles are used to determine the
prototypicality of kàn. They lead to the same conclusion that
the sense ‘perceive with eyes’ is the prototypical meaning of kàn.
Based on the corpus results, a semantic network of kàn has been
proposed and the cognitive mechanisms underlying its meaning
extension have been addressed. It is found that its meaning
extensions in the domain of physical perception are attributed to
the metonymy SUBEVENT FOR WHOLE EVENT, while its meaning
extensions in the domain of cognition are ascribed to the metaphor
COGNITION IS PERCEPTUAL VISION. These results not only provide
usage-based evidence for the universal interconnections between
perception and cognition, but also confirm the effectiveness and
viability of a behavioural profile analysis in studying the polysemy
of perception verbs. This study also demonstrates that quantitative
methods are essential for the description and understanding of
semasiological structures.
Analisa-se uma propaganda da Sinaf (empresa de seguros e assistência funeral), postada na página do Twitter da empresa, que, desde 1996, se destacou por usar o humor como estratégia de venda de assistência funerária. Para tal, tomam-se como base as teorias da superioridade, do alívio e da incongruência (Nunes, 2022; Tabacaru, 2015), aliadas ao arcabouço da semântica cognitiva, a saber: teorias da integração conceptual (Fauconnier; Turner, 2002) e da metáfora conceptual estendida (Kövecses, 2020; Bernardo, 2023), assim como os conceitos de espaços mentais, frames, domínios e esquemas imagéticos, estruturas conceptuais que organizam nossas experiências, tornando-as coerentes. Em termos metodológicos, a análise configura-se como um estudo qualitativo, cujo objetivo geral se alinha ao método descritivo-exploratório, porque visa à busca de relações entre os conceitos tomados como base para a conceptualização da propaganda, a fim de promover uma descrição que congregue os aspectos sociais, discursivos e cognitivos. Por meio deste estudo, parte de uma pesquisa em andamento, foi possível ilustrar como a abordagem sociocognitiva permite integrar aspectos cognitivos e discursivos, visto que os elementos sociais e culturais ativados pela propaganda evidenciam um elo entre ações encenadas por meio da linguagem multimodal e os processos cognitivos que lhes são subjacentes.
Doğal diller, o kodla iletişim kuran toplumların kültürel niteliklerini ortaya koyabilen en temel dizge olarak kabul edilmektedir. Dil ve kültür, etkileşimli bir alanda gelişmekte ve kültür, dili içerip dönüştürürken dil de kültürün yapılanması ve somutlaşmasına olanak sağlamaktadır. Bu bağlamda dilde bazı sözcüklerin, kültür aktarımında belirgin ve öncül bir rol oynadığı gözlemlenmektedir. Kültürel anahtar sözcükler olarak adlandırılan bu tür yapılar bir başka dile bütün içlemsel ve buna bağlı olarak uzanımsal nitelikleriyle çevrilememektedir. Bu setler üretim açısından farklı uzlaşı, gelenek ve ritüeller doğrultusunda şekillenmekte; toplumların soyut ve somut düzlemlerdeki kavramlaştırmalarını daha yapılandırılmış bir biçimde ortaya koyabilmektedir. Bu çalışmada Türkçenin anlam evrenine özgü olan ve farklı bir dile kültürel uzanımlarıyla birlikte çevrilmeye izin vermeyen düğün sözcüğünün eşdizimlilik ve anlam tercihi görünümleri araştırma konusu yapılmıştır. Bu kapsamda toplumsal bağlamda önemli bir geçiş töreni olan düğün kavramı doğal dilsel veriler ışığında incelenmiş ve Türk toplumunun belleğinde söz konusu etkinliğin nasıl yapılandırıldığı ortaya konmuştur. Araştırma betimsel modelde tasarlanmış ve elde edilen veriler içerik analizi kapsamında temalar ve kategoriler oluşturularak çözümlenmiştir. Düğün kavramının kültürel katmanlar temelli şekillenmesi, kavramlaştırma sürecinde kent/taşra ayrımının belirginleşmesi ve senaryoların da buna göre oluşması, söz konusu düğüm sözcüğün YER, TÜR, ZAMAN gibi 11 farklı alt ulam çevresinde kurgulanması elde edilen önemli sonuçlar arasındadır.
Traditionally, analytic philosophy has been affiliated with a formalist conception of inference which understands reasoning as a process that exploits syntactic properties of natural language according to a set of formal rules that are insensitive to conceptual content. This chapter discusses an alternative approach that takes semantic properties as the underlying forces driving rational inference. Building on Wilfird Sellars' notion of material inference and analytic tools from cognitive linguistics, I will show how parts of the inferential structure of natural language can be explained in terms of semantic relations between extra-logical concepts. In the end, I will outline a strategy for explicating some of these inference-types using Peter Gärdenfors' theory of conceptual spaces.
The paper takes up the issue of creating meanings, focusing the dynamic relation between lexicalization and conceptualization on the example of prepositions. By providing a systematic view of the specific meanings of the Contact Sense of the German preposition an (on, at) and its Polish, Spanish and English counterparts, the interface between the given real spatial relation of two objects, its lexicalization and the emerging conceptualization is highlighted. Special attention is paid to the role of the particular pieces of knowledge and experience being activated in creating these meanings in order to look closely at the concept of context as this context is usually interpreted differently by different researchers. The attempt to show what happens step by step when conceptualizing a real spatial relation and its linguistic expression fixed in the lexicalization pattern is motivated by the finding that the difficulty with clear determination and separation of the context information from the information actually creating the meaning is one of the reasons why studies on the cognitive aspects of the semantics of prepositions have been abandoned over time. The paper aims to contribute to the elaboration of an authoritative method of establishing and identifying meanings of prepositions, and to contribute to the discussion about the language-thought relation providing arguments supporting the view of language as a trigger for conceptualizations provided by the embodied cognition rather than as a tool shaping thoughts.
The aim of this article is to analyse the use of war metaphors in the articles published on February 24, 2022, by the "New York Times" and the "Moscow Times" thematising Russian aggression against Ukraine. Building on Lakoff and Johnson's theory of conceptual metaphor, we observe how war and its various aspects are conceptualised metaphorically in the media discourse. The analysis confirms opposing ideological viewpoints on the Russian-Ukrainian war presented in the two online newspapers that shape public opinion and influence global narratives.
Artykuł jest analizą hipotezy dowodzącej, że struktura języka może być źródłem inwentarza kategorii konceptualnych. Autorki stosują model funkcjonalno-leksematyczny leksykografii funkcjonalnej do analizy struktury definicyjnej pojęć oznaczających emitowanie światła i ich rozszerzeń metaforycznych w języku angielskim i hiszpańskim. Poprzez taką analizę autorki dochodzą do ustalenia zbioru zasadniczych kryteriów służących do klasyfikacji jednostek leksykalnych do poszczególnych domen poznawczych oraz do zdeterminowania i klasyfikacji związków między nimi zarówno na poziomie mikro-, jak i makrostruktury. Ustalone parametry wydają się być zbieżne ze znanymi w literaturze gramatyki kognitywnej schematami wyobrażeniowymi, co może być traktowane jako kolejny dowód na potwierdzenie tez podejścia kognitywnego do języka.
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