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Development of Children with Early Language Delay
Abstract
Four children with early language delays (ELD) were compared to a control group of 12 children with respect to their preschool language abilities from age 2 1/2 to 5 years and their verbal skills at the end of Grade 2. The language-delayed children each initially showed severe and broad impairments in syntactic, phonological, and lexical production. Over time, their deficits became milder and more selective, such that normal or nearly normal speech and language proficiency was exhibited by age 60 months. Nevertheless, when followed up 3 years later, three of the four cases were severely reading disabled. These findings are discussed with respect to prior findings and hypotheses about the sequelae of early language delay and the relationship of language development to reading achievement.
... Overall, M.C.G. received a total score of 37 on the IPSyn, somewhat lower than even the average total score of 48 points for late talkers, as reported by Rescorla et al. (2000). Typically developing children in Rescorla's sample scored on average 78 points and between 60 and 85 points in Scarborough's sample (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990); Scarborough (1990) reported that, on average, 36-month-old children earned a total of 73.87 points, with 17.73 points on the NP subscale, 20.8 points on the VP subscale, 15.47 points on the Q/N subscale, and 19.93 points on the SS subscale. ...
... First, we examined M.C.G.'s IPSyn Snapshot, and in reference to normal development as captured in the IPSyn Snapshot and both Scarborough (1990;Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990) and Rescorla et al.'s (2000) reported data, Figure 1. The IPSyn Snapshot with IPSyn-R crediting. ...
Purpose:
Syntax assessment and treatment is a major focus of speech-language pathologists who work with young children with language needs. The Index of Productive Syntax (IPSyn) provides an efficient method for the assessment of syntax of preschool-age children. The purpose of this tutorial is to illustrate how to hand-score an IPSyn from language sample transcripts and use this information to formulate appropriate syntactic goals.
Method:
We describe general methods and tips for facilitating hand-scoring. Two case study transcripts of a late talker at 36 and 48 months are provided. One case study transcript is fully scored in IPSyn with detailed explanations; the second case study is provided as a practice example with an IPSyn answer key. Relevant sample probes are provided to assist in the goal of obtaining a representative set of language structures.
Results:
We show how the IPSyn can be scored, subscale by subscale, and can highlight developmental stages of syntax following Brown's stages of grammatical development. We illustrate how the visual snapshot developmental nature of the instrument makes it ideal for deriving goals.
Conclusion:
The IPSyn is a practical and valuable tool for the assessment of syntax of preschool-age children.
... 48 In that age, with at least six year of formal schooling, many of the primary and basic difficulties of a developmental disorder may be less distinct and less sharp, some may be resolved while others may have arisen. 12,34,49,50 Α limited number of studies has compared adolescents with SLD and adolescents with SLI. Goulandris et al compared, among others, adolescents with dyslexia, and adolescents with persistent language impairment through the use of oral and written language skills testing. ...
... This is in agreement with researchers stating that adolescents seem to "outgrow: some of their language and/or learning difficulties through the years. 49,50 Therefore, our findings are only partially in line with the researchers who have concluded that a large percentage of the SLD and SLI population could be identified as either one or the other or that their difficulties could be a different manifestation of the same developmental language disorder. 17,28,29 The present study offers support to the idea that instead of using the dichotomy of SLI and SLD in diagnosis,-especially in Greece where the former do not receive the appropriate services and assessment and facilitations are not provided -professionals should acknowledge the significant overlap of language impairment and learning difficulties, not only in "language and/or literacy related" academic areas. ...
S pecific Language Impairment (SLI) and Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) have been the subject of extensive research especially with respect to the connection between them. However, the manifestation of these disorders in adolescence has not been thoroughly investigated. The objective of the present study was to compare the intelligence scores and the reading, oral and written language skills of Greek adolescents with SLI and Greek adolescents with SLD, as assessed during their psycho-educational evaluation, in order to clear the path for diagnosis and intervention. 124 Greek adolescents diagnosed with Specific Learning Disabilities and 76 Greek adolescents diagnosed with Specific Language Impairment aged from 11 to 16 years took part in the study. All participants were assessed in reading, oral language and written language skills and took part in IQ testing. Independent samples t-test, chi-square test, odds ratios and their 95 percent confidence intervals were implemented to determine statistically significant differences. Analyses revealed differences in IQ scores and some differences in the skills assessed, thus indicating that SLI adolescents exhibited more difficulties across most of the basic academic skills, whereas SLD adolescents' difficulties confined to the affected written language skills. Specifically, the observed difference was statistically significant for the total and verbal IQ score, and WISC-III scores also disclosed a significant difference for the similarities and information
... A nyelvi tesztekben elért eredményeik azonban rendszerint gyengébbek, különösen iskoláskorban, mint a tipikus fejlődésűeké (Rescorla 2002;Dale et al. 2003;Ellis Weismer 2007). Egy másik terminus is ismeretes, amely a későn érő gyermekekre utal, és "csalóka javulásként" (angolul: 'delusory improvement') azonosítja ezeket az eseteket (Scarborough-Dobrich 1990). A kutatások többsége azt támasztotta alá, hogy az anyanyelv-elsajátítás késői indulása rizikótényező marad a nyelvfejlődés egészére nézve, idősebb életkorokban is, beleértve a tanulási folyamatokra gyakorolt hatásokat (Perna-Loughan 2013). ...
A megkésett beszédfejlődés azt jelenti, hogy a gyermek anyanyelv-elsajátítása késve indul, a fejlődés jellegzetes elmaradásokat mutat. A beszéd késése rendszerint akkor tűnik fel, ha a gyermek kétévesen még nem mond szavakat, avagy a beszéde csak néhány szóra korlátozódik. Kérdés, hogy vajon ezeknek a gyermekeknek a rejtett beszédfeldolgozása életkor-specifikusan működik-e. A keresztmetszeti kutatásban 52 hatéves és 52 nyolcéves gyermeket vizsgáltak, akik három-, illetve négyévesen kezdtek el beszélni. A kontrollcsoportokat szám, életkor és nem szerint illesztett, tipikus fejlődésűek alkották. A kutatásban a GMP-diagnosztika hat tesztjében nyújtott teljesítményüket elemezték. A megkésett beszédfejlődésűek az anyanyelv-elsajátítás kezdetétől és az életkoruktól függetlenül csoportszinten szignifikánsan gyengébben teljesítettek, mint a tipikus fejlődésűek. A tanulmány a kapott adatokat a nyelvelsajátítás kezdetének, a beszédfeldolgozási folyamatoknak és a vizsgált életkornak a függvényében tárgyalja.
... Thus, they have come to be called "late talkers" by most of the researchers who are studying them (Thal and Bates, 1988a;Caulfield, Fischel, DeBaryshe, and Whitehurst, 1989;Fischel, Whitehurst, Caulfield, and DeBaryshe, 1989;Rescorla and Schwartz, 1990;Paul, 1991;Whitehurst, Fischel, Arnold, and Lonigan, 1992). However, in many samples there is a disturbing continuity in language delay for a substantial proportion of these toddlers (Rescorla and Schwartz, 1990;Scarborough and Dobrich, 1990;Paul, Spangle-Looney, and Dahm, 1991;Thal, Tobias, and Morrison, 1991). ...
... It is unknown whether LSA may have captured additional language weaknesses in early childhood. One possibility is that children in the current study were in a period of illusory recovery (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990) where language abilities measured with normreferenced language assessments are within typical limits, but language difficulties were present earlier. Thus, these children might meet criteria for DLD (again) later in development due to a combination of rising language demands and potential cascading effects where deficits accumulate over time and impact other speech-language learning processes (e.g., G. J. Miller et al., 2019). ...
Background
Speech and language are interconnected systems, and language disorder often co-occurs with childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) and non-CAS speech sound disorders (SSDs). Potential trade-off effects between speech and language in connected speech in children without overt language disorder have been less explored.
Method
Story retell narratives from 24 children (aged 5;0–6;11 [years;months]) with CAS, non-CAS SSD, and typical development were analyzed in Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts (SALT) regarding morphosyntactic complexity (mean length of C-unit in words [MLCU]), lexical diversity (moving-average type–token ratio [MATTR]), and linguistic accuracy (any linguistic error/bound morpheme omissions) and compared to 128 age-matched children from the SALT database. Linear and mixed-effects logistic regressions were performed with speech accuracy (percent phonemes correct [PPC]) and diagnostic group as predictors of the narrative variables.
Results
PPC predicted all narrative variables. Poorer PPC was associated with lower MLCU and MATTR as well as a higher likelihood of linguistic errors. Group differences were only observed for the error variables. Comparison to the SALT database indicated that 13 of 16 children with CAS and SSD showed a higher-than-expected proportion of linguistic errors, with a small proportion explained by individual speech errors only.
Conclusions
The high occurrence of linguistic errors, combined with the relationship between PPC and linguistic errors in children with CAS/SSD, suggests a trade-off between speech accuracy and language output. Longitudinal studies are needed to investigate whether children with SSDs without language disorder show more language difficulties over time as linguistic demands increase.
... Ωστόσο, εάν οι μηχανισμοί που εμπλέκονται στην εκμάθηση της γλώσσας είναι άθικτοι (όπως μπορούμε να συμπεράνουμε ότι είναι στα παιδιά των οποίων οι πρώιμες γλωσσικές καθυστερήσεις επιλύονται), τότε το φωνολογικό έλλειμμα θα επηρεάσει μόνο τις δεξιότητες του γραπτού λόγου. Στην ουσία, αυτή η υπόθεση συμφωνεί με αυτήν των Scarborough & Dobrich (1990) που πρότεινε την έννοια της "φανταστικής επίλυσης" για να περιγράψει τα παιδιά με καθυστέρηση στη γλώσσα των οποίων οι γλωσσικές δυσκολίες προφανώς επιλύθηκαν, αλλά που εκδήλωσαν έπειτα προβλήματα ανάγνωσης. Μια εναλλακτική υπόθεση είναι όχι ότι οι διαφορές μεταξύ δυσλεξίας και της ΕΓΔ ενεργοποιούν την παρουσία ενός πρόσθετου κινδύνου και προστατευτικών παραγόντων, αλλά μάλλον, όπως προτείνεται από τους Ramus κ.ά. ...
https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/documents/1558/03_Snowling_1803.pdf
Journal of the British Academy, 2, 43-58. Doi: 0.5871/jba/002.043
Αναρτήθηκε την 23η Ιουνίου 2014
© The British Academy 2014
Δυσλεξία: Μία δυσκολία εκμάθησης της γλώσσας
Βρετανική Ακαδημία/Βρετανική Ψυχολογική Εταιρεία
MARGARET J. SNOWLING
Μέλος της Ακαδημίας
Μετάφραση και προσαρμογή στην ελληνική γλώσσα: Μαρία Μεγγησίδου
Δρ., Πανεπιστημιακό Κολλέγιο του Λονδίνου
Περίληψη: Χωρίς την ικανότητα να διαβάζει κανείς με ευχέρεια και κατανόηση, υπάρχει η πιθανότητα εκδήλωσης φτωχών εκπαιδευτικών επιτευγμάτων και προοπτικών σταδιοδρομίας. Η δυσλεξία είναι, ως εκ τούτου, ένα μείζον πρόβλημα για την κοινωνία κι ένα βασικό ερώτημα είναι αν είναι δυνατόν να παρέμβει κανείς νωρίς για να μειώσει τον αντίκτυπό της. Μελέτες που αφορούν την ανάπτυξη των παιδιών που είναι σε οικογενειακό κίνδυνο για την εκδήλωση της δυσλεξίας δείχνουν ότι σχετίζεται με καθυστερήσεις στη γλώσσα και την ομιλία στα προσχολικά έτη, πριν, δηλαδή, από την έναρξη της διδασκαλίας. Ο αλφαβητισμός για τα παιδιά εξαρτάται όχι μόνο από τους παράγοντες κινδύνου που προδιαθέτουν την εκδήλωση των αναγνωστικών δυσκολιών, αλλά και από τους προστατευτικούς παράγοντες που μετριάζουν τον κίνδυνο. Νέα ερευνητικά δεδομένα δείχνουν ότι η δυσλεξία βρίσκεται σε ένα συνεχές μαζί με άλλες δυσκολίες μάθησης της γλώσσας.
Λέξεις-κλειδιά: Αναγνωστικές δυσκολίες, Δυσλεξία, ΕΓΔ, Ελλείμματα στην εκμάθηση της γλώσσας, Μελέτες κινδύνου.
Σημείωση για τη συγγραφέα: Η Maggie Snowling, FBA, FMed Sci, είναι Καθηγήτρια στο Τμήμα Πειραματικής Ψυχολογίας του Πανεπιστημίου της Οξφόρδης και Πρόεδρος του St John’s College. Η έρευνά της επικεντρώνεται στη γλώσσα και τη μάθηση των παιδιών, και την ενδιαφέρει συγκεκριμένα η φύση και τα αίτια των αναγνωστικών δυσκολιών των παιδιών και ο καλύτερος τρόπος για να τα αντιμετωπίσει. Είναι επίσης εξειδικευμένη κλινική ψυχολόγος. Υπηρέτησε ως μέλος της συμβουλευτικής ομάδας των εμπειρογνωμόνων του Sir Jim Rose για την παροχή για τη Δυσλεξία το 2009 και ως μέλος των εμπειρογνωμόνων της ομάδας Education for All: Fast Track Initiative στην Ουάσιγκτον DC το 2011.
Επικοινωνία: maggie.snowling@sjc.ox.ac.uk
Αυτό το άρθρο αδειοδοτείται βάσει των Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License.
Το Περιοδικό της Βρετανικής Ακαδημίας (ISSN 2052–7217) εκδίδεται από τη Βρετανική Ακαδημία—η εθνική ακαδημία για τις ανθρωπιστικές και κοινωνικές επιστήμες
... In wave 3, there were four monolingual and four bilingual children with DLD who did not qualify for educational support anymore. These children were not excluded, as DLD and language difficulties are known to be persistent (Scarborough and Dobrich 1990) and diagnostic categories have been shown to be unstable (Conti-Ramsden and Botting 1999). ...
Bilingualism is associated with enhanced switching skills, while a developmental language disorder (DLD) may negatively impact switching ability. However, both studies with bilinguals as well as studies including children with DLD have revealed mixed results. Moreover, the interaction of bilingualism and DLD has not been addressed and the origin of the stronger or weaker switching performance is unknown. The current study aimed to fill these gaps. Monolingual and bilingual children with and without DLD (n = 32 in each of the four groups) completed a nonverbal color/shape switching task when they were 7 to 8 years old, and a Continuous Performance Task two years earlier. The latter tapped into their response inhibition and sustained attention skills, which may underlie switching ability. No differences between monolinguals and bilinguals were found on the switching task. Children with DLD had higher mixing costs than peers without DLD, which was driven by differences in sustained attention skills. These results add to the body of research indicating that the cognitive advantages of bilingualism are unstable. Additionally, the results substantiate the hypothesis that attention processes are foundational for complex cognitive skills, such as switching, and suggest cascading effects for children with weaker attention skills, such as children with DLD.
... Υπάρχουν ενδείξεις ότι, αν και οι δυσκολίες στον λόγο με το πέρασμα του χρόνου είναι λιγότερο αντιληπτές, οι γλωσσικές ελλείψεις στη μορφολογία-σύνταξη και στην επεξεργασία των λεκτικών ερεθισμάτων, μπορούν να ανιχνευθούν με δοκιμασίες που ελέγχουν πιο λεπτομερώς τη δομή του λόγου. 27,28 Τα ευρήματα της παρούσας μελέτης επιβεβαιώνουν ότι οι πιθανές γλωσσικές ελλείψεις των παιδιών με ιστορικό αναπτυξιακής διαταραχής του λόγου αντικατοπτρίζονται στη μορφο-σύνταξη και κατανόηση του γραπτού κειμένου, συμβάλλοντας στη βαρύτητα της αναγνωστικής δυσχέρειας. Από την κλινική εμπειρία, γνωρίζουμε ότι ακόμη και στις περιπτώσεις παιδιών με γλωσσική διαταραχή που επιτυχώς απέκτησαν τον μηχανισμό της ανάγνωσης (αποκωδικοποίηση, ευχέρεια), αναφέρεται από τις μητέρες τους η δυσκολία στην αναγνωστική κατανόηση που γίνεται συνήθως αντιληπτή στην Γ΄ Δημοτικού σχολείου όταν τα παιδιά διδάσκονται μαθήματα, όπως η Ιστορία, που απαιτούν επάρκεια στη σημασιολογική και πραγματολογική αναγνώριση λέξεων, προτάσεων και νοήματος του γραπτού κειμένου. ...
The present study aimed to investigate the profile of reading and cognitive skills of primary school' students with a history of specific developmental language disorder during preschool years. The sample comprised 247 children referred for assessment of their reading difficulties to the University Child Psychiatry Department, at the "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, Greece. The study was retrospective utilizing medical records from where the following information was drawn: demographic data, presence of a diagnosis of a specific developmental language disorder, results of Reading Test-A and WISC-III. Among the 247 children with normal intelligence IQ>80 (mean age: 10.5 years, 61.5% boys) included in the study, 226 (92.5%) were identified as having significant reading difficulties in at least one of the four subtests of the Reading-A Test (≤ 30 percentile); 72% performed poorly in reading fluency, 67.1% in decoding familiar and pseudowords, 52.8% in reading comprehension and 49.8% in morphosyntax subtest. When comparing children with severe reading difficulties (≤ 10 percentile on the Reading Test A) with a history of specific developmental language disorder (N=110) and no relevant history (N=116), the findings indicated that a significantly higher proportion of children with a history of specific language disorder had severe difficulty in morphosyntax (χ2=21.94, p<0.001) and reading comprehension subtests (χ2=8.89, p <0,001) than those with no history. In terms of the cognitive profile of children with severe reading difficulties, the results showed that a significantly higher proportion of children with a history of developmental language disorder than those with no history had low performance (<7TB) on all WISC-III subtests, however the difference between the two groups was found to be statistically significant on three subtests: "Vocabulary" (p=0.014), Arithmetic (p=0.006), and "Information" (p=0.005). Multiple linear stepwise regression analysis showed that lower levels of the verbal IQ (β=-0.121, p=0.042) and positive history of developmental language disorder during preschool years (β=0.537, p<0.001) were independently related to the severity of reading disability. In conclusion, the findings of the present study highlight the importance of early detection of language deficits during the preschool years and timely speech and language therapy intervention.
... 43 Konuşma ve dil gecikmesi olan okul öncesi çağındaki çocuklar, okumada güçlük çekebilirler, 7 veya 8 yaşlarında zayıf okuma becerileri sergileyebilirler ve özellikle yazılı dilde güçlük çekebilirler. [44][45][46] Bu da sonrasında genel akademik başarısızlığa ve bazı durumlarda daha düşük IQ puanlarına sebep olabilir. 47,48 Dil gecikmesi olan çocuklarda daha fazla davranış problemi ve bozulmuş psikososyal uyuma rastlanabilmektedir. ...
Speech and language development is a helpful indicator of a child's overall development and cognitive ability. Identifying children at risk for developmental delay or related problems at a young age, when the rate of development is highest, may contribute to intervention and assistance. This rationale supports integrating speech and language delay screening in routine developmental health and teeth checkups in preschool children.
... Numerous studies suggest that early linguistic challenges in the form of a language delay during the preschool years forms a significant risk factor for chronic language impairment with associated academic failure and learning disabilities (Scarborough and Dobrich, 1990;Nash and Donaldson, 2005;Wise et al., 2007;Desmarais et al., 2008;Rescorla, 2009;Petinou et al., 2011;Bleses et al., 2016). Late talkers might be at risk of developing a language disorder compared to typically developing children (Rescorla and Schwartz, 1990;Rescorla et al., 2000b;Parizi et al., 2013). ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the adapted Cyprus Greek Lexical List a-CYLEX (GR) in a sample of 194 Greek toddlers from the island of Crete with Standard Modern Greek (SMG) as their primary language. The a-CYLEX (GR) is a parental report checklist for assessing the receptive and expressive vocabulary skills of children aged 12 months to 3:6 years. Concurrent validity of the instrument was tested via correlations with the adapted Greek version of the Receptive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test-II (ROWPVT-II), which was administered to 124 SMG-speaking children between the ages of 2 and 3:6 years. Test–retest reliability was tested by administering the instrument two times within a 2-week interval to 59 parents (30.41% of the total sample). Statistical analyses provided strong evidence for the high internal consistency and test–retest reliability of the a-CYLEX (GR). The role of the demographic variables in vocabulary performance and the frequency of each a-CYLEX (GR) word category by age were also investigated. In conclusion, the a-CYLEX (GR) is a parental report checklist that can be used by clinicians who are interested in assessing receptive and expressive vocabulary of children during toddlerhood.
... Speech and language disorders often occur early in development and, regardless of symptom severity, can have life-long and sweeping impacts on health and wellbeing (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2016). Children with speech and language disorders are at risk for literacy and academic deficits (Alt et al., 2014;Bird et al., 1995;Catts et al., 2002;Harrison et al., 2009;Larrivee & Catts, 1999;Lewis et al., 2000;Lewis & Freebairn, 1992;Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990;Silva et al., 1983;Stoeckel et al., 2013), poor psychosocial outcomes such as emotional and behavioral disorders (Baker & Cantwell, 1987;Beitchman et al., 1996), and mental health disorders such as anxiety (Beitchman et al., 2001;Glogowska et al., 2006;Law et al., 2009). There is also a higher incidence of undiagnosed language disorders among juvenile offenders (Winstanley et al., 2018). ...
Objectives
The purposes of this study were to (a) examine children's access to services for their speech and language disorders during their lifetimes; (b) identify any child, disorder, and family characteristics associated with access to services; and (c) describe the speech and language service providers among children who received care.
Study design
Data from the 2012 National Health Interview Survey were used for this retrospective cohort study. Our sample included 491 children (ages 3;0–17;11 [years;months]) with speech disorders and 333 children with language disorders. We measured the receipt of services for speech or language difficulties (main outcome) and the type of professional providing services (secondary outcome). We examined associations between services and child, disorder, and family characteristics.
Results
Approximately 75% of children with speech and language disorders had ever received services for their difficulties. Privately insured children and children with co-occurring conditions were more likely to receive services than their peers who were uninsured (speech: 6.1 [1.7,21.3]; language: 6.6 [1.3,32.9]) and had no co-occurring conditions (speech: 2.1 [1.2,3.9]; language: 2.9 [1.5,5.5]). Speech-language pathologists (SLPs) were the most commonly reported provider of services (speech: 68%, language: 60%) followed by early interventionists.
Conclusions
Most children with speech and language disorders received services. However, disparities existed by race/ethnicity, health insurance type, co-occurring diagnoses, and disorder duration (speech only). Most children who received services were being provided with care by the experts of speech and language: SLPs. Updated population-based data and implementation studies are needed to document speech and language screening, referral, and access to services.
Supplemental Material
https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.19799389
... Indeed, children that use a limited number of words by 24 months, i.e. late talking (LT) children, are considered globally at risk for developmental disorders. 58 Although in follow up studies, the majority of LT children show linguistic performances in the normal range and only a small percentage receive a diagnosis of language disorder in preschool years, 59,60 there is evidence of language performances significantly lower than TD children in this population as far as in late adolescence. [61][62][63] Moreover, the early vocabulary size estimated, via parent questionnaire, between 22 and 29 months was reported to be significantly correlated with various lexical performances directly tested at around 3 years: expressive vocabulary, lexical comprehension, naming, and the number of different words used in a spontaneous language sample. ...
Purpose
Describing language development in children with sex chromosome trisomies (SCT) and testing the predictive value of early language measures on later outcomes.
Method
Thirteen children with SCT were followed longitudinally. Their developmental profile was assessed, with particular attention to language, at 2 and 4 years. The predictive value of direct (spontaneous speech analysis) and indirect (communicative development inventory) language measures at 2 on performances at 4 was tested.
Results
Language performances at both ages were lower than non-verbal development. At 2, more than 50% of the group produced less than 50 words. At 4, impaired performances were observed in speech sound development and expressive morpho-syntax. Direct measures of Pre-syntactic development predicted later global language outcomes and Sentence Repetition. The number of consonants used at 2 was significantly related to Nonword Repetition at 4.
Conclusions
The study highlights the importance of early detection and careful follow-up for children with SCT.
... En revanche, à des tâches lexicales (désignation, dénomination d'images, définition de mots) et de compréhension d'énoncés (TROG en anglais, équivalent de l'E.CO.S.SE., Lecocq, 1996), les scores de ces jeunes ne différaient pas significativement de ceux des contrôles de même âge (Stothard, Snowling, Bishop, Chipchase, & Kaplan, 1998). L'existence de séquelles à long terme chez des enfants ayant présenté un trouble spécifique du langage oral présumé résorbé vers cinq ans et demi a conduit certains auteurs à évoquer la notion de récupération illusoire (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990). De ce fait, considérer que les troubles du langage oral s'étalent sur un continuum de sévérité et ne s'organisent pas en deux classes disjointes (troubles transitoires à résorption totale vs troubles persistants) s'avère plus conforme à la réalité (Piérart, 2004). ...
Résumé Les enfants avec un trouble spécifique d’articulation, de parole et/ou de langage oral résorbé ou persistant, présentent, à des degrés divers, des risques de difficultés d’apprentissage de la lecture. Cette revue critique de la littérature présente les caractéristiques des capacités de lecture de ces enfants, pour ce qui concerne la reconnaissance de mots écrits et la compréhension en lecture. Cette analyse qui insiste sur les liens entre les habiletés orales et écrites de ces enfants, est réalisée en référence aux différents modèles sur les liens entre les troubles du langage oral et les troubles de lecture.
... Beginning with the association between DD and ELD, the consensus is that ELD puts a child at greater risk of developing reading difficulties compared to children with typically developing language, despite the fact this has not been universally found (Rescorla, 2011). A significant association was demonstrated in a sample of 16 children followed from age 2.5 to 7 years old (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990) and was supported by larger studies. For example, a study of 174 children by Preston and colleagues (2010) and a study of 200 children by Lyytinen and colleagues (2005) examined 4 to 12 year olds with a family history of reading/ language difficulties; both reports found an association between DD and ELD (Lyytinen et al., 2005;Preston et al., 2010). ...
Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a common reading disability, affecting 5% to 11% of children in North America. Children classified as having DD often have a history of early language delay (ELD) or language impairments. Nevertheless, studies have reported conflicting results as to the association between DD-ELD and the extent of current language difficulties in children with DD. To examine these relationships, we queried the parents of school-aged children with reading difficulties on their child's early and current language ability. Siblings were also examined. Children were directly assessed using quantitative tests of language and reading skills. To compare this study with the literature, we divided the sample (N = 674) into three groups: DD, intermediate readers (IR), and skilled readers (SR). We found a significant association between DD and ELD, with parents of children in the DD/IR groups reporting their children put words together later than the SR group. We also found a significant association between DD and language difficulties, with children with low reading skills having low expressive/receptive language abilities. Finally, we identified early language predicted current language, which predicted reading skills. These data contribute to research indicating that children with DD experience language difficulties, suggesting early recognition may help identify reading problems.
... Each structural component is shown to be associated with different domains of functioning. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that can be combined to form words. Several studies have established a link between early detection and production of speech sounds (e.g., during infancy and toddlerhood) and later academic achievement (e.g., Richardson et al., 2009;Savage, Carless, & Ferraro, 2007;Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990;Snowling et al., 2003). For instance, phoneme awareness (the ability to identify and use phonemes correctly) is shown to be associated with other skills like reading (Roth, Speece, & Cooper, 2002). ...
The psychosocial well-being of children and adolescents with epilepsy is affected by comorbid language deficits. Little is known about the focus of current research in language and epilepsy. A systematic review of research was conducted to identify gaps in knowledge regarding language and epilepsy. In total, 83 published articles were eligible for inclusion. More studies included samples presenting with focal seizures (k = 39) compared to generalized seizures (k = 10), few included measures of morphology (k = 4). Most studies (k = 66) included samples of participants across a wide age range. Our review indicated t-hat future research should include a greater focus on participants with more diversity in epilepsy etiology (e.g., symptomatic epilepsy), and seizure type (e.g., generalized seizures), assessment of additional areas of language (e.g., morphology), increased focus on early childhood, focused examination of specific developmental stages, and greater use of comparison groups with an alternate epilepsy diagnosis.
... Each structural component of language (phonology, morphology, semantics, and syntax) is shown to be associated with academic functioning (e.g., reading) [17,[28][29][30][31], psychiatric disorders e.g., externalizing problems), and social competence (e.g., peer acceptance) [32]. For example, early morphological skill (at age 4.5 years) predicts later (age 8) reading ability [33], early semantic language (ages 4 and 5) predicts of later externalizing problems (ages 8 and 9) [34], and both semantic and syntactic language predict later social competence [11,20,21]. ...
The abnormal brain activity associated with childhood epilepsy can have an impact on the developmental trajectory of cognitive processes, like language, in this population. However, there is variation in how researchers study language ability in children with epilepsy and the findings that are reported (no differences vs. a significant difference). The current systematic review and meta-analysis uses data from 13 available studies to consider the magnitude of language differences in children with epilepsy compared to their typically developing peers. Seizure classification, age of onset, component of language measured, and instrument used to measure language were all considered as potential moderators of differences in language skill. The results indicate a significant large effect size for language deficits in children with epilepsy compared to their peers. Seizure classification partially, but not fully, accounts for the variability in effect size. In addition, effect sizes differ relative to component of language measured; effect sizes were greatest in magnitude for semantic language and verbal fluency, and minimal for syntax, but only when including all studies of children with epilepsy, regardless of seizure classification. These findings differ when considering language component in children with generalized or focal seizures only. The data reported here also indicate distinct differences in effect size depending on type of instrument used to measure one aspect of language, verbal fluency.
... At wave 1 and 2, all children with DLD met the inclusion criteria specified above, indicating that none of the children quickly caught up (even though their exposure to Dutch was high due to schooling) and that the diagnosis was reliable. There were four bilingual children with DLD and four (matched) monolingual children with DLD who did not meet the criteria anymore at wave 3. We did not exclude these children, given their history of DLD and the long-term persistence of language difficulties (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990). The TD participants did not have documented language problems. ...
Background
Children’s executive functioning (EF) is often negatively associated with a developmental language disorder (DLD) and positively related to bilingualism. However, both regarding children with DLD and bilingual children, findings are mixed and few studies have investigated the combination of DLD and bilingualism in relation to EF.
Aims
This study investigated the effects of DLD and bilingualism on children’s EF development.
Methods
Monolingual and bilingual children with DLD and typical development (TD; N = 32 in each group) were tested three times with yearly intervals (MAGE = 71 months at time 1). Verbal and visuospatial working memory, selective attention, and inhibition were assessed.
Results
Monolinguals and bilinguals with DLD had weak working memory and inhibition skills at each time point compared to TD peers, which could partly be explained by verbal short-term memory limitations. Positive effects of bilingualism emerged when controlling for Dutch vocabulary and morphology skills, and were most pronounced at time 1.
Conclusions
Monolinguals and bilinguals with DLD have similar and persistent EF deficits, which are partly secondary to verbal short-term memory weaknesses. Bilinguals performed better on EF than monolinguals when Dutch language knowledge was controlled for. This effect was found regardless of DLD and was most prominent at age 5–6 years.
... In contrast, children with transient language delay appear specifically vulnerable to later behavioral and social difficulties. The possibility of ensuing difficulties in children with transient language delay inspired the term illusory recovery (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990). The hypothesis is that catching up to children with typical language development by the end of the preschool years does not eliminate the risk of difficulties. ...
Purpose
The objective of this study was to compare children with persistent versus transient preschool language delay on language, academic, and psychosocial outcomes in elementary school.
Method
Children with persistent language delay (n = 30), transient language delay (n = 29), and no language delay (controls; n = 163) were identified from a population-based sample of twins. They were compared on language skills, academic achievement, and psychosocial adjustment in kindergarten and Grades 1, 3, 4, and 6.
Results
Children with persistent language delay continued to show language difficulties throughout elementary school. Furthermore, they had academic difficulties, in numeracy, and psychosocial difficulties (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder behaviors, externalizing behaviors, peer difficulties) from Grade 1 to Grade 6. Children with transient language delay did not differ from controls on language and academic performance. However, they showed more externalizing behaviors in kindergarten and peer difficulties in Grade 1 than controls.
Conclusion
Difficulties at school age are widespread and enduring in those with persistent early language delay but appear specific to psychosocial adjustment in those with transient language delay. // Our research explained in plain language: https://link.growkudos.com/1t1sz8kwglc
... Cette progression non linéaire des compétences langagières orales pourrait aussi conduire les enfants avec des troubles du langage oral à paraître « typiques » au moment où les enfants sans troubles atteignent un plateau. Cette théorie est appelée « l'hypothèse de la récupération illusoire » (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990). ...
Cette thèse porte sur les capacités de lecture des enfants souffrant de troubles spécifiques du langage oral (TSLO). Elle tente de préciser les processus à l’oeuvre lors de la lecture de mots isolés chez ces enfants, en analysant leurs compétences langagières écrites en lien avec leurs compétences orales. Dans un premier temps, nous présentons les principaux acquis de la littérature à ce propos. Puis nous exposons quatre études expérimentales réalisées auprès d’enfants avec un TSLO ainsi qu’auprès d’enfants au développement typique, sur les sujets suivants : (1) la reconnaissance de mots écrits isolés en lecture à voix haute, (2) la reconnaissance de mots écrits isolés en lecture silencieuse, (3) la compréhension de mots écrits, (4) et les facteurs prédictifs de la lecture. Les résultats les plus marquants indiquent qu’en reconnaissance de mots écrits, les enfants avec un TSLO présentent un retard d’un peu plus de trois ans, en lecture à voix haute comme en lecture silencieuse. En tant que groupe, leur procédure de lecture phonologique apparaît moins efficiente que leur procédure orthographique. L’hétérogénéité interindividuelle demeure toutefois importante. Les enfants qui souffrent des troubles phonologiques expressifs les plus sévères sont ceux dont la procédure phonologique est la plus altérée. Quant à la compréhension de mots écrits isolés, elle apparaît coûteuse en termes de ressources de traitement. Enfin, les facteurs prédictifs de la lecture des enfants avec un TSLO sont identiques à ceux des enfants au développement typique, à l’exception d’un facteur original : chez les enfants avec un TSLO, l’instabilité phonologique est prédictive des capacités de lecture, contrairement aux enfants contrôles. Ce facteur mériterait de plus amples recherches.
... Nevertheless, late-talkers with language skills in the normal range at a later age were found to still be at risk for literacy problems at school age (Rescorla 2002(Rescorla , 2005(Rescorla , 2009(Rescorla , 2013. This phenomenon has been referred to as illusory recovery (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990). Based on this longitudinal evidence, Rescorla (2002Rescorla ( , 2005Rescorla ( , 2009Rescorla ( , 2013 has argued for a notion of a language endowment spectrum/ dimension, which was previously suggested by Bishop and Edmundson (1987) and Leonard (1991). ...
Purpose
This article explored the predictive values of three main language delay (LD) trajectories (i.e., persistent, late onset, and transient) across 3–5 years on poor literacy at 8 years. Additionally, the effect of gender was assessed, using both gender-neutral and gender-specific thresholds.
Method
The data comprised mother-reported questionnaire data for 8,371 children in the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study. Analyses were conducted using binary logistic regression in SPSS to make predictions about risk.
Results
LD reported at preschool age was associated with excess risk of poor literacy at 8 years with odds ratios ranging from 3.19 to 9.75 dependent on trajectory, persistent LD being the strongest predictor. The odds ratio of transient LD was similar to that of late-onset LD. Gender was not found to play an important role in the association between oral language and literacy, as the gender difference disappeared when gender-specific deficit criterion was used.
Conclusion
Our study supports the longitudinal association between preschool oral language and school-aged literacy skills and highlights the importance of different LD trajectories across preschool ages in predicting later literacy. Furthermore, practitioners are recommended to consider gender-specific cutoffs in relation to language and literacy measures.
... The problems of non-dyslexic poorly-reading children and those with early language delay have been considered by some to be the result of a developmental "lag" with respect to the "normal pattern" (e.g. Scarborough and Dobrich, 1990;Stanovich, Nathan and Zolman, 1988). Scarborough and Dobrich emphasised that ...
A range of controlled experimental studies has reported comparative weakness in phoneme discrimination and identification in language-impaired (LI) and reading- impaired (SRD) groups of children. The implication was that members of these groups were generally less able to perform reliably on such tests. However, the number of speech contrasts/tokens used has typically been very limited, and it was uncertain to what extent speech perceptual difficulties were linked to the reading status of subjects, or whether all children in SRD groups had comparable difficulties. The main phase of the work reported here was designed to vary the acoustic-phonetic complexity of minimal pairs. Two different synthetic (copy-synthesised) continua for a stop and a fricative contrast were also used, following pilot testing. Non-speech based psychoacoustic tests, and tests of reading and single-item repetition, were employed. Thirteen children having similar reading delays and age, 12 chronological-age and 12 reading-age control children were selected and tested individually. Evidence is reported that a "sub-group" of SRD children performed relatively poorly on several speech-based and repetition tests, whilst the remainder of these children performed within norms. Also, their discrimination performance was particularly weak for consonant contrasts differing in a single feature which was not acoustically-salient. Problems were encountered with nasal and fricative contrasts as well as with stop contrasts. Contrasts of greater acoustic-phonetic complexity provided by consonant clusters were also problematic for these children. The experimental and control groups did not differ on the non-speech discrimination (psychoacoustic) tasks. Discussion is made of the acoustic cues thought to be related to the range of perceptual "weakness" found, the emergence of the utilisation of such cues in normal perceptual development, and the theoretical importance of phonological knowledge to the development of speech and beginning reading
... 2004; Snowling & Melby-Lervag, 2016). Moreover, additional factors may contribute to difficulty learning to read, such as speech and receptive and expressive language delays (Gerrits & de Bree, 2009;Metsala & Walley, 1998;Pennington & Lefly, 2001;Scarborough, 1990;Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990;Snowling & Melby-Lervag, 2016). Approximately 50%-90% of children who are identified early as at-risk and provided with targeted instruction have been shown to achieve grade-level reading skills thereafter (Catts, Nielsen, Bridges, Bontempo, & Liu, 2015;Elbro & Peterson, 2004;Hatcher, Hulme, & Ellis, 1994;Schneider, Roth, & Ennemoser, 2000). ...
Recent efforts have focused on screening methods to identify children at risk for dyslexia as early as preschool/kindergarten. Unfortunately, while low sensitivity leads to under‐identification of at‐risk children, low specificity can lead to over‐identification, resulting in inaccurate allocation of limited educational resources. The present study focused on children identified as at‐risk in kindergarten who do not subsequently develop poor reading skills to specify factors associated with better reading outcomes among at‐risk children. Early screening was conducted in kindergarten and a subset of children was tracked longitudinally until second grade. Potential protective factors were evaluated at cognitive‐linguistic, environmental, and neural levels. Relative to at‐risk kindergarteners with subsequent poor reading, those with typical reading outcomes were characterized by significantly higher socioeconomic status (SES), speech production accuracy, and structural organization of the posterior right‐hemispheric superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF). A positive association between structural organization of the right SLF and subsequent decoding skills was found to be specific to at‐risk children and not observed among typical controls. Among at‐risk children, several kindergarten‐age factors were found to significantly contribute to the prediction of subsequent decoding skills: white matter organization in the posterior right SLF, age, gender, SES, and phonological awareness. These findings suggest that putative compensatory mechanisms are already present by the start of kindergarten. The right SLF, in conjunction with the cognitive‐linguistic and socioeconomic factors identified, may play an important role in facilitating reading development among at‐risk children. This study has important implications for approaches to early screening, and assessment strategies for at‐risk children.
... 1,3 Gangguan pendengaran yang dapat mengganggu perkembangan berbicara dan berbahasa pada anak secara bermakna adalah gangguan pendengaran sensorineural derajat sedang hingga sangat berat. 4, 5 Guna menyingkirkan adanya gangguan pendengaran perlu dilakukan skrining pendengaran, yaitu dengan pemeriksaan otologi, audiometri, timpanometri, Otoacoustic Emission atau OAE, dan apabila OAE menunjukkan hasil yang abnormal maka perlu dilanjutkan dengan pemeriksaan auditory brainstem response (ABR). Bisa juga dilakukan auditory steady state response (ASSR). ...
... Finally, previous research has found that without early intervention, children with delays in expressive language development may or may not catch up to their peers (e.g., [39,109]). We sought to determine if intervention prior to age 3 would alter the likelihood of poorer comprehension (part 3), as well as if early intervention would decrease the likelihood of poorer comprehension in those later reported to have a speech and/or language disorder (part 4). ...
Background:
During the first 3-years of life, as the brain undergoes dramatic growth, children begin to develop speech and language. Hallmarks of this progression are seen when children reach developmental milestones, forming the foundation of language. Expressive language milestones, such as the production of a child's first word, are delayed in 5-8% of children. While for some children delays in reaching these milestones are harbingers of developmental disorders, for others expressive language delays appear to resolve. Regardless of whether or not early language skills appear resolved, difficulty with later comprehension is a likely outcome. Whether this heightened risk for poor comprehension differs based on text features, individual characteristics, or receipt of intervention remains unknown. Moreover, this relationship between expressive language development and comprehension is not yet linked to neurobiology, though the inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF) is a potential neurobiological correlate. Therefore, we investigated the impact of, and interactions between, expressive language development, early intervention, and the ILF on comprehension.
Methods:
Longitudinal recurrent survival analyses predicted the risk of answering a comprehension question incorrectly. Predictors of comprehension included expressive language development, passage features, participant characteristics, fractional anisotropy, receipt of early intervention, and later diagnosis of speech or language disorders.
Results:
Children with later expressive language milestones had poorer comprehension. When comprehension text features were examined, children with later milestones had poorer listening and reading comprehension, and poorer narrative and expository comprehension. The left ILF acted as a neurodevelopmental correlate, one that moderated the relationship between expressive language milestones and comprehension. Specifically, the left ILF exacerbated the relationship for those who did not receive early intervention and buffered the relationship for those who received intervention services. Early intervention decreased the risk of poor comprehension by 39% for children later diagnosed with a speech or language disorder.
Conclusions:
Early intervention should be provided for children with delayed expressive language milestones, particularly those who are at risk for speech or language disorders. The ILF plays a critical role in the relationship between expressive language development and comprehension, which may be that of a protective factor for children with the most severe early issues with speech and language.
... impairs the discrimination of speech in both quiet and in noise (Cai & McPherson, 2017). Chronic fluctuating HL increases the risk of educational difficulties (phonics, reading, and spelling) (Bennett, Haggard, Silva, & Stewart, 2001;Catts, Fey, Tomblin, & Zhang, 2002;Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990;Silva, Chalmers, & Stewart, 1986;Silva, Williams, & McGee, 1987) and adversely affects speech (Silva et al., 1986) and language development (Holm & Kunze, 1969;Silva et al., 1986). In addition, OME is associated with auditory processing deficits (Jerger & Musiek, 2000;Polley, Thompson, & Guo, 2013), self-esteem and behavioral problems (Bennett & Haggard, 1999;Silva et al., 1986), hyperactivity (Hagerman & Falkenstein, 1987), attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (Adesman, Altshuler, Lipkin, & Walco, 1990;Padolsky, 2008), learning disability (Padolsky, 2008), and sociocommunicative difficulties (Tajima-Pozo et al., 2010). ...
The recommended management for children with otitis media with effusion (OME) is ‘watchful waiting’ before considering grommet surgery. During this time speech and language, listening skills, quality of life, social skills, and outcomes of education can be jeopardized. Air-conduction (AC) hearing aids are problematic due to fluctuating AC hearing loss. Bone-conduction (BC) hearing is stable, but BC hearing aids can be uncomfortable. Both types of hearing aids are costly. Given the high prevalence of OME and the transitory nature of the accompanying hearing loss, cost-effective solutions are needed. The leisure industry has developed relatively inexpensive, comfortable, high-quality BC headsets for transmission of speech or music. This study assessed whether these headsets, paired with a remote microphone, improve speech discrimination for children with OME. Nineteen children aged 3 to 6 years receiving recommended management in the United Kingdom for children with OME participated. Word-discrimination thresholds were measured in a sound-treated room in quiet and with 65 dB(A) speech-shaped noise, with and without a headset. The median threshold in quiet ( N = 17) was 39 dB(A) (range: 23–59) without a headset and 23 dB(A) (range: 9–35) with a headset ( Z = −3.519, p < .001). The median threshold in noise ( N = 19) was 59 dB(A) (range: 50–63) without a headset and 45 dB(A) (range: 32–50) with a headset (Z = −3.825, p < .001). Thus, the use of a BC headset paired with a remote microphone significantly improved speech discrimination in quiet and in noise for children with OME.
... At school age language difficulties are no longer evident in casual oral communication, but are easily triggered by high demands on language processing. This has been referred to as illusory recovery (Dale et al., 2014;Scarborough and Dobrich, 1990). This is something that teachers need to be aware of, to enable them to make their teaching language accessible for all (Bishop et al., 2012). ...
Children with a history of developmental language disorder (DLD) entering school are a challenge for classroom teachers. Teachers are often not very familiar with DLD, and language difficulties in school age children are often not obvious in context-supported everyday language. However, their language is still vulnerable. The teachers’ way of talking with four children with DLD, two with predominantly production difficulties and stronger language comprehension and two with language comprehension difficulties were studied in two types of context, differing in their degree of structure. Variables for a quantitative analysis were number of words per minute and mean length of utterance (MLU) in words for both teachers and children, and the number of questions asked by the teacher. A qualitative analysis focused on identifying typical characteristics depending on context and the child’s type of difficulties. In both contexts the teachers talked more than the children, but the difference was smaller in the less structured context, mainly because the children talked more. The two children with predominantly production difficulties seemed to take advantage of the opportunities to take initiatives offered in the less structured context. The children with comprehension difficulties function better in the more structured context, where their comprehension difficulties were less obvious. Studies with more rigorous design analysing more aspects of teacher’s interactive behavior in different contexts and with children with different linguistic profiles are needed to provide teachers with information to raise their awareness of how to provide support adapted to the linguistic profiles of children with DLD.
... This information was missing for one participant. We decided to not exclude these children, given their history of DLD and the long-term persistence of the language problems (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990). ...
Background and aims
Recent research indicates that children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) often also score lower than their peers with typical development (TD) on tasks testing nonverbal executive functioning (EF). This study investigated whether there is evidence that children with DLD use linguistic and EF resources to support their lexical and syntactic development. Three questions were addressed: (1) How do children with DLD develop in the domains of lexicon and syntax, and how does their development compare to TD controls? (2) To what extent do children with DLD show reciprocal relations between lexical and syntactic skills, and how does this compare to TD controls? (3) Is EF ability related to DLD children’s lexical and syntactic skills, and how does this compare to TD controls?
Methods
Data from 117 children (N DLD = 78; N TD = 39) were collected three times with yearly intervals. At time 1, the children were 5 or 6 years old. Standardized receptive vocabulary and sentence repetition tests measured lexicon and syntax, respectively. Nonverbal EF tasks tested selective attention, interference control and working memory. Cross-lagged analyses were conducted to determine the direction of relationships.
Results
Both groups showed stable lexical and syntactic growth. In children with DLD, but not in TD controls, syntactic skills predicted lexical skills. In the DLD group, EF predicted lexical skills. Reversely, in the TD group, lexical skills predicted EF.
Conclusions
The results of this study are consistent with the hypothesis that the lexical development of children with DLD is supported by both their verbal abilities in the domain of syntax and their nonverbal EF abilities.
Implications
Interventions that improve the syntactic and EF abilities of children with DLD may have spreading effects and positively impact on word learning by children with DLD.
... Die interverwantskap wat tussen gesproke en geskrewe taal van die proefpersone uitgewys is, impliseer die belang van gesproke taal in geletterdheidsontwikkeling, en ondersteun dus vroee intervensie by kinders wat risikofaktore vertoon vir die ontwikkeling van spraak-en taalprobleme (Fletcher & Foorman, 1994). Vroegtydige bewusmaking van ouers en onderwysers van die ingrypende invloed van taalprobleme op skolastiese vordering, kan die stimulasie van voorgeletterdheidsvaardighede aanmoedig (Schuele & Van Kleeck, 1987), wat die risiko vir die ontwikkeling van sekondere taalleerprobleme soos lees-en skryfprobleme kan verlaag (Scarborough & Dobrich, 1990). ...
Resente navorsing lê toenemend klem op die rol van die spraak-taalterapeut by taalleergestermde kinders. 'n leemte is ergterin bestaande literatuur geidentifiseer betreffende die taalfunksionering van die van die ouer taalleergestremde kind in die skool. Die moontlikheid vir die voortbestaan van gesproke en geskrewe taalprobleme by leerlinge wat uit die hulpklas teruggeplaas is in hoofstroomonderwys, het as motivering vir hierdie studie gedien. Die empiriese studie is op agt-en-twintig Afrikaanse en Engelsprekende standerd twee oud-hulpklasleerlinge uitgevoer. Die proefpersone se peil van taal- en skolatiese funksionering is kwalitatief en kwantitatief ontleed en beskryf, deur die gebruik van die Toets vir mondelinge Taal Taalproduksie en die Suid- Afrikaanse Skryftaaltoets. Die resultate van die studie toon dat 'n beduidende presentasie van die proefpersone gesproke en geskrewe taalprobleme ondervind en 'n agterstand in die vakke Afrikaans en Engels vertoon. Betekenisvolle korrelasies in aangetoon tussen die proefpersone se gesproke en geskrewe taalvermoëns en hulle taalvermoëns en skolatiese. Die bevindinge hou belangrike implikasies in vir die hantering van die taalleergestremde kind in die praktyk, en moedig voortsette spraak-taalterapeutiese intervensie aan by kinders wat uit die hulpkas teruggeplaas is in hoofstroomonderwys. Verdere navorsing oor die taalvermoëns van die ouer taalleergestremde kind word aanbeveel ter uitbereiding en bevestiging van die navorsingsresultate.
... Se ha observado que los niños con TEL a los dos años de edad suelen ser menos habilidosos fonéticamente y menos habladores que sus iguales, pero cuando alcanzan los 3 años, a pesar de sus diferencias en inteligibilidad, llegan a tener habilidades fonológicas similares a los normales, no ocurriendo esto en otras habilidades lingüísticas. Sin embargo, aunque alrededor de los 5 años parezca que han tenido una gran recuperación en sus habilidades lingüísticas, dicha mejoría puede ser ilusoria ya que posteriormente persisten tales problemas [27]. De hecho, los niños con TEL que a los dos años de edad presentan un retraso significativo en el lenguaje expresivo, pero con un lenguaje receptivo normal suelen tener problemas académicos posteriores, sobre todo, en la lectura y problemas persistentes en su lenguaje expresivo [26]. ...
... Lógicamente, las condiciones sensorial, motora y mental influyen de manera decisiva. Monfort y Juárez [11] representaron gráficamente, a partir de datos de Scarborough y Dobrich [12], cómo evolucionan niños con retraso del lenguaje y cómo evolucionan niños disfásicos (Fig. 3). Los niños con retrasos moderados en los códigos lingüísticos -in-cluido el código fonológico-manifiestan un retraso importante en la fase de los procesos de simplificación del habla o período 3. Durante este período permanecen ininteligibles durante mucho más tiempo que los niños de desarrollo normal, y sólo hacia los 5 años o 5 años y 6 meses alcanzan la inteligibilidad. ...
The prevalence and the natural history of primary speech and language delays were two of four domains covered in a systematic review of the literature related to screening for speech and language delay carried out for the NHS in the UK. The structure and process of the full literature review is introduced and criteria for inclusion in the two domains are specified. The resulting data set gave 16 prevalence estimates generated from 21 publications and 12 natural history studies generated from 18 publications. Results are summarized for six subdivisions of primary speech and language delays: (1) speech and/or language, (2) language only, (3) speech only, (4) expression with comprehension, (5) expression only and (6) comprehension only. Combination of the data suggests that both concurrent and predictive case definition can be problematic. Prediction improves if language is taken independently of speech and if expressive and receptive language are taken together. The results are discussed in terms of the need to develop a model of prevalence based on risk of subsequent difficulties.
Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate characteristics of writing ability and writing related variables such as executive functioning (syntactic ability, sentence construction, planning ability) and working memory. Additionally, this study tried to find out the variables that can discriminate between the four groups.Methods: Fourteen 1st to 2nd graders in each group (dyslexia (DY), dyslexia with language difficulty (LRD), language difficulty without dyslexia (LD), and typical development (TD)) participated in four writing tasks and four writing related tasks.Results: First, there were three performance groups in word writing and sentence writing (TD > LD > DY = LRD), while there were two different groups were observed in short text writing and handwriting (TD = LD > DY = LRD). Secondly, there were three performance groups in syntactic skills and sentence construction (TD> DY> LD= LRD) and in planning skills (TD> DY= LD> LRD), while there were two performance groups in copying (TD= LD> DY= LRD). Thirdly, discriminant analysis showed a 94.6% hit ratio; and word writing, syntactic ability, sentence construction, and sentence writing were good discriminators for the four groups.Conclusion: This study was meaningful in including four groups of children considering language and decoding abilities. For 1st to 2nd graders, sentence writing and word writing assessment and intervention considering executive functions seem to play the key role for each student’s school adaptation with language and/or reading difficulties.
Purpose
Developmental language disorder (DLD) is a lifelong condition that when impacting educational performance is identified and serviced through U.S. schools as outlined in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. A few examples of educational categories that refer to DLD are (a) speech or language impairment (S/LI) and (b) specific learning disability (SLD). In this research note, we aim to examine trends in how these categories are assigned.
Method
We analyzed publicly available data released by the U.S. Department of Education from six school years between 2010 and 2020. We examined the use of S/LI and SLD categories across students of different ages at the U.S. national and state levels.
Results
We present a trend in which younger students tend to be identified with the S/LI category, whereas older students tend to be identified with the SLD category. This trend is evident in all 6 years of data analyzed at the national level, and in 49 of 50 states.
Conclusions
We discuss these findings in the context of research on language disorders to explain this trend. We highlight the potential damaging effects of using inconsistent terminology, including affecting the services for which students with DLD qualify and causing confusion for their parents and educators.
Purpose:
Language production, a dynamic process involving real-time language processing, is crucial for children's language and communication development. To explore the early development of children's real-time language production, this study investigated Chinese preschool children's pausing strategies in narratives and their associations with verbal working memory and vocabulary abilities.
Method:
A picture-elicited narrative task was employed. Sixty Mandarin-speaking children aged 4-5 years were asked to tell a story according to the book Frog, Where Are You? The pausing types and positions in narratives were coded and analyzed. Additionally, children's verbal working memory and vocabulary were measured.
Results:
The results showed that 4- to 5-year-old children prefer to use silent pauses and tend to produce pauses within clauses. The total frequency of pausing decreases with age and shows a significant gender difference. Girls prefer to use within-clause pauses, whereas boys prefer to use between-clause pauses. More importantly, children's pausing frequency is closely associated with their verbal working memory and vocabulary, in which working memory plays a more important role.
Conclusions:
This study is a first-step exploration of pausing strategies in 4- to 5-year-old Chinese children's narratives. The developmental characteristics of pausing strategies shown in typically developing children serve as a crucial reference for interventions for children with language deficits.
This chapter reviews connections between oral and written language skills and points of vulnerability for children with language impairment. It considers how hearing loss may affect oral and written language development. Children learn the languages that they experience through meaningful interactions with caregivers and other children. The chapter focuses on children with persistent language difficulties where the cause is not known, such as those with developmental language disorder. It discusses the need to consider strengths and possible protective factors in addition to deficits and risk factors in the evaluation of risk for reading problems and the promotion of positive outcomes. As a group, children with hearing loss are at higher risk of both spoken and written language difficulties than their peers with normal hearing. Reading development is influenced by multiple genetic and environmental factors, and studies indicate that risk is cumulative.
Bibliografia do Novo Deit Libras, 3ª edição revista e ampliada (2015). A publicação lista 2.841 referências bibliográficas que foram consultadas para a elaboração da 3a. edição revista e ampliada do Novo Deit-Libras: Novo Dicionário Enciclopédico Ilustrado Trilíngue da Língua de Sinais Brasileira. As referências cobrem campos como os de Psicologia e Neuropsicologia Cognitivas e do Desenvolvimento, Linguística e Neuropsicolinguística Cognitiva, Educação, Educação de Surdos, História de Educação de Surdos, Filosofias educacionais em surdez, Fonoaudiologia, Antropologia Cultural, dentre muitos outros. Como esse dicionário propõe, em diversos capítulos associados, um novo modelo de lexicografia e lexicologia da Libras, grande esforço foi feito na justificação e explicação das bases desse modelo. O dicionário encarna, usa e ilustra esse novo modelo. References used in the New Encyclopedic Illustrated Dictionary of Brazilian Sign Language, 3rd edition (2015). The publication lists 2,841 references that were used to support the elaboration of the Brazilian Sign Language Encyclopedic Dictionary, 3rd edition. The references cover fields such as Cognitive and Developmental Psychology and Neuropsychology, Cognitive Linguistics and Neurolinguistics and Neuropsycholinguistics, Applied Linguistics, Lexicography, Lexicology, Education, Deaf Education, Special Education, History of Education, Bilingualism, History of Deaf Education, Speech Language Pathology, Cultural Anthropology, among many othes. In several chapters, this seminal dictionary advances a groundbreaking original model dicionário in sign language lexicography and lexicology. The chapters justify and explain such a model, which is embodied by the dictionary itself.
BACKGROUND: The difficulties or gross disturbance in motor development, which are diagnosed in children at an early age, are one of the prognostic markers of further problems in their speech development. AIM: This study aimed to determine the speech development of children with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita with upper limb deformities. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Speech examination was conducted in 21 children with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita preschool age (average age: 5.16 1.49 years) from 2020 to 2021. Patients were divided into 2 groups: group 1 (10 people) with children of younger and middle preschool age (average age 3.81 0.63 years) and group 2 (11 people) with children of older and preparatory preschool age (average age 6.39 0.78 years). The speech examination results were exposed to statistical analysis. RESULTS: The majority of children with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita had speech pathology (90.5%), whereas general speech underdevelopment dominated over speech development delay (78.9% and 21.1%, respectively). A high frequency of perinatal hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy in children with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita (80.9%), a complicated perinatal anamnesis (57.1%), and a delay in early motor or speech development (100% and 52.4%, respectively) links with speech disorder development in the future. Patients with arthrogryposis have a large percentage of congenital pathology of the articulatory apparatus structure (57.1%). Of the children, 76.2% were with a total form of arthrogryposis multiplex congenita, whereas 23.8% with an isolated upper extremity lesion. No statistically significant differences were determined in the form of speech pathology between patients with various forms of arthrogryposis multiplex congenita. Children of the first age group had speech disorders in 90% of cases, whereas 90.9% in group 2. Based on the form of speech pathology, patients with general speech underdevelopment and speech development delay were determined in group 1 (55.6% and 44.4%, respectively), whereas children with general speech underdevelopment in group 2 (100%). In the clinical form of speech pathology, dysarthria prevailed in children of both age groups (80%). CONCLUSIONS: Children with arthrogryposis multiplex congenita with upper limb deformities have a high incidence of speech disorders. Early speech examination and speech therapy eliminated all detected disturbances.
- Se realiza una revisión crítica sobre la distinción reactivo-activo en los modos lingüísticos.
- Se revisa críticamente la distinción modos lingüísticos vs modos no lingüísticos.
- Se introduce el concepto de patrones actuativos para tomar distancia del concepto actividad-reactividad.
Limitaciones. - Desarrollo de análisis y representaciones de la actividad del individuo.
En el marco de la propuesta inicial de Ribes, Ibáñez y Pérez (2014) sobre aprendizaje comprensivo, los modos reactivos lingüísticos habilitan a los modos activos en las distintas configuraciones descritas en las nueve condiciones de aprendizaje comprensivo. Se ha estudiado, hasta el momento, el efecto de habilitación de los modos lingüísticos reactivos sobre los modos lingüísticos activos, fundamentalmente en la condición de habilitación lingüística explícita (Cruz, 2014; Sánchez, 2014; Tamayo & Barradas-Ocaña, 2015; Tamayo & Pulido, 2015; Pulido & Tamayo, 2015; Ibáñez & Ceballos, 2018; Ibáñez & Ceballos, en preparación). Sin embargo, tal como lo menciona Ribes (2018), aunque los modos lingüísticos son los modos por excelencia característicos de los seres humanos, y por ende en el aprendizaje comprensivo se enfatiza su análisis, los modos motrices y sensoriales también adquieren relevancia en articulación con los modos lingüísticos para la interacción humana. En dicho contexto, el presente estudio se orienta hacia la integración de los modos motrices, en específico el modo manipulativo, con los modos lingüísticos. Específicamente, el objetivo del presente trabajo fue evaluar el efecto de la integración del modo “no lingüístico” manipular con modos lingüísticos reactivos sobre la habilitación en el aprendizaje comprensivo en el ámbito de la aritmética (propiedad conmutativa de la suma). Se realizaron dos estudios con el objetivo de evaluar el papel funcional de la integración del modo “no lingüístico” manipular con los modos lingüísticos reactivos observar y escuchar, a partir de cuatro condiciones experimentales [observar (O); observar más escuchar (OE); observar más manipular (OM) y; observar más escuchar, más manipular (OEM)] sobre la habilitación de modos lingüísticos activos utilizando la propiedad conmutativa de la suma. Participaron 16 niños de entre 10 y 13 años, inscritos al 5º grado de primaria (Experimento 1) y 12 niños de entre 8 y 9 años, de 3º grado de primaria (Experimento 2), asignados aleatoriamente a una de las cuatro condiciones. Se empleó un diseño ABA. Las pruebas consistieron en la conformación de seis enunciados matemáticos aplicando la propiedad conmutativa. La condición experimental consistió en la exposición a seis enunciados matemáticos distintos en cada una de las cuatro condiciones. Los resultados mostraron que la condición OEM habilitó en mayor medida los modos lingüísticos activos señalar, hablar y escribir en ambos estudios, así como que el efecto fue mayor en los niños más jóvenes. Los hallazgos se discuten en torno a la relevancia del amalgamiento de los modos lingüísticos y no lingüísticos en el dominio de la aritmética elemental.
Hoy en día sigue siendo una incógnita la predicción sobre cuáles hablantes tardíos (HT) serán diagnosticados en un futuro próximo como niños con Trastorno Específico del Lenguaje (TDL/TEL). Poco se ha dicho sobre las clases de palabras que usan, a pesar de que se han estudiado a profundidad mediante los inventarios de habilidades comunicativas CDI. El presente estudio pretende ampliar la información acerca de las clases de palabras que emplean 15 hablantes tardíos entre 18 y 30 meses de edad en dos tiempos evaluados. Se busca diferenciar a un grupo de hablantes tardíos más lentos (llamados aquí HT Persistentes, según las clases de palabras, la Longitud Media de Emisión (LME) y la complejidad gramatical que producen y que son reportadas en el CDI. Los resultados mostraron que sí es posible diferenciar a un grupo de HTP de los hablantes tardíos clásicos (HTC), a través de las clases de palabras que emplean, especialmente el uso de verbos. También la LME y la complejidad gramatical reportadas en el CDI fueron útiles para este fin. Los diferentes patrones de producción léxica y gramatical de los subgrupos de hablantes tardíos en dos tiempos distintos de evaluación ofrecen pautas para futuros trabajos que traten de establecer un puente entre los hablantes tardíos persistentes y los niños con TEL.
Developmental language disorders (DLD) are prevalent and persistent among school-age children but are often underrecognized. This chapter discusses the ways in which the various components of communication are impacted by these disorders and outlines the differences in expression seen in different languages. Research on biological and psychologic roots of the syndrome is also reviewed. As yet, no single definitive cause has been identified; the disorders are likely to result from a constellation of genetic, biological, and cognitive weaknesses that are influenced by environmental experiences. Basic methods of assessment and differential diagnosis are presented and the principles guiding the development of intervention programs are discussed.
Purpose
Many children with developmental language disorder (DLD) have weaknesses in executive functioning (EF), specifically in tasks testing interference control and working memory. It is unknown how EF develops in children with DLD, if EF abilities are related to DLD severity and persistence, and if EF weaknesses expand to selective attention. This study aimed to address these gaps.
Method
Data from 78 children with DLD and 39 typically developing (TD) children were collected at three times with 1-year intervals. At Time 1, the children were 5 or 6 years old. Flanker, Dot Matrix, and Sky Search tasks tested interference control, visuospatial working memory, and selective attention, respectively. DLD severity was based on children's language ability. DLD persistence was based on stability of the DLD diagnosis.
Results
Performance on all tasks improved in both groups. TD children outperformed children with DLD on interference control. No differences were found for visuospatial working memory and selective attention. An interference control gap between the DLD and TD groups emerged between Time 1 and Time 2. Severity and persistence of DLD were related to interference control and working memory; the impact on working memory was stronger. Selective attention was unrelated to DLD severity and persistence.
Conclusions
Age and DLD severity and persistence determine whether or not children with DLD show EF weaknesses. Interference control is most clearly impaired in children with DLD who are 6 years and older. Visuospatial working memory is impaired in children with severe and persistent DLD. Selective attention is spared.
Specific language impairment (SLI) was defined as a serious alteration in the
acquisition and development of language, which could affect both comprehension and
expression, in the absence of certain causes and conditions. However, in recent years,
studies have found that language difficulties are rarely isolated, but that they are
accompanied by other cognitive difficulties related to the language processing abilities. In
addition, its definition, with very restrictive diagnostic requirements, has led that, in the
clinical field, many children cannot be diagnosed with this disorder despite their deficits,
and therefore cannot receive the care they need. This has recently led the promotion of a
consensus study (the CATALISE project), which has led to a change in the diagnostic tag,
from SLI to developmental language disorder (DLD), but also, and more importantly, to a
change in the diagnostic perspective, which has gone from being focused on the static
diagnosis to a more dynamic one, based on criteria of temporary persistence and
intervention needs. This fact has led, in a secondary way, to a change in the classification
of language difficulties, which has gone from being based on diagnostic characteristics to
be based on the type of intervention that each of these difficulties requires. In this article,
we will address, from this new conception, the definition and the diagnostic criteria of this
disorder, its characteristics and its early warning signs.
Reading is a complex cognitive ability, which relies on visual and language processing as well as on executive functions (EFs). Recent studies have demonstrated that increased reading ability in children aged 7-17 years is related to greater activation of cognitive control regions during verb generation, a task which merges linguistic and cognitive control ability. The aim of the current study is to determine the relationships between neural circuits specifically related to EF and reading ability. We focused on functional connectivity between the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), a region involved in EF and is part of the frontoparietal network during a verb generation task, and reading ability in seventeen 8-12-year-old typical readers. Results show positive functional connectivity between the left and right DLPFCs and regions related to cognitive control and visual processing while generating verbs. Increased reading ability was positively correlated with greater functional connectivity between the left and right DLPFCs and right-lateralized visual processing regions. The current study highlights the importance of neural circuits related to EF during both verb generation and reading and points to the role of the right occipital cortex in generating verbs as well as automatic word recognition in typical readers.
In a prospective, longitudinal study, 87 language-impaired children were assessed at the ages of 4, 4½, and 5½ years on a battery of language measures. In 37% of children, who were termed the "good outcome group," the language disorder had resolved by the age of 5½ years so that children were indistinguishable from a control group. If one restricted consideration only to those 68 children whose nonverbal ability was within normal limits, the figure rose to 44%. Outcome for individual children (good or poor) could be predicted with 90% accuracy on the basis of test measures obtained at 4 years. The best predictor was ability to tell back a simple story to pictures. The one language measure that did not relate to outcome was phonological competence.
Recent theory and clinical insight have emphasized the linguistic aspects of reading and reading disorders. As a result, some speech-language pathologists are playing a more integral role in the identification, assessment, and remediation of reading disorders. This paper discusses the linguistic basis of reading and reading problems, and provides some guidance to speech-language pathologists on how they can use their knowledge of language to deal more effectively with developmental reading disorders. Clinical insights and recent developments in psycholinguistics have emphasized the linguistic rather than the visual processing aspects of reading. This change in emphasis has led some speech-language pathologists to play a more integral role in the identification, assessment, and remediation of children with reading disorders. However, not all speech-language pathologists are comfortable with this new role: The purpose of this paper is to describe the linguistic basis of reading and reading disorders and to provide some guidance to speech-language pathologists on how they may use their language expertise in dealing with developmental reading disorders. The paper begins with a discussion of the forces that, for many years, made oral language and reading disorders appear to be two unrelated problems. A model is then presented to illustrate the similarities between reading and oral language processing. In the next section, the linguistic basis of reading disorders is dis-cussed. Finally, some suggestions are presented concerning the role the speech-language pathologist can play in the identification, assessment, and remediation of reading disorders.
Fifty-six first-grade children were administered measures of general intelligence, decoding speed, phonological awareness, and listening comprehension. All four types of measures were moderately related to end-of-year reading comprehension. Decoding speed accounted for the largest amount of unique variance. The hypothesis that reading is strongly related to general intelligence once differences in decoding ability have been accounted for was not supported. Other relationships among the variables were explored via multiple regression, factor analysis, and path analysis. Developmental comparisons were made with groups of third- and fifth-grade children. The relationships between decoding, intelligence, and reading comprehension found in the first-grade sample were replicated in the fifth-grade sample but were somewhat different in the third-grade sample. The interrelationships between the various subskills of reading and intelligence increased with age, probably due to mutual facilitation. /// [French] On a administré à cinquante six enfants de cours primaire des mesures d'intelligence générale, de vitesse de décodage, de conscience phonologique et de compréhension d'écoute. Les quatre facteurs étaient modérément reliés à une mesure de compréhension de lecture de fin d'année. La vitesse de décodage rendait compte de la plus large quantité d'écart unique. L'hypothèse qui veut que la lecture soit fortement reliée à l'intelligence générale après avoir tenu compte des différences de compétence de décodage, n'a pas été soutenue. On a exploré d'autres rapports parmi les écarts à travers une régression multiple, une analyse de facteur et une analyse de parcours. On a établi des comparaisons de développement avec des groupes d'enfants de neuvième et septième. Les rapports entre décodage, intelligence, et compréhension de lecture trouvés dans l'échantillon de cours primaire sont répétés dans l'échantillon de la septième mais ont été quelque peu différents dans celui de la neuvième. Les rapports étroits entre les différentes sous-compétences de lecture et intelligence ont augmenté avec l'âge, ceci étant probablement dû à une facilitation réciproque. /// [Spanish] Se administraron medidas de inteligencia general, velocidad de descifre, conocimiento fonológico y escuchar y comprender. Los 4 factores estaban moderadamente relacionados a una medida de comprensión de lectura de fin de año escolar. La velocidad de descifre dio cuenta del mayor número de variabilidad singular. No recibió apoyo la hipótesis de que la destreza de lectura está fuertemente relacionada a inteligencia general, una vez que se han considerado las diferencias de habilidad de descifre. Otras relaciones entre variables fueron exploradas por medio de regresión múltiple, análisis factorial y análisis de trayecto. Se hicieron comparaciones de desarrollo con grupos de alumnos de tercer y quinto grado. La relación entre descifre, inteligencia y comprensión de lectura encontrada en la muestra del primer grado, fue repetida en el quinto grado, pero resultó algo diferente en la muestra del tercer grado. La correlación entre las varias subdestrezas de lectura e inteligencia aumentó con la edad, probablemente debido a facilitación mútua.
Reading ability at Grade 2 was well predicted both by the incidence of reading problems in children's families and by individual differences among the children in vocabulary, phonological awareness, and early literacy skills at age 5 years. In contrast, sex, socioeconomic status (SES), age, and preschool differences in IQ, nonverbal skills, early education, and reading and television-viewing habits were unrelated to subsequent reading acquisition. Greater accuracy of prediction was obtained when test results rather than self-reports were used to determine familial reading problems, but little support was found for the utility or reliability of a distinction between low achievement in reading and specific underachievement relative to IQ in prediction analyses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Administered a parent questionnaire on home educational environment and measures of early literacy, oral language ability, motor skills, and individual abilities related to reading achievement for 543 Austrialian Ss (mean age 5 yrs 3 mo) when they began kindergarten. Reading achievement measures were administered individually to Ss during the final 6 wks of kindergarten and again at the end of Grade 1. Results show that the strongest predictors of reading achievement were tasks tapping phonological processing skills, interdigital dexterity, and familiarity with the alphabetic code of English script. Individual attributes accounted for 63% of the variance in reading achievement at the end of kindergarten and 59% at the end of Grade 1. A short-set of 5 predictors (phoneme segmentation, letter copying, sex, letter names, and sentence memory) is suggested as a screening test for the early identification of reading-disabled Ss. When the effect of ability composition of S's class and school was assessed, it accounted for 9% of kindergarten and 6% of Grade 1 reading achievement variance. Peer ability was as strong a predictor of individual reading achievement as was individual ability. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted a meta-analysis of 58 studies (1960–1984) on the early prediction of learning problems that reported correlations between measures administered in kindergarten or 1st-grade and reading achievement later in elementary school. Results indicate a good deal of overlap in the distributions of the various predictor–criterion correlations. The best single predictors of achievement during the elementary school years were attention-distractibility, internalizing behavior problems, and language variables. Measures less directly related to reading skills, such as sensory tasks and soft neurological indicators, were generally weaker predictors of achievement. Bibliographical data on the studies used are appended. (52 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Ten different phonological awareness tasks were administered to a group of kindergarten children whose reading ability was assessed 1 year later. The extraneous cognitive requirements inherent in the tasks varied widely. The children's performance on three tasks that involved a rhyming response was at ceiling, and these tasks did not correlate with subsequent reading progress. The other seven measures were all moderately related to later reading ability and, employed in sets, were very strong predictors. The relative predictive accuracy of the phonological tasks was equal to or better than more global measures of cognitive skills such as an intelligence test and a reading readiness test. The phonological tasks had a large amount of common variance. Factor analysis revealed only one factor on which all the nonrhyming phonological tasks loaded highly. The results bolster the construct validity of phonological awareness, indicate considerable comparability and interchangeability among the tasks used to measure the construct, and are encouraging as regards the possible use of such tasks in predictive test batteries.
A 15-year follow-up of 50 children initially diagnosed as communicatively impaired is reported. The survey describes subjects in terms of the educational levels they have attained, their motor skills, their social skills as perceived by their families, and any communication problems that may exist.
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Language, intelligence, academic achievement, and behavioral adjustment were assessed in a group of 20 adolescents originally studied 10 years earlier as preschoolers with language disorders. At follow-up, 20% had WISC-R IQ scores in the mentally deficient range and were being educated in EMR classrooms. Of the remaining 16, 11 (69%) had required special tutoring, grade retention, or LD class placement. The majority of non-EMR subjects continued to evidence persistent deficits in language and academic achievement and were rated by their parents as being less socially competent and having more behavioral problems than their peers. Of the initial preschool measures available, the Leiter was found to be the best single predictor of intelligence, language, class placement, and reading achievement in adolescence, although the NSST: Expressive subtest also was a strong predictor of adolescent language.
Children identified as normal or as specifically language impaired (SLI) were given speech, language, and intelligence testing on a longitudinal basis. Fourteen normal and 29 SLI children between the ages of 4 1/2 and 8 years were tested at Time 1. They were retested three to four years later when they were 8 to 12 years old. The results indicated that both the normal and the SLI children continued to develop skills in receptive and expressive language and speech articulation across the 3- to 4-year period intervening between evaluations. Overall, however, the SLI children appeared to develop language skills at a slower than normal rate and 80% of them remained language impaired at Time 2. In addition, the majority of the SLI children manifested reading impairment at Time 2, while none of the normal children did so. The implications for the educational management of SLI children are discussed.
A two-year longitudinal study was conducted to examine the role of metalinguistic abilities in the initial stages of learning to read. At the beginning of first grade, 118 students were administered three tests of metalinguistic ability, three prereading tests developed by Clay (1979), a test of verbal intelligence, and a measure of concrete operational thought, or operativity. At the end of first grade, the students were readministered the metalinguistic and Clay tests, and three tests of reading achievement; the latter were readministered at the end of second grade. Results suggested that children's ability to acquire low-level metalinguistic skills depends in part on their level of operativity, and that in the beginning stages of learning to read, metalinguistic ability helps children to discover cryptanalytic intent (that print maps onto certain structural features of spoken language) and grapheme-phoneme correspondences. It is also suggested that some minimal level of phonological awareness may be necessary for children to profit from letter-name knowledge in the acquisition of phonological recoding skill, and that phonological and syntactic awareness play more important roles in beginning reading than pragmatic awareness. /// [French] Les auteurs rapportent une étude longitudinale menée pendant deux ans pour étudier l'influence de la compétence métalinguistique durant les premiers stades de l'apprentissage de la lecture. Au début de la première année, 118 enfants ont subi trois tests de compétence métalinguistique, trois tests de pré-lecture conçus par Clay (1979), un test d'intelligence non verbale et une épreuve de pensée opératoire concrète. A la fin de la première année, ils ont subi à nouveau les tests de compétence métalinguistique et de prélecture en plus de trois tests de lecture qui ont également été passés à la fin de la deuxième année. Les résultats semblent indiquer l'existence de relations entre l'acquisition des activités méta-linguistiques de base et le niveau de développement de la pensée opératoire concrète; ils indiquent également qu'au début de l'apprentissage de la lecture, les habiletés métalinguistiques favorisent chez les enfants, la prise de conscience de relations entre certaines caractéristiques structurales de l'oral et de l'écrit et les correspondances graphèmes-phonèmes. Il semble également qu'un niveau minimal de conscience phonologique est requis pour l'apprentissage des mécanismes de décodage et que la conscience phonologique et la conscience syntaxique jouent un rôle plus important au début de l'apprentissage de la lecture que la conscience pragmatique. /// [Spanish] Un estudio longitudinal con duración de dos años fue hecho para examinar el rol de las habilidades metalingüísticas en los estadíos iniciales del aprendizaje de la lectura. Al inicio del primer grado, se administraron tres tests de habilidad metalingüística, tres tests de pre-lectura desarrollados por Clay (1979), un test de inteligencia verbal, y una medida de pensamiento concreto operacional. Al final del primer grado, se readministraron los tests metalingüísticos y los de pre-lectura de Clay, y tres tests de aprovechamiento de lectura; éstos últimos fueron administrados nuevamente al final del segundo grado. Los resultados sugieren que la habilidad de los niños para adquirir habilidades metalingüísticas de bajo nivel depende en parte de su nivel de pensamiento concreto operacional, y que en las etapas iniciales de aprender a leer, la habilidad metalingüística ayuda a los niños a descubrir la intención criptoanalítica (el hecho que se puede proyectar el lenguaje escrito en ciertas características estructurales del lenguaje oral) y las correspondencias de grafema morfema. También se sugirió que cierto nivel mínimo de alerta fonológica parece ser necesario para que los niños se beneficien del conocimiento de nombrar las letras en la adquisición de la habilidad fonológica de recodificar, y que la alerta fonológica y sintáctica juega un papel más importante en la lectura incipiente que la conciencia pragmática. /// [German] Es wurde eine Studie gemacht, die sich über zwei Jahre erstreckte, und bei der die Rolle untersucht wurde, die meta-sprachliche Fähigkeiten im Anfangslesestadium spielen. Zu Beginn des ersten Schuljahres wurden 118 Schüler folgenden Tests unterworfen: drei Tests ihrer meta-sprachlichen Fähigkeiten, drei Vor-dem-Lesen-Tests, von Clay (1979) entworfen, einem Test auf verbale Intelligenz und ein Maß konkreten Einsatzdenkens. Am Ende des ersten Schuljahres machten die Schüler erneut meta-sprachliche und Clay-vor-dem Lesen-Tests und drei Tests auf Leseleistung; die letzeren wurden am Ende des zweiten Schuljahres wiederholt. Die Resultate zeigten, daß die Fähigkeit der Schüler, Niedrig-Grad meta-sprachliche Fähigkeiten zu erwerben, zum Teil von dem Stand ihres konkreten Einsatzdenkens abhängt, und daß im Anfangslesenlernen meta-sprachliche Fähigkeit den Kindern hilft, Schlüssel-analytische Absicht (bestimmte Merkmale der gesprochenen Sprache kartographisch dargestellt) und grapheme-phoneme Korrespondenz zu entdecken. Es ist auch möglich, daß ein minimaler Grad von phonologischem Bewußtsein notwendig ist, damit Kinder profitieren von Buchstaben-Erkennen während der Aneignung von phonologischer Verschlüsselungsfähigkeit, und daß beim Anfangslesen phonologisches und syntaktisches Bewußtsein eine wichtigere Rolle spielen als prakmatisches Bewußtsein.
Tests to measure comprehension, formulation, and repetition of certain phonologic, syntactic, and semantic aspects of language were administered to 47 children who had developmental language disorders. A factor analysis of the resultant scores indicated that 3 factors were present in the data. These factors are presented as 6 patterns of language performance, one for high loadings on the factor and one for low loadings. The 6 patterns are repetition strength (Factor I, high); nonspecific formulation repetition deficit (Factor I, low); generalized low performance (Factor II, high); phonologic comprehension formulation repetition deficit (Factor II, low); comprehension deficit (Factor III, high); and formulation repetition deficit (Factor III, low). Possible relations among these patterns and nonlinguistic measures (sex, race, age, nonverbal intelligence, socioeconomic status, and status of the peripheral speech mechanism) were investigated. 2 Of the patterns of language performance were found to be related significantly to age. On Factor II, the younger children tended to get high loadings (generalized low performance) while the older children tended to get low loadings (phonologic comprehension formulation repetition deficit).
Evaluated the hypothesis that measures of linguistic skills differentially contribute to the variability in reading achievement at different ages. Linguistic skills that develop earlier and are more important for earlier phases of reading were predicted to contribute more to the variability of reading achievement at earlier ages (5–7) than at older ages (10–22), and vice versa. To test these developmental hypotheses, measures of language skills with different developmental rates (e.g., the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities, Berry-Talbot Language Test, Wide Range Achievement Test, and Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) were administered to cross-sectional samples of 482 disabled and nondisabled readers at 3 mean ages: 5.5, 8.5, and 11 yrs. Reading group differences were apparent at each age on measures assumed to develop earlier, thus failing to confirm the 1st prediction. Reading group differences on measures of later developing language skills were apparent only for older Ss, thus confirming the 2nd prediction. The latter age-dependent relationships provided additional evidence for developmental changes in the linguistic correlates of reading achievement. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A new method for evaluating the grammatical complexity of preschool natural language corpora is introduced. In the Index of Productive Syntax, occurrences of 56 syntactic and morphological forms are counted, yielding a total score and subscores for noun phrases, verb phrases, questions/negations, and sentence structures. Development of the index and analyses of its reliability and age-sensitivity when applied to language samples of 2- to 4-year-olds are described. Some advantages and limitations of the index as a research and clinical instrument are also discussed.
Groups of good and poor readers at second-grade level were tested for comprehension of adjectival constructions of the John is eager/easy to please types and of center-embedded relative clause constructions. The poor readers were inferior to good readers in understanding O-type adjectives (easy) but not S-type (eager). As well, they were poorer at comprehending embedded sentences, but only when the sentences described improbable events, ones which reversed the normal subject/object roles. When either noun could, on pragmatic grounds, assume either role, both groups fared equally well. The results are interpreted as casting doubt on recent assertions that deficient use of a phonetic memory code underlies the syntactic inferiority often seen in poor readers. A more pervasive linguistic immaturity is suggested as being involved.
A short form of the McCarthy was developed primarily to help meet the needs for a well-normed brief instrument to be used for the rapid screening of preschool, kindergarten, and first-grade children. The proposed short form comprises 6 of the 15 tests in the General Cognitive Scale: Puzzle Solving, Word Knowledge, Numerical Memory, Verbal Fluency, Counting and Sorting, and Conceptual Grouping. The abbreviated form was specifically geared to the 3–6 year age range, although equations to convert short-form score to estimated General Cognitive Index were provided for children across the entire span of to years. The short form was shown to have a standard error of estimate of about 6 points and to have excellent psychometric properties in general.
Transcripts of 24 spontaneous speech samples from 2-year-old children classified by early Speech Type (Referential or Expressive) and MLU level (above or below 2.5) were analyzed in terms of noun and pronoun use in sentences. At higher MLU levels both more sentences and more pronouns were produced than at lower MLU levels. E children used a balance of nouns and pronouns at both levels. There was a decrease in the use of nouns for R children and an increase for E children. Overall, 47% of all nominals as well as 72% of all nominals used in sentences, were pronouns. There were no major changes with development in either the abstract semantic relations expressed or in the discourse function served. The data were interpreted in terms of two contrasting courses of development, one beginning with a lexical emphasis and the other with a syntactic emphasis, which tend to converge between 2 and 3 years of age.
Thirty-six subjects, 18 language-impaired and 18 articulation-impaired children, were followed up with respect to communication skills and educational performance 13 to 20 years after their initial contact with the Speech and Hearing Clinic. According to their parents, nine language-impaired subjects continued to exhibit communication problems as adults, compared to only one of the articulation-impaired subjects. Standardized educational testing conducted while the subjects were in elementary and secondary schools indicated that the language-impaired group consistently achieved at a lower level than the articulation-impaired group, particularly in reading. Differences between the groups were also exhibited in the types of postsecondary education attempted by the subjects. Clinical, educational, and research implications of these results are discussed.
Using the data from five epidemiological studies of the total child population, the traditional distinction between general reading backwardness (i.e. reading below average for age, regardless of I.Q.) and specific reading retardation (i.e. a disability in reading relative to the child's age and general intellectual level) is put to the test. The concept and measurement of underachievement are discussed and it is shown that severe degrees of specific reading retardation occur at a rate above that predicted on a statistical basis, suggesting a “hump” at the lower end of the distribution. Reading retardation is shown to differ significantly from reading backwardness in terms of sex ratio, neurological disorder, pattern of neuro-developmental deficits and educational prognosis. It is concluded that the concept of specific reading retardation is valid, but evidence is discussed which shows that this does not support the view of a genetically distinct syndrome of dyslexia.
Children and adolescents with language disorders encounter disruption in the fluency of social interaction. Because of the chronic nature of language disabilities, problems in academic achievement and success become the hallmark of the disorders during the school years. Since adolescence represents a time of experimentation and definition of the self, individuals with language disorders are at high risk for the development of fragmented and inappropriate perspectives about themselves. Treatment must address, in a functionally coordinated manner, the acquisition of essential linguistic and basic academic skills, the learning of curriculum content, and the development of appropriate perspectives of the self and the environment.
Speech production/articulation was examined in reading-disordered and normal children. Subjects participated in three tasks involving the production of multisyllabic words and phonologically complex phrases. Results demonstrated that the reading-disordered children made significantly more speech production errors than normal children in each of the tasks. Furthermore, the reading-disordered children's performance on the speech production tasks was correlated with their reading ability. It is concluded that the speech production difficulties of the reading-disordered children are a reflection of their various deficits in phonological processing.
Although a linear relationship between age and utterance length during the preschool years has been reported, that result was only partially replicated from age 2 to 5 years in two new research samples, one cross-sectional and the other longitudinal in design. Instead, a deceleration in age curves, particularly beyond about 36 months, was observed in each sample. Some explanations and implications of the findings are discussed from normative and developmental viewpoints.
2 groups of language-disordered children were studied regarding the reading levels reached at the end of the first year of school. The first group was composed by children with language retardation mainly on phonological level, the second group was composed by children with retardation also on semantic-syntactic level. The results confirmed the strong association between reading disability and language disorders and yielded significant differences between the two groups: the reading achievement seemed to be associated mainly to semantic and syntactic competences.
The present study explored a possible relationship between reading difficulties and speech difficulties. Dyslexic and normal readers, matched for Reading Age, were compared first on a reading task and secondly on a speaking task.
In the first experiment, the two groups were asked to read nonsense words aloud. Both groups were able to read one-syllable nonwords equally well but the dyslexics had more difficulty than the normal readers when asked to read two-syllable nonwords. Moreover, they found two-syllable nonwords containing consonant clusters particularly difficult. The probability of their making an error increased with the number of consonant clusters.
In the second experiment, the subjects were required to repeat real words and nonsense words of two, three, or four syllables. Both groups found nonsense words more difficult to repeat than real words. However, the relative difficulty of nonsense words over real words was greater for the dyslexic group. Their difficulty was especially marked when they had to repeat four-syllable nonsense words.
Thus, in both experiments the dyslexic readers were more affected by the phonological complexity of the stimuli than the normal readers were. Hence, it was suggested that the dyslexic readers tested were subject to a general phonemic deficit which affected their ability to process both written and spoken words.
Sixty-three language-disordered children first evaluated in their preschool years were followed four to five years after initial diagnosis. At follow-up approximately 40% of these children continued to present speech and language problems and approximately 40% presented other learning problems. Preschool levels of language comprehension, formulation, semantics, syntax, phonology, and speech production were found to be moderately correlated to subsequent class placement in the elementary grades. Duration of preschool therapy was not related to either the severity of preschool language disorder or to any subsequent speech, language, or academic abilities. Duration of school therapy was related to severity of phonologic deficit as rated during the preschool years and to all follow-up ratings for speech, language, and academic abilities.
Nineteen children with developmental language impairments were given tests which measured syntactic and phonological skills in both comprehension and production conditions, semantic ability, syllable sequencing, and digit span. The results of discriminant function analysis show that the children could be divided into two groups. Group 1, expressive, was characterized primarily by deficits in the production of syntax and phonology. Group 2, expressive-receptive, was more impaired on measures of phonological discrimination, digit span, and semantic ability in addition to showing global syntactic deficits. An auditory-perceptual basis for the language impairments was not supported.
A sample of 937 children in Dunedin, New Zealand, was assessed at ages three and five years in order to estimate the nature, prevalence, stability and significance of developmental language delays in three‐year‐olds. Assessments included language development, intelligence, and fine and gross motor co‐ordination. Detailed results are given which describe three types of language delay at age three: delayed verbal comprehension only, delayed verbal expression only, and delayed development in both aspects of language.
Follow‐up testing at age five indicated that the specific language delays were not highly stable, whereas delays in both aspects were highly stable. A large proportion of the latter children gained very low scores on the measures at age five, and they accounted for 84 per cent of all children with very low intelligence. The implications of the results for a screening programme to identify three‐year‐old children at high risk of later developmental delays are considered.
RÉSUMÉ
Etude de la fréquence et de la stabilityé des retards de langage chez les enfants d'âge préscolaire
Sur un échantillon de 937 enfants, de Dunedin en Nouvelle Zélande, des mesures ont été effectuées à l'âge de trois et cinq ans pour apprécier la nature, la fréquence, la stabilityé et la signification des retards de langage chez les enfants de trois ans. Ces mesures incluaient le niveau de langage, l'intelligence, la coordination fine et globale. Les résultats détaillés sont donnés permettant de décrire trois types de retards de langage à l'âge de trois ans: retard isolé de la compréhension verbale et retards associés de ces deux aspects du langage.
Les études longitudinales à l'âge de cinq ans ont montré que les retards de langage spécifiques n'étaient guère stables au contraire des retards globaux. Une grande proportion de ces derniers enfants a obtenu des scores trés bas aux mesures à cinq ans et représenté 84 pour cent de tous les enfants à intelligence très basse. Les implications de ces résultats pour un programme de dépistage destinéà identifier les enfants de trois ans présentant un risque élevé de retard ultérieur du développement sont envisageés.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Eine Studie über die Art und Dauer entwicklungsbedingter Sprachverzögerungen bei Vorschulkindern
Eine Gruppe von 937 Kinder aus Dunedin, Neu Seeland, wurde im Alter von drei und fünf Jahren untersucht, um die Ursache, Häufigkeit, Dauer und Signifikanz entwicklungsbedingter Sprachverzögerungen bei Dreijährigen zu beurteilen. Es wurden Sprachentwicklung, Intelligenz und Koordination von Fein‐ und Grobmotorik untersucht. Anhand der detailierten Ergebnisse können drei Arten der Sprachverzögerung im Alter von drei Jahren unterschieden werden: verzögertes Sprachverständnis, verzögerte verbale Expression und eine Verzögerurig beider Sprachaspekte.
Nachuntersuchungen im Alter von fünf Jahren ergaben, daß die einzelnen Sprachverzögerungen nicht lange anhielten; dagegen war eine Verzögerung beider Sprachaspekte deutlich persistent. Viele Kinder der letzten Gruppe bekamen sehr niedrige Punktzahlen bei den Testaufgaben im Alter von fünf Jahren und sie stellten 84 Prozent aller Kinder mit geringer Intelligenz. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse haben zu der Überlegung geführt, ein Screening Programm auszuarbeiten, um dreijährige Kinder, die mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit spater eine Entwicklungsverzögerung aufweisen, zu erfassen.
Phonological development in preschoolers: Learning to speak English by speaking English. Unpublished doctoral dissertation Rutgers University
- W Dobrich
Illusory recovery from language delay
- Scarborough H.
Micro- and macrodevelopmental changes in language acquisition and other representational systems
- Karmiloff-Smith A.
Outcome of specific expressive language delay
- L Rescorla
- E Schwartz
Evidence for a genetic etiology in reading disability in twins
- DeFries J. C.
Does stage V last until age five? Evidence from normal and language-delayed children
- H Scarborough
- W Dobrich
Measuring syntactic development: The Index of Productive Syntax
- H S Scarborough