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Bisphenol A: Emissions from point sources
Abstract
Bisphenol A is widely used for the production of epoxy resins and polycarbonate plastics. Special in vitro test systems and animal experiments showed a weak estrogenic activity for Bisphenol A. Based on in vitro receptor interaction studies, the activity was estimated to be 2 x 10(-3) lower than that of estradiol. Especially aquatic wildlife could be endangered by waste water discharges. To manage possible risks arising from Bisphenol A contamination, the major fluxes need to be obtained and the contributors to the contamination of municipal treatment plants need to be determined. In this study, industrial emitters and communal waste waters were monitored simultaneously. Mixed samples were taken over periods of one week at nine sample sites. The results showed that the concentrations and fluxes were variable. The paper industry was the major Bisphenol A contributor to the influent of the waste water treatment plant. All the other fluxes measured, including two household areas, were considerably low. About 90% of the total load was removed during the waste water treatment.
... BPA is commonly found in industrial wastewaters, particularly from paper recycling [47,48]. As the sampled DSS received wastewater from a paper recycling plant, DSS1 potentially had far higher concentrations of BPA than the other two digested sewage sludges. ...
... BPA is commonly found in industrial wastewaters, particularly from paper r [47,48]. As the sampled DSS received wastewater from a paper recycling plant, D tentially had far higher concentrations of BPA than the other two digested sludges. ...
... As the sampled DSS received wastewater from a paper recycling plant, D tentially had far higher concentrations of BPA than the other two digested sludges. BPA is commonly found in industrial wastewaters, particularly from paper recycling [47,48]. As the sampled DSS received wastewater from a paper recycling plant, DSS1 potentially had far higher concentrations of BPA than the other two digested sewage sludges. ...
The endocrine disruptor bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the most commonly found micropollutants in the environment. However, the biodegradation of BPA under anaerobic (methanogenic) conditions is still an understudied process in wastewater treatment systems. The current study thus addresses the need for a simple and user-friendly analytical method for the rapid and accurate quantification of BPA in complex matrices such as digested and co-digester sludges. We established a microwave-assisted extraction method, followed by derivatization and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry to quantify BPA by comparing it with a deuterated internal standard. The BPA removal capabilities of three digester sludges and three co-digester sludges were examined under mesophilic methanogenic conditions in biogas plants. The endogenous BPA concentration (dry weight) ranged from 1596 to 10,973 µg kg−1 in digested sewage sludges, and from below the limit of quantification to 9069 µg kg−1 in co-digester sludges. When BPA was added to the sludges, the removal capabilities ranged from not significant to 50% after 21 days of incubation. Biogas production was unaffected by the addition of BPA (228 µg kg−1) to the aqueous sludge. The study demonstrated that BPA could be removed under anaerobic conditions in accustomed inoculates. The findings have far-reaching implications for understanding BPA persistence and detoxification under anaerobic conditions.
... In aufbereitetem Flaschen-beziehungsweise Mineralwasser wird meist kein oder nur äußerst wenig BPA nachgewiesen (Cao und Corriveau 2008;Santhi et al. 2012 Medium (Höhne und Püttmann 2008). In vielen Untersuchungen haben sich Konzentrationen im niedrigen ng/L-Bereich bis in den hohen µg/L-Bereich nachweisen lassen (Rudel et al. 1998;Staples et al. 2000;Fromme et al. 2002;Fukazawa et al. 2002;Gatidou et al. 2007;Höhne und Püttmann 2008;Sánchez-Avila et al. 2009;Tran et al. 2015;Lv et al. 2016 (Fürhacker et al. 2000). Die industrielle Produktion scheint zu einem großen Teil der Kontamination des Abwassers beizutragen (Fürhacker et al. 2000;Fukazawa et al. 2001). ...
... In vielen Untersuchungen haben sich Konzentrationen im niedrigen ng/L-Bereich bis in den hohen µg/L-Bereich nachweisen lassen (Rudel et al. 1998;Staples et al. 2000;Fromme et al. 2002;Fukazawa et al. 2002;Gatidou et al. 2007;Höhne und Püttmann 2008;Sánchez-Avila et al. 2009;Tran et al. 2015;Lv et al. 2016 (Fürhacker et al. 2000). Die industrielle Produktion scheint zu einem großen Teil der Kontamination des Abwassers beizutragen (Fürhacker et al. 2000;Fukazawa et al. 2001). ...
... In unserer experimentellen Studie konnten in allen Wasserproben der vier untersuchten (Olea et al. 1996;Pulgar et al. 2000;Zafra et al. 2002;Joskow et al. 2006;Polydorou et al. 2009;Kingman et al. 2012 Abwasserstudien lagen zwischen 0,00000247-0,37 µg/ml (Fürhacker et al. 2000;Staples et al. 2000;Fukazawa et al. 2001;Fromme et al. 2002;Gatidou et al. 2007;Höhne und Püttmann 2008;Sánchez-Avila et al. 2009;Tran et al. 2015;Lv et al. 2016). Fukazawa et al. (2002) Kompositproben, aber nicht nach deren Beschleifen (Pulgar et al. 2000;Polydorou et al. 2009;Kingman et al. 2012;Małkiewicz et al. 2014;Maserejian et al. 2016). ...
Zielsetzung
Ziel dieser Studie war der qualitative und quantitative Nachweis einer Freisetzung von BPA ins Abwasser beim Beschleifen von dentalen Kompositfüllungsmaterialien sowie die Untersuchung drei verschiedener Filtermaterialien zur Reduktion des BPA-Gehalts.
Methode
Es wurden vier moderne Füllungsmaterialien ausgewählt (Ceram X mono, Filtek Supreme XTE, Filtek Silorane und Core X Flow). Für jedes Komposit wurde eine identische Anzahl an Materialproben (5x2mm, n=10) nach Herstellerangaben ausgehärtet (20s). Diese wurden anschließend von Hand mit einem wassergekühlten Bohrer, an einer vom Wasserkreislauf getrennten Dentaleinheit, beschliffen (200.000 U/min; 90s). Das entstandene Abwasser wurde in Glasflaschen aufgefangen und für sechs Monate bei 7°C gelagert. Die angewandte Studienmethode bestand aus einer Aufkonzentrierung mittels SPE-Verfahren sowie einer chemischen Analyse mit Hilfe von Hochleistungsflüssigkeits-chromatographie und Fluoreszenzdetektion (HPLC-FLD). Drei Filtergranulate (Zeosorb, Katalox Light und Catalytic Carbon) wurden auf ihr Potenzial untersucht BPA aus einem wässrigen Medium zu entfernen. Dafür wurden jeweils gleiche Volumen mit bekannter BPA-Konzentration durch befüllte Filterapparaturen durchlaufen gelassen. Die chemische Analyse des Wasser erfolgte vor und nach Durchlauf mit der identischen Methode der Wasserproben.
Ergebnisse
Beim Beschleifen aller untersuchten Kompositmaterialien ließ sich BPA im Abwasser qualitativ nachweisen. Die Konzentrationen lagen insgesamt in einem Bereich von < LOD-0,192 μg/ml. Ceram X mono und Filtek Supreme XTE zeigten vergleichbare Konzentrationen (p > 0,05), die im Vergleich zu Filtek Silorane und Core X Flow jeweils signifikant erhöht waren (p < 0,05). Bei der Filtereffizienz zeigte Catalytic Carbon die mit Abstand höchste Filtereffizienz (99,38%) vor Zeosorb (7,91%) und Katalox Light). Lediglich Aktivkohle führte zu einer klinisch signifikanten Reduktion des BPA-Gehalts (p < 0,05).
Fazit
BPA kann durch das Beschleifen von dentalen Kompositfüllungen in das Abwasser gelangen. Die Freisetzungmenge erscheint dabei abhängig vom jeweiligen Material zu sein. Unter allen getesteten Filtermaterialien erscheint Aktivkohle bei der Reduktion von BPA im Abwasser besonders effizient zu sein.
... Microbial degradation is likely to be the most important process for reducing the persistence of BPA and its alternatives. Microbial degradation of BPA has been studied in aqueous, sediment, and soil systems from which degradation under aerobic conditions has been repeatedly shown to be favourable [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. More than 90% of BPA was degraded in activated sludge (aerobic process) during wastewater treatment [13,14]. ...
... Microbial degradation of BPA has been studied in aqueous, sediment, and soil systems from which degradation under aerobic conditions has been repeatedly shown to be favourable [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. More than 90% of BPA was degraded in activated sludge (aerobic process) during wastewater treatment [13,14]. Higher removal efficiency has also been correlated to higher concentrations of mixed liquor suspended activated sludge solids which is attributed to both higher microbial activity and greater sorption [14]. ...
... Over 28 days of incubation, which is one week longer than the 21-day retention time of the anaerobic digester, there was no significant change in total concentrations of target compounds in the methanogenic slurry media for both the single and mixed bisphenol systems (Figure 2, indiviual concentrations in liquid and solid phases are detailed in Figure S1). Results are consistent with Limam et al. [20] who reported considerable production of CH 4 and CO 2 in municipal WWTP anaerobic sludge and landfill leachate studies with no BPA mineralization using 13 Clabelled BPA [20]. Likewise, other researchers reported little or no degradation of BPA during periods up to 160 d [11,15,19,[24][25][26][27][28][29] (Table 1) as well as accumulation and persistence of BPA produced from the degradation of tetrabromobisphenol A under anaerobic conditions [25][26][27][28][29] (Table 1). ...
The degradation and distribution of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol AF (BPAF) were evaluated in dilute anaerobic sludge slurries amended with a single bisphenol or a mixture of all three and maintained under methanogenic conditions over a 28-d period. No significant degradation of the bisphenols was observed in methane-generating microcosms. Rapid sorption to sludge particles was the primary removal process with sorption observed: BPAF > BPA > BPS. Several other trace organic chemicals of concern in the sludge were detected using quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry. Of those detected, triclosan and triclocarban had sufficiently high intensities to quantify changes over the 28-d period in the bisphenol-amended microcosms. Similar to the bisphenols, triclosan and triclocarban concentrations also did not significantly change over the 28-d period with concentrations quantified at 2021 ± 627 and 1864 ± 769 μg/kg dry weight, respectively. Findings exemplify that methane-generating microcosms do not appear conducive to significant degradation of trace organics of concern in anaerobic sludge digesters.
Highlight
• Bisphenol A, S and AF as well as triclocarban and triclosan are not degraded under methane producing conditions.
• Removal from the liquid is through sorption to sludge particles and not biodegradation.
• Methane producing conditions are not suitable for achieving significant biodegradation of organics of concern.
... Humans are exposed to BPA through their diet, inhalation of household dust, and dermal exposure (Wetherill et al., 2007, Carwile et al., 2009). Moreover, due to health concerns BPA was largely replaced by bisphenol F (BPF; 4,4′-Methylenediphenol; C 13 H 12 O 2 ) and bisphenol S (BPS; 4,4′-Sulfonyldiphenol; C 12 H 10 O 4 S), which resulted in increased production of BPF and BPS over the last few decades (Fürhacker et al., 2000). However, it was found that both BPS and BPF are toxic and have the potential to interrupt metabolic action like BPA with some exceeding that of BPA (Vinas & Watson, 2013). ...
Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can result in alterations of natural hormones in the body. The aim of this review article is to gather current knowledge about EDCs and obesity in humans. We conducted an electronic literature search using PubMed platform for studies published between y. 2013-2023 on EDCs and obesity. A total of 12 studies met our inclusion criteria focusing on more prominent EDCs such as bisphenols, parabens, triclosan, and phthalates, and their association with obesity. A few experimental studies have been performed on association of obesity and EDCs in humans. Obesity was mostly related to EDCs such as bisphenols and phthalates, while less is known about the impact of parabens and triclosan. Series of negative physiological effects involving obesogenic, diabetogenic, and inflammatory mechanisms, epigenetic and microbiota modulations were related to prolonged EDCs exposure. More profound research of obesity with specific design regarding its role, genetic background for diabetes-related features, cardiometabolic risks and anthropometrical exceeds are needed to illuminate the effect of EDCs exposure on human populations in different environments.
... The median concentration of BPA in urine samples from adults and children in the United States was found to be 1.24 mg L −1 and 1.25 mg L −1 , respectively. Notably, the concentration of BPA in these samples was signicantly higher than its other derivatives, such as bisphenol F and bisphenol S. 4 Analysis of samples collected by Fürhacker et al. 5 from various wastewater sources, including metal/wood manufacturing, chemical industry, hospitals, paper production, cloth washing companies, household areas, and food industry, revealed that the concentration of BPA varied widely, ranging from 1 to 72 mg L −1 . Notably, the highest concentration of BPA was found in samples collected from paper production sites. ...
The present study investigated the use of a nanocomposite, produced by reinforcing nanosize zinc ferrite (ZnFe2O4) in a porous β-CD based polymeric matrix (β-CD-E-T/ZnFe2O4), for the removal of Bisphenol A (BPA) from aqueous solutions via adsorption. The thermal stability of the β-CD-based polymer and β-CD-E-T/ZnFe2O4 nanocomposite were investigated using simultaneous thermal analysis at four heating rates. Non-isothermal isoconversion methods were employed to study the thermal degradation kinetics of the β-CD based polymer before and after ZnFe2O4 nano-filling. The results showed that ZnFe2O4 nano-reinforcement increased the activation energy barrier for the thermal degradation of the β-CD-based polymeric matrix. Adsorption experiments showed that the β-CD-E-T/ZnFe2O4 nanocomposite exhibited very high BPA adsorption within 5 minutes. Isotherm, kinetics, and thermodynamic investigations revealed that the adsorption of BPA was via multilayer adsorption on a heterogeneous β-CD-E-T/ZnFe2O4 surface. The thermodynamic studies indicated that BPA adsorption on β-CD-E-T/ZnFe2O4 was spontaneous and exothermic. Overall, the β-CD-E-T/ZnFe2O4 nanocomposite showed less thermal degradation and high efficiency for removing BPA from contaminated water, indicating its potential as a promising material for wastewater treatment applications.
... Its presence in such commonly used materials increases the potential contamination risk of BPA [11]. Accordingly, BPA has become a common pollutant and has been reported in wastewater, river water, sediments, and raw sewage effluents at concentrations ranging from nM to μM [12,13,14,15]. ...
A label-free impedimetric aptasensor for bisphenol A (BPA) was developed based on a novel method. Initially, gold nanoparticle-based nanoplatforms were prepared using a 4-mercaptophenyl (4MP) electrochemical nanofilm. Then, the BPA-selective aptamer (antiBPA) was immobilized on this platform for the sensitive and selective detection of BPA. The characterizations of the electrode preparation steps were performed using a transmission electron microscope, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, electrochemical methods, and atomic force microscopy. The aptamer immobilization concentration, immobilization time, and incubation time of BPA were optimized to get the best sensor response. The calibration curve exhibited good linearity between 10 fM and 10 nM with a correlation coefficient of 0.9963 and a limit of detection and limit of quantification values of 8.6 and 25.8 fM (S/N = 3), respectively. The developed aptasensor showed good reproducibility (RSD 2.55%), high sensitivity, specificity, and stability. The developed sensor was validated using real samples of tap water, lake water, and wastewater demonstrating promising performance.
Graphical abstract
... Another recognized EDC detected in the studied SS samples is bisphenol A. This compound is used in the production of epoxy resins, polymers for dental treatment, and polycarbonate plastics, the latter being used as packaging for food and beverages, including plastic water bottles (Delfosse et al., 2012;Fürhacker et al., 2000). The presence of bisphenol A in the environment is mainly due to its occurrence in effluents. ...
Sewage sludge (SS) presents a high agronomic potential due to high concentrations of organic matter and nutrients, encouraging its recycling as a soil conditioner. However, the presence of toxic substances can preclude this use. To enable the safe disposal of this waste in agriculture, SS requires additional detoxification to decrease the environmental risks of this practice. Although some alternatives have been proposed in this sense, little attention is provided to eliminating endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). To fill this gap, this study aimed to develop effective and low-cost technology to eliminate EDCs from SS. For this, a detoxification process combining microorganisms and biostimulating agents (soil, sugarcane bagasse, and coffee grounds) was performed for 2, 4, and 6 months with aerobic and anaerobic SSs. The (anti-)estrogenic, (anti-)androgenic, retinoic-like, and dioxin-like activities of SSs samples were verified using yeast-based reporter-gene assays to prove the effectiveness of the treatments. A fractionation procedure of samples, dividing the target sample extract into several fractions according to their polarity, was conducted to decrease the matrix complexity and facilitate the identification of EDCs. A decrease in the abundance and microbial diversity of the SS samples was noted along the biostimulation with the predominance of filamentous fungal species over yeasts and gram-positive bacteria and non-fermenting rods over enterobacteria. Among the 9 EDCs quantified by LC-ESI-MS/MS, triclosan and alkylphenols presented the highest concentrations in both SS. Before detoxification, the studied SSs induced significant agonistic activity, especially at the human estrogen receptor α (hERα) and the human aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). The raw anaerobic sludge also activated the androgen (hAR), retinoic acid (RARα), and retinoid X (RXRα) receptors. However, no significant endocrine-disrupting activities were observed after the SS detoxification, showing that the technology applied here efficiently eliminates receptor-mediated toxicity.
... BPA is a common starting material to produce polycarbonates and plastics, including disposable bottles. Animals show harmful estrogenic activity in response to BPA, and BPA has been detected in surface and drinking water [4,5]. On the other hand, BPS, which has replaced BPA in food packaging, leaches into food and water. ...
Two microporous and amorphous covalent triazine-based frameworks (CTFs) were synthesized by the low-temperature Friedel–Craft reaction using phenanthrene and anthracene as monomers, and cyanuric chloride as a linker. The synthesized CTFs were then further functionalized by mild oxidation to obtain CTF derivatives (CTF-OXs) with amide and imine groups. The functionalized derivatives showed excellent maximum adsorption capacities for bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS), and 2-naphthol (247, 249, and 376 mg g⁻¹, respectively), which are aqueous organic micropollutants. The maximum adsorption capacities were estimated using the Langmuir and Jovanovic isotherm models, and the adsorption kinetics could be well fitted by the pseudo-second-order kinetics model. The extremely high association constants between the pollutants and the mildly oxidized CTFs surface, calculated by the Langmuir isotherm model, showed a 1:1 complex formation between micropollutants (BPA, BPS, and 2-naphthol) and CTF-OXs. This suggests excellent binding properties for the removal of the selected micropollutants at any concentration level. The thermodynamics parameters for the removal of BPA, BPS, and 2-naphthol showed the adsorption process is feasible and involves physisorption. Hence, CTF-OXs have significant potential for use as effective adsorbents for water decontamination.
... L'Homme ainsi que les animaux sauvages se trouvent depuis exposés à ce PE, présent dans l'alimentation et l'environnement (eau, air) (Vandenberg et al., 2007;Geens et al., 2011;Ribeiro et al., 2017). Le BPA s'accumule principalement dans le réseau hydrographique (eau et sédiments) via les eaux usées par exemple (Fürhacker et al., 2000). Son effet en tant que PE a donc été principalement étudié sur les organismes aquatiques. ...
La différenciation sexuelle des Isopodes dépend d'une hormone sexuelle protéique, l'hormone androgène (HA), caractéristique des Malacostracés. Cet Insulin-Like Peptide suffit à induire par sa présence la différenciation mâle de ces Crustacés. Nous avons identifié in silico le transporteur circulant de l'HA, l'IGFBP-rP1, chez de nombreuses espèces d'Isopodes ainsi qu'à l'échelle des Crustacés. De la même façon, nous avons identifié deux récepteurs transmembranaires, l'IR1 et l'IR2, issus d'une duplication de gène spécifique des Malacostracés. Les patrons d'expression de ces gènes ont été étudiés sur notre espèce modèle, Armadillidium vulgare. Av-IGFBP-rP1 et Av-IR1 sont exprimés de manière ubiquiste et tout au long du développement. Av-IR2 est aussi exprimé à chaque stade de la différenciation mais ce transcrit est quasi-spécifique des glandes androgènes et ovaires. Une approche par ARNi a confirmé l'implication de ces trois protéines dans la voie de signalisation de l'HA. En effet, l'inhibition de l'HA, Av-IGFBP-rP1 et Av-IR1 provoquent l'hypertrophie des glandes androgènes, suggérant leur implication dans une boucle de rétro-contrôle de l'HA. L'inhibition de Av-IR2 semble seulement provoquer la différenciation d'ouvertures génitales femelles. Ces phénotypes sont comparables à ceux des intersexués mâles induits par la bactérie féminisante endogène Wolbachia. Nous montrons cependant que la bactérie altère seulement l'expression de l'HA et pas celle des récepteurs. Enfin, nous avons testé l'effet du bisphénol A mais nous n'observons pas d'altération de la différenciation sexuelle des larves lors d'expositions à ce perturbateur endocrinien exogène.
... We found that the concentrations measured in the present study, ranging from 4.0 to 96.2 ng/L, were markedly lower than those in other cities in China, such as Shanghai (Ma et al. 2006), Shenyang (Tang et al. 2005), Chongqing (Shao et al. 2002), Zunyi (Jie et al. 2017), Suzhou (Chen 2013), and Taiwan (Dai et al. 2019), but were higher than those in Europe, including Spain (Valcárcel et al. 2018) and Portugal (Carvalho et al. 2015). As NP mainly originates from industrial discharge (Fürhacker et al. 2000;Soares et al. 2008), the relatively slight pollution from NP in Wuhan compared to other reported cities in China might have benefited from the restrictions on industrial production that started in June 2019 and lasted for 5 months, for the sake of the 7th CISM Military World Games taking place later during that period. It was not surprising that the concentration of NP in drinking water in Wuhan was higher than that in other cities of Europe given that NP has been restricted for several years in those districts as a hazard to human and environmental safety, while in Asia, NP is still being used. ...
The suspected endocrine disruptor nonylphenol (NP) is closely associated with anthropogenic activities; therefore, studies on this compound have been clustered in urban areas. This study investigated the NP concentrations in drinking water sources (n = 8), terminal tap water (n = 36), and human urine samples (n = 127) collected from urban and rural areas in Wuhan, China. The mean concentrations of NP measured in drinking water sources in urban and rural areas were 92.3 ± 7.5 and 11.0 ± 0.8 ng/L (mean ± SD), respectively, whereas the mean levels in urban and rural tap waters were 5.0 ± 0.7 and 44.2 ± 2.6 ng/L (mean ± SD), respectively. Nevertheless, NP was detected in 74.1% and 75.4% of the human urine samples from urban and rural participants, with geometric mean concentrations of 0.19 ng/mL (0.26 µg/g creat) and 0.27 ng/mL (0.46 µg/g creat), respectively. Although the NP concentrations measured in the drinking water sources of urban areas were significantly higher than those in rural areas (P < 0.05), the tap water and urine NP concentrations measured in urban areas were unexpectedly lower than those of rural areas (P < 0.05). Additionally, this investigation showed that the materials comprising household water supply pipelines and drinking water treatment processes in the two areas were also different. Our results indicated that the levels of exposure to NP in drinking water and human urine in rural areas were not necessarily lower than those in urban areas. Thus, particular attention should be paid to rural areas in future studies of NP.
... However, more studies on actual wastewater with a mixture of other pollutants than BPA are needed for analyzing the efficacy of the treatment and pilot scale application. In this context it becomes imperative to find an efficient technology to remove CECs such as BPA from water sources (Fürhacker et al. 2000;Amjad et al. 2020). ...
Rampant water pollution events and rising water demand caused by exponential population growth and depleting freshwater resources speak of an impending water crisis. The inability of conventional wastewater treatment systems to remove contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) such as bisphenol A (BPA) beckons for new and efficient technologies to remove them from wastewater and water sources. Advanced oxidation processes such as ozonation are primarily known for their capability to oxidize and degrade organic entities in water, but optimum mineralization levels were hard to achieve. In this study, we synthesized an activated carbon impregnated nanocomposite-bimetallic catalyst (AC/CeO2/ZnO) and used it along with ozonation to remove BPA from water. The catalyst was characterized using BET, XRD, FESEM, Raman spectra, and DLS studies. Catalytic ozonation achieved TOC removal 25% higher than non-catalytic ozonation process. The degradation pathway of BPA was proposed using LC–MS/LC-Q-TOF studies that found six main aromatic degradation byproducts. Catalytic ozonation and non-catalytic ozonation followed similar degradation pathways. The formation of persistent aliphatic acidic byproducts in the treated sample made total organic carbon (TOC) removal above 61% difficult.
... Postconsumer sources of BPA and BPA-containing products are known to include those compounds that are associated with the disposal of waste such as effluent discharge from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), combustion of domestic waste, leaching of various products from landfills, and degradation of plastics in the environment 26,33-35 .Furhackeret al. 36 described that removal of 90% of BPA was known to be reported during wastewater treatment in a plant situated in Southern Austria; as such similar reports were obtained in the United States 37 . Despite various efforts regarding the treatment of BPA, its detention in the environment has been reported from time to time [38][39][40][41][42] . ...
Bisphenol A (BPA) is one of the emerging contaminants associated with deleterious health effects on both public and wildlife and is extensively incorporated into different industrial products. BPA is ubiquitously and frequently detected in the environment and has become a serious health issue due to its presence in food organisms and drinking water. The distribution of BPA has recently become an important issue worldwide, but investigations on the toxicity of BPA remain limited. A review of the literature reveals that BPA has a widespread presence in environmental media, such as indoor dust, surface water, sediments, and sewage sludge. In the present review, an overview of the research studies dealing with the occurrence, fate, exposure, and toxicity of BPA is discussed. Recent studies have raised worry over the potentially harmful implications of BPA exposure in humans and wildlife. However, further investigation on the potential risks of BPA to humans and its mechanisms of toxicity should be conducted to better understand and control the risks of such novel chemicals.
... Interestingly E 2 , EE 2 , alkylphenols, and bisphenol A have been found in the bile of fish exposed to sewage treatment plant effluents (Larsson et al. 1999). Alkylphenol surfactants, bisphenol A, and phthalate plasticizers have also been detected in sewage treatment plant effluents (Fürhacker et al. 2000;Spengler et al. 2001;Thomas et al. 2001) in United States rivers although the causes were unknown. It was not determined whether the intersex observed in these fishes developed during sex differentiation in early life stages, during exposure to environmental factors, during adult stages of the fish, or both (Hinck et al. 2009). ...
Fish are acutely affected by the increasing number of chemicals in the ambient water, including endocrine disruptors (EDC’s). EDCs include heavy metals such as cadmium and mercury, the polycyclic hydrocarbon benzo(a)pyrene, polychlorinated biphenyls, phthalates, carbamate and organophosphate pesticides, organochlorines, and bisphenol A. Nevertheless, certain groups of EDCs do manifest a comparatively greater effect on specific endocrine glands. The endocrine dysfunctions induced by explicitly acting EDCs include changes in fertility and in the ratio of male and female fish, classified as xenoestrogens or xenoandrogens. These EDCs result in a high prevalence of intersex condition including sex reversal. Feminization of male and masculinization of female fish pose a serious threat for fish populations, causing reduction or even breakdown of the reproductive performance of fish and of the yield of fisheries. It is now widely accepted that fish provide reliable biomarkers of early effects of EDC’s which data can be used as a warning signal for the ecosystem in general and a lever to diminish or prevent further release of effluents and discharges from anthropogenic activities.Graphic Abstract
... Conventional wastewater treatments were unable to remove them e ciently.At present, it is classi ed under the larger group of CECs. In this context it becomes imperative to nd an e cient technology to remove CECs such as BPA from water sources (Fürhacker et al, 2000, Amjad et al, 2020 Advanced oxidation processes (AOP) attracted speci c interest from the scienti c community because of their high removal, time e ciencies, manual automation capabilities, and zero residue degradation pathways, reducing the need for post-treatments (Garrido-Cardenas et al., 2020). Ozonation produces O 3− radicals that destroy organic molecules and also disinfects drinking water. ...
Rampant water pollution events and rising water demand caused by exponential population growth and depleting freshwater resources speak of an impending water crisis. The inability of conventional wastewater treatment systems to remove Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CEC) such as Bisphenol-A (BPA) beckons for new and efficient technologies to remove them from wastewater and water sources. Advanced oxidation processes such as ozonation are primarily known for their capability to oxidize and degrade organic entities in water but optimum mineralization levels were hard to achieve. In this study, we synthesized an activated carbon impregnated nanocomposite-bimetallic catalyst (AC/CeO 2 /ZnO) and used it along with ozonation to remove BPA from water. The catalyst was characterized using BET, XRD, FESEM, Raman spectra, and DLS studies. Catalytic ozonation achieved TOC removal 25% higher than non-catalytic ozonation process. The degradation pathway of BPA was proposed using LC-MS/LC-Q-TOF studies that found six main aromatic degradation byproducts. Catalytic ozonation and non-catalytic ozonation followed similar degradation pathways. The formation of persistent aliphatic acidic byproducts in the treated sample made TOC removal above 61% difficult.
... BPA are widely used as an intermediate in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, involving products such as drinking bottles, food container, electronic equipment and tableware [7]. The presence of BPA in municipal wastewater is detected due to the leaching from plastics and resin, and from the discharge of industrial wastewater [8,9]. There are several water treatment techniques available to remove BPA which implement the physical [10,11], chemical [12,13] and biological [14,15] principles. ...
One-dimensional photocatalysts with enhanced properties are desirable for photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. In this work, hollow titanium dioxide nanofibers (HTNF) were successfully prepared via template synthesis technique. Firstly, polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofibers were synthesized by electrospinning and oxidized for further use. By dip-coating the electrospun nanofibers in TiO2 sol–gel, TiO2/PAN nanofibers composite was obtained. Subsequently, the nanocomposite was calcined. The decomposition of PAN during calcination resulted in the formation of HTNF. The nanofibers were characterized by FESEM, TGA and XRD. The characterization revealed hollow nanofibers structure with diameter of 200–250 nm. XRD analysis showed that the nanofibers had mixed crystalline phase, with 24.2% anatase and 75.8% rutile. The photocatalytic performance of HTNF were studied by evaluating the degradation of Bisphenol A (BPA) under UV light irradiation. In the photodegradation process, the effect of several parameters such as the initial concentration of BPA, pH of the solution and photocatalyst dosage were investigated. The optimum photocatalyst dosage, pH and initial BPA concentration were 0.75 g/L, pH 4.1 and 10 ppm BPA, respectively. Under these conditions, the photocatalytic performance of HTNF were found to be 97.3%, which was 12.6% higher than those of Degussa P25 TiO2. The degradation of BPA followed the pseudo-first-order kinetic model.
... Although the half-life of BPA released into the water environment is short, it still pollutes the water environment due to its widespread use . Studies have found that the degradation of polycarbonate releases BPA, which enters the wastewater through the industrial wastewater and domestic sewage, consequently reaching the aquatic environment via wastewater drainage (Fǜrhacker et al., 2000;Lee and Peart, 2000). Additionally, microplastics are capable of adsorbing some organic pollutants, due to their large surface area and their remarkable binding capacity Fang et al., 2019). ...
The retention of polyether sulfone (PES) and bisphenol A (BPA) in wastewater has received extensive attention. The effects of PES and BPA on the removal of organic matter by anaerobic granular sludge were investigated. We also analyzed the changes in the electron transport system and the effects on the composition of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS), as well as alternations of the microbial community in the anaerobic granular sludge. In the experimental groups which received BPA, the removal of the chemical oxygen demand (COD) were significantly suppressed, which an average removal efficiency of less than 65%, 30% lower than that of the control group. In the loosely-bound EPS (LB-EPS) excitation-emission matrix (EEM) spectra, the absorption peak of tryptophan disappeared when the BPA pollutants was added, which it was present in the control group without added pollutants. The addition of PES and BPA also affected protease, acetate kinase, and coenzyme F420 activities in the anaerobic granular sludge. Especially, the coenzyme F420 reduced from 0.0045 to 0.0017 μmol/L in the presence of PES and BPA. The relative abundance of Spirochaetes decreased in the presence of PES and BPA, while the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes increased from 12.98% to 22.87%. At the genus level, in the presence of PES and BPA, the relative abundance of Acinetobacter increased from 2.20% to 9.64% and Hydrogenophaga decreased sharply from 15.58% to 0.12%.
... Many countries and regions are synthesizing BPA, including the United States, China, and European countries (16)(17)(18)(19). Plastics are widely used in our consumer products and have changed our lifestyles, including the environment (20,21). The widespread use of BPA-containing plastics has prompted BPA to spread in the environment. ...
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant, mainly from the production and use of plastics and the degradation of wastes related to industrial plastics. Evidence from laboratory animal and human studies supports the view that BPA has an endocrine disrupting effect on Leydig cell development and function. To better understand the adverse effects of BPA, we reviewed its role and mechanism by analyzing rodent data in vivo and in vitro and human epidemiological evidence. BPA has estrogen and anti-androgen effects, thereby destroying the development and function of Leydig cells and causing related reproductive diseases such as testicular dysgenesis syndrome, delayed puberty, and subfertility/infertility. Due to the limitation of BPA production, the increased use of BPA analogs has also attracted attention to these new chemicals. They may share actions and mechanisms similar to or different from BPA.
... It is also found from the water samples from metal and wood manufacturing industries, chemical industry, paper production units, hospitals, clothe washing companies and households showed the BPA concentration ranging from a minimum 1.5 μg/L to a maximum 41 μg/L. It takes two weeks to 28 days for >90% biodegradation of BPA under laboratory soil degradation studies [2]. A study shows that the leachates from landfills contain a BPA concentration of 1.3 to 17,200 μg/L, which exceeds the EC 50 or LC 50 levels for aquatic organisms [3]. ...
The removal of bisphenol A (BPA) from aqueous solutions using hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) derived biochar was used as adsorbent. In this study, biochars of Casuarina equisetifolia L. (CE) and Wrightia tinctoria (WT) were prepared using Hydrothermal carbonization method at three temperatures (180°C, 215°C and 250°C) with autogenous pressures and constant reaction time of 10 min after reaching desired temperature. The produced char is then extracted with acetone to remove most of the oils and volatiles present; the char is then dried in oven to remove remaining solvent and volatiles. SEM analysis was performed on the biochars to learn how the topography has changed due to the temperature change. BPA solution was prepared in house by dissolving 0.02g of BPA in 500mL of distilled water to make 40ppm of solution, then 0.05gm of adsorbent (biochar and activated carbon) was added to the solution and kept in a shaker, the solution was periodically pipetted (5mL) from the 500mL solution for about 160 min (equilibrium condition). The collected solution was then analyzed using double beam UV/Visible spectrometer with 277.5nm wavelength, Concentration vs Time was calculated using this analysis, adsorption percentage, adsorption capacity and experimental qe was calculated using the data collected by UV/Visible spectrometry. Two kinetic models based on Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption isotherms were used to analyze the adsorption capacity of the adsorbent (activated carbon and biochar) mathematically and plot the required graph for linear regression. The results obtained via linear regression showed that biochars produced via hydrothermal carbonization (CE215, CE250 and WT250) showed higher possibility of using them as adsorbents, which could well perform better than any other alternative carbon adsorbent.
... BPA synthesized in 1891 firstly is one of the most widely used industrial chemicals (Dodds and Lawson 1938). The half-life of BPA in water is between 3 and 5 days and it is sufficient to affect the aquatic organisms (Fürhacker et al. 2000). BPA may cause toxic effects to aquatic organisms even with low concentrations ). ...
One of the most important environmental problems in the world is micro-pollutants. The aim of this study was to investigate the antioxidant responses of Gammarus pulex to Bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine-disrupting agent. For this purpose, sublethal concentrations of BPA were applied to G. pulex and biochemical responses were studied. Enzymatic antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities and nonenzymatic antioxidants glutathione (GSH) and thiobarbituric acid reagents (TBARS) levels in G. pulex were determined in four different groups during 24 and 96 h. Biochemical biomarkers were measured using commercial kits in a microplate reader. When we compared with control, SOD enzyme activity increased in all groups during both administration periods and CAT enzyme activity decreased in all groups. GSH and TBARS levels were increased after 24 and 96 h of application periods in all groups when compared with control. For changes in SOD and CAT activities and GSH, TBARS levels have been determined to be useful as biomarkers against BPA in G. pulex tissues. It has also been proven that G. pulex is an effective bioindicator that shows BPA pollution in water. The different results of biochemical biomarkers can be evaluated as a marker of possible metabolic processes, and the biochemical response of G. pulex can reveal to some extent the environmental consequences of BPA pollution resulting from industrial waters.
... BPA can migrate from PC plastic containers and cans with epoxy coating into foods, especially at elevated temperatures (e.g., for hot-fill or heat-processed canned foods). It can also be released into the environment from bottles, packaging, landfill leachates, paper, and plastic manufacturing plants (Yamamoto et al., 2001;Furhacker et al., 2000;Huang et al., 2012). It was estimated that 100 000 kg of BPA were released into air, surface water, or wastewater during 1998 (Staples et al., 1998). ...
The last two decades has seen the rapid implementation of a number of regional and international agreements regarding chemicals management. At the same time however, rapid globalization and demand for products, increased trade, expansion of manufacturing into Developing Countries and Countries with Economies in Transition (CEIT), new chemicals, uses, or products, coincided with an increased awareness of real or potential negative impacts of chemicals, and has focused concerns on the need for a globally effective and sustainable chemicals management process. The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) is the response to these concerns, especially regarding chemicals, products, uses, releases, or wastes that are currently not under consideration or taken up by existing Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs). Recent scientific advances highlighted the potential of human health and environmental effects from chemicals. Other aspects such as increased transboundary movement of chemicals through trade or following release have also come to the fore. Some of these chemicals concerned are already regulated or recognized by existing MEAs or MEAs under negotiation. However, there are issues highlighted by recent and current research, as well as increased concerns and awareness that are not or only partially covered or recognized by regulation. These are commonly and collectively termed Emerging Chemical Management Issues (ECMIs). For this document, ECMI is defined as any potential or recognized human health and/ or environmental effects concern associated with chemical(s) whose management is not or only partially addressed by existing MEAs. The term ECMI does not have any legal standing, recognition, or implication. Its use is entirely as collective shorthand.
The immediate goal of the GEF through its present chemicals program is to promote the sound management of chemicals throughout their life-cycle in ways that lead to the minimization of significant adverse effects on human health and the global environment. This report will identify, evaluate and prioritize ECMIs in relation to the likely chemical management needs of Developing Countries and CEIT such that additional resources and support
from GEF within its mandate will anticipate, prevent, reduce and/or minimize adverse impacts on human health and the environment.
Twenty-two ECMIs were identified and described using various criteria listed below. The ECMIs covered by this study were PAHs, Arsenic, Bisphenol A, Alkylphenols, Phthalates, Organotins, Heavy metals, Nanoparticles and nanomaterials, Lead in paints, Inorganic fertilizer, Cadmium in fertilizer, Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), Illicit drugs, Food additives, Endocrine disruption, Mixture effects, E-waste, Marine debris, Ammunition, conflict and the legacies of war, Mine waste and drainage, Sewage, and Open burning.
... The authors concluded that the highest BPA levels were seen in areas near to the industrial and high settlement areas (41). In a study from Lower Austria, BPA concentrations were found to be high in wastewater samples from paper production industries and the maximum BPA level (2500 ng/L) was found in effluent wastewaters (42). During 2013-2016, the concentrations of BPA in Taihu Lake, China, drastically increased from 8.5 ng/L to 97 ng/L (43). ...
Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a synthetic chemical used in the manufacturing of polycarbonates and epoxy resins. This paper is a review of studies reporting the occurrences and concentrations of BPA in the environment and associated impact on human health. Studies have found that at high temperature conditions such as open burning of dumped waste in developing nations can relocate BPA from plastic waste into the environment. BPA is a proven endocrine disruptor capable of mimicking or blocking the receptors and altering hormone concentrations and its metabolism. Even though it is consumed in a low dose, it can stimulate cellular responses and affect body functions. Biomonitoring studies show that human and animal exposure to BPA is rapid and continuous. In-depth studies are needed to understand the fate of these compounds particularly in the developing nations and the associated adverse health impacts of BPA due to prolonged exposure.
... Moreover, the production of BPA in the USA and Europe in a period between 1995 and 2014 has been enhanced to 1000 and 950 kt per year respectively (IHS Chemical, 2016). It can be released into the environment through industrial, agricultural, and general human activities, where it contaminates the atmosphere, agricultural soils, wastewater effluents, and sewage sludge (Fu and Kawamura, 2010;Furhacker et al., 2000;Meesters and Schroder, 2002). Concentrations of BPA vastly varied in the contaminated environments: 17.2 mg/mL (17,200 ppm) in hazardous landfill leachates (Yamamoto et al., 2001), 21 ppm in freshwater (Crain et al., 2007), 4.4 ng/mL (0.0044 ppm)1 9 mg/mL (19,000 ppm) in American rivers, and 21.3 μg/g (21.3 ppm) in soil of hygienic landfill in Brazil (Lovatel et al., 2011), 410 ng/L (0.00041 ppm) in surface water in Germany (Qiu et al., 2013) and 17.2 mg/L (17.2 ppm) in garbage leachate in Japan (Sun et al., 2013). ...
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a harmful environmental contaminant acting as an endocrine disruptor in animals, but it also affects growth and development in plants. Here, we have elucidated the functional mechanism of root growth inhibition by BPA in Arabidopsis thaliana using mutants, reporter lines and a pharmacological approach. In response to 10 ppm BPA, fresh weight and main root length were reduced, while auxin levels increased. BPA inhibited root growth by reducing root cell length in the elongation zone by suppressing expansin expression and by decreasing the length of the meristem zone by repressing cell division. The inhibition of cell elongation and cell division was attributed to the enhanced accumulation/redistribution of auxin in the elongation zone and meristem zone in response to BPA. Correspondingly, the expressions of most auxin biosynthesis and transporter genes were enhanced in roots by BPA. Taken together, it is assumed that the endocrine disruptor BPA inhibits primary root growth by inhibiting cell elongation and division through auxin accumulation/redistribution in Arabidopsis. This study will contribute to understanding how BPA affects growth and development in plants.
... Surprisingly, it still contains BPA but at a lower level than the other dialyzers assessed. Glues used to assemble the dialyzers during the production process could be the source of this contamination [31]. ...
The health safety conditions governing the practice of online hemodiafiltration (OL-HDF) do not yet incorporate the risks related to the presence of endocrine disruptors such as bisphenol A (BPA). The aim of this study was to assess, for the first time, the exposure to BPA but also to its chlorinated derivatives (ClxBPA) (100 times more estrogenic than BPA) during OL-HDF. We demonstrated that BPA is transmitted by the different medical devices used in OL-HDF: ultrafilters, dialysis concentrate cartridges (and not only dialyzers, as previously described). Moreover, BPA has been found in dialysis water as well as in ultrapure dialysate and replacement fluid due to contamination of water coming from municipal network. Indeed, due to contaminations provided by both ultrafilters and water, high levels of BPA were determined in the infused replacement fluid (1033 ng.L−1) from the beginning of the session. Thus, our results demonstrate that dialysis water must be considered as an important exposure source to endocrine disruptors, especially since other micropollutants such as ClxBPA have also been detected in dialysis fluids. While assessment of the impact of this exposure remains to be done, these new findings should be taken into account to assess exposure risks in end-stage renal disease patients.
... Global factories now produce approximately 400 million metric tons of plastic per year, which is more than a billion kilograms per day [9]. It contaminates the environment, including the atmosphere, wastewater effluents, agricultural soils, and sewage sludge [10][11][12]. ...
Environmental androgen analogues act as endocrine disruptors, which inhibit the normal function of androgen in animals. In the present work, through the expression of a chimeric gene specified for the production of the anthocyanin in response to androgen DHT (dihydrotestosterone), we generated an indicator Arabidopsis that displays a red color in leaves in the presence of androgen compounds. This construct consists of a ligand-binding domain of the human androgen receptor gene and the poplar transcription factor gene PtrMYB119, which is involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in poplar and Arabidopsis. The transgenic Arabidopsis XVA-PtrMYB119 displayed a red color in leaves in response to 10 ppm DHT, whereas it did not react in the presence of other androgenic compounds. The transcript level of PtrMYB119 peaked at day 13 of DHT exposure on agar media and then declined to its normal level at day 15. Expressions of anthocyanin biosynthesis genes including chalcone flavanone isomerase, chalcone synthase, flavanone 3-hydroxylase, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase, UFGT (UGT78D2), and anthocyanidin synthase were similar to that of PtrMYB119. It is assumed that this transgenic plant can be used by nonscientists for the detection of androgen DHT in the environment and samples such as food solution without any experimental procedures.
Neurogenesis occurs throughout life in the hippocampus of the brain, and many environmental toxicants inhibit neural stem cell (NSC) function and neuronal generation. Bisphenol-A (BPA), an endocrine disrupter used for surface coating of plastic products causes injury in the developing and adult brain; thus, many countries have banned its usage in plastic consumer products. BPA analogs/alternatives such as bisphenol-F (BPF) and bisphenol-S (BPS) may also cause neurotoxicity; however, their effects on neurogenesis are still not known. We studied the effects of BPF and BPS exposure from gestational day 6 to postnatal day 21 on neurogenesis. We found that exposure to non-cytotoxic concentrations of BPF and BPS significantly decreased the number/size of neurospheres, BrdU⁺ (proliferating NSC marker) and MAP-2⁺ (neuronal marker) cells and GFAP⁺ astrocytes in the hippocampus NSC culture, suggesting reduced NSC stemness and self-renewal and neuronal differentiation and increased gliogenesis. These analogs also reduced the number of BrdU/Sox-2⁺, BrdU/Dcx⁺, and BrdU/NeuN⁺ co-labeled cells in the hippocampus of the rat brain, suggesting decreased NSC proliferation and impaired maturation of newborn neurons. BPF and BPS treatment increases BrdU/cleaved caspase-3⁺ cells and Bax-2 and cleaved caspase protein levels, leading to increased apoptosis in hippocampal NSCs. Transmission electron microscopy studies suggest that BPF and BPS also caused degeneration of neuronal myelin sheath, altered mitochondrial morphology, and reduced number of synapses in the hippocampus leading to altered cognitive functions. These results suggest that BPF and BPS exposure decreased the NSC pool, inhibited neurogenesis, induced apoptosis of NSCs, caused myelin degeneration/synapse degeneration, and impaired learning and memory in rats.
Neste trabalho foi avaliada a metodologia para determinar bisfenol A (BFA) em água mineral, utilizando-se a extração em fase sólida (SPE), a derivação com anidrido trifluoroacético (TFAA) e a análise por cromatografia em fase gasosa com detector de captura de elétrons (GC/ECD). A curva analítica forneceu coeficiente de correlação (R) de 0,999, valores de recuperação entre 88 e 106%, limites de detecção e de quantificação de 2,5 e 25,0 ng.mL-1, respectivamente. A metodologia foi aplicada em quatro amostras de diferentes marcas de água mineral, dentre as quais apenas uma apresentou resultado detectável de 0,46 ng.mL-1. Este estudo sugere que o BFA pode ser facilmente detectado e quantificado na matriz utilizada por meio de metodologia proposta, a qual demonstrou ser seletiva, precisa e exata.
The production of polycarbonate, a high-performance transparent plastic, employs bisphenol A, which is a prominent endocrine-disrupting compound. Polycarbonates are frequently used in the manufacturing of food, bottles, storage containers for newborns, and beverage packaging materials. Global production of BPA in 2022 was estimated to be in the region of 10 million tonnes. About 65–70% of all bisphenol A is used to make polycarbonate plastics. Bisphenol A leaches from improperly disposed plastic items and enters the environment through wastewater from plastic-producing industries, contaminating, sediments, surface water, and ground water. The concentration BPA in industrial and domestic wastewater ranges from 16 to 1465 ng/L while in surface water it has been detected 170–3113 ng/L. Wastewater treatment can be highly effective at removing BPA, giving reductions of 91–98%. Regardless, the remaining 2–9% of BPA will continue through to the environment, with low levels of BPA commonly observed in surface water and sediment in the USA and Europe. The health effects of BPA have been the subject of prolonged public and scientific debate, with PubMed listing more than 17,000 scientific papers as of 2023. Bisphenol A poses environmental and health hazards in aquatic systems, affecting ecosystems and human health. While several studies have revealed its presence in aqueous streams, environmentally sound technologies should be explored for its removal from the contaminated environment. Concern is mostly related to its estrogen-like activity, although it can interact with other receptor systems as an endocrine-disrupting chemical. Present review article encompasses the updated information on sources, environmental concerns, and sustainable remediation techniques for bisphenol A removal from aquatic ecosystems, discussing gaps, constraints, and future research requirements.
Bisphenol A (BPA) enters the environment through various industrial and consumer-related pathways. Industrial sources include BPA manufacturing and secondary industrial uses such as the manufacturing of polymers and other substances based on or containing BPA. However, secondary sources and emissions to the environment, such as those related to the consumer use of articles containing BPA, may be more important than industrial emissions. Although readily biodegradable, BPA is widely distributed in various environmental compartments and living organisms. It is still not well understood which specific sources and pathways are responsible for releasing BPA into the environment. Therefore, we developed FlowEQ, a coupled flow-network and fugacity-based fate and transport model for the assessment of BPA in surface water. The work is divided into two parts. In Part I, inputs needed to support the modeling and model validation were collected. BPA was measured at 23 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and 21 landfills in Germany. In addition, the BPA content of 132 consumer articles from 27 article classes was analyzed. BPA concentrations in WWTPs ranged from 0.33 to 910 µg L-1 in influents and from < 0.01 to 0.65 µg L-1 in effluents, resulting in removal efficiencies of 13 to 100%. Average BPA concentrations in landfill leachate ranged from < 0.01 to approximately 1,400 µg L- 1 . BPA concentrations measured in consumer articles varied significantly by type, ranging from < 0.5 µg kg-1 in printing inks up to 1,691,700 µg kg-1 in articles made from recycled polyvinyl chloride (PVC). These concentrations were combined with information of usage, leaching, and contact with water to develop estimates of loadings. Together with the results of the FlowEQ modeling presented in Part II, this assessment improves our understanding of the sources and emissions pathways of BPA in surface water. The model considers various sources of BPA and can estimate future surface water concentrations of BPA based on changes in usage.
Bisfenol A (BPA), gıda kaplarında, diş macunlarında, tıbbi ekipmanlarda, mutfak eşyalarında, su borularında ve elektronik aletlerde yaygın olarak kullanılan endokrin bozucu kimyasal bir maddedir. BPA insanlara ve diğer canlılara kontamine gıda ve içeceklerle bulaşmaktadır. Çevresel kirleticilerin çoğunda olduğu gibi BPA kontaminasyonu en fazla göl, nehir ve denizlerde meydana gelmektedir. Bu ortamlardaki BPA miktarını tespit etmek için biyoindikatör olarak deniz canlıları kullanılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada İskenderun Körfezi’nden yakalanan ahtapotlarda BPA kirlilik seviyesini belirlemek ve tüketen insanlar için risk düzeyini ortaya koymak amaçlanmıştır. Bu kapsamda Hatay ili İskenderun Körfezi’nden elde edilen 40 adet ahtapot numunesinin kas ve deri dokularında Yüksek Performanslı Sıvı Kromatografi (HPLC) ile BPA miktarı ölçüldü. Tüm ahtapot numunelerinde BPA düzeyi 0.349-80.313 ng/g aralığında bulunmuştur. Ahtapot numunelerinde tespit edilen bu BPA düzeyleri İskenderun Körfezinden çalışılan balık örneklerinden daha yüksek seviyede olmakla birlikte Türk Gıda Kodeksinde BPA için belirlenen spesifik migrasyon limitinin altında olduğu bulunmuştur. BPA düzeylerinin sucul ortamdaki canlılarda belirli aralıklarla izlenmesi hem çevre hem de halk sağlığı açısından önemlidir.
Previous studies have associated bisphenol A (BPA) with malignant tumor formation, infertility, and atherosclerosis in vitro and in vivo. However, the precise mechanisms through which BPA affects the cardiovascular system under normal conditions remain unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the biological mechanisms through which BPA affects the responses of aortic vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). BPA treatment inhibited the proliferative activity of VSMCs and induced G2/M-phase cell cycle arrest via stimulation of the ATM-CHK2-Cdc25C-p21WAF1-Cdc2 cascade in VSMCs. Furthermore, BPA treatment upregulated the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways such as ERK, JNK, and p38 MAPK in VSMCs. However, the phosphorylation level of AKT was down-regulated by BPA treatment. Additionally, the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38 MAPK was suppressed when the cells were treated with their respective inhibitors (U0126, SP600125, and SB203580). BPA suppressed MMP-9 activity by reducing the binding activity of AP-1, Sp-1, and NF-κB, thus inhibiting the invasive and migratory ability of VSMCs. These data demonstrate that BPA interferes with the proliferation, migration, and invasion capacities of VSMCs. Therefore, our findings suggest that overexposure to BPA can lead to cardiovascular damage due to dysregulated VSMC responses.
Freshwater shortage is becoming one of the most critical global challenges owing to severe water pollution caused by micropollutants and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). However, current purification technology shows slow adsorption of micropollutants and requires energy‐intensive process for VOCs removal from water. In this study, a highly efficient molecularly engineered covalent triazine framework (CTF) for rapid adsorption of micropollutants and VOC‐intercepting performance using solar distillation is reported. Supramolecular design and mild oxidation of CTFs (CTF‐OXs) enable hydrophilic internal channels and improve molecular sieving of micropollutants. CTF‐OX shows rapid removal efficiency of micropollutants (> 99.9% in 10 s) and could be regenerated several times without performance loss. Uptake rates of selected micropollutants are high, with initial pollutant uptake rates of 21.9 g mg−1 min−1, which are the highest rates recorded for bisphenol A (BPA) adsorption. Additionally, photothermal composite membrane fabrication using CTF‐OX exhibits high VOC rejection rate (up to 98%) under 1 sun irradiation (1 kW m−2). A prototype of synergistic purification system composed of adsorption and solar‐driven membrane can efficiently remove over 99.9% of mixed phenol derivatives. This study provides an effective strategy for rapid removal of micropollutants and high VOC rejection via solar‐driven evaporation process. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Endocrine disruptive compounds are natural or anthropogenic environmental micropollutants that alter the function of the endocrine system ultimately damaging the metabolism. Bisphenol A (BPA) is the most common of these pollutants and it is often used in epoxy coatings and polycarbonates as a plasticizer. Therefore, monitoring BPA levels in different environments is very important and challenging. In recent years, an increasing number of BPA detection methods have been proposed. This article presents a critical review of aptamer-based electrochemical, fluorescence-based, colorimetric, and several other BPA detection platforms published in the last decade. Furthermore, a statistical evaluation has been made using principle component analysis showing analytical performance parameters do not create very different clusters. Comparisons to other BPA detection methods are also presented so that the reader has an overall literature overview.
The occurrence of emerging micropollutants (EMPs) in water is a new challenge to scientific community and ecosystems health worldwide. There remains widespread data gaps regarding effective removal of EMPs from water. In this study, nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes/polyethersulfone (N-CNT/PES), silicon dioxide (silica) (SiO2) and germanium dioxide (GeO2) embedded polyethersulfone (PES) membranes were fabricated using phase inversion method. A comparative multivariate statistical analysis was done to comprehend major underlying factors behind the performance of the membranes in the removal of EMPs from water using the cross flow filtration system. The EMPs were detected and quantified using GC xGc-HRTOFMS Strong statistically significant positive correlations were observed between removal efficiency of all analytes, namely carbamazepine (CBZ), tonalide (AHTN), galaxolide (HHCB), caffeine (CAF), technical 4-nonylphenol (NP) and bisphenol A (BPA) and various membrane characteristics such as pore density number, ultimate tensile strength, Young's modulus, flux recovery ratio (p-value < 0.05, 95% confidence level). Statistically significant negative corrections were observed between the removal efficiency of the EMPs with pore size, contact angle and surface roughness. The EMPs were observed to be removed from real water samples in the following order: HHCB > NP > AHTN > BPA > CBZ > CAF. The removal of the EMPs followed the order of the decrease in hydrophobicity. It was also observed that modification of PES membranes with N-CNTs, SiO2 and GeO2 nanoparticles enhanced the fouling resistance of the membranes. Generally, the performance of the fabricated membranes in the removal of all analytes followed the following order: SiO2/PES > GeO2/PES > N-CNT/PES > pristine PES. The order of increase in water flux (L/m²/h) was observed to be PES (200.60 ± 0), N-CNT/PES (265.01 ± 0), GeO2/PES (300.01 ± 0) and SiO2/PES (305.88 ± 0). However, lower nanoparticle loadings were required to bring statistically significant improvements in performance and characteristics of the N-CNT/PES membranes than that in the SiO2/PES and GeO2/PES membranes. The results showed that the capability fabricated membranes in removing EMPs from water was superior to the majority of methods reported in the literature.
Over time, many different groups of substances became the focus of interest, so their occurrence, behaviour and effects were studied. While in the 1990s, it was detergents and the formation of foam in water, later the causes of discolouration around tanneries were researched, as well as the presence of chemicals and pollutants near industrial plants. Organochlorine pesticides, brominated flame retardants, perfluoroalkyl substances or PFAS, organotin compounds are some examples of such Emerging substances. After pesticides and industrial chemicals, active pharmaceutical ingredients, cosmetics and personal care products have also become “Emerging substances”. Ultimately, however, it is the effect of the substances—whether persistent, bioaccumulative, mobile, toxic or even endocrine disruption—that attracts attention and triggers legal regulations. As the substances and the methods for their detection changed, so did the corresponding legislation. This in turn led to the use of new or slightly modified substances and substance groups. Innovative methods such as non-targeted analytics and biological effect tests or bioassays are now being utilised to address the variety and combined effects of the existing substances. In order to ensure comprehensive groundwater and water protection, the investigation and assessment methods must be developed. Furthermore, the existing and newly acquired knowledge need to be translated into regulatory consequences more quickly. Beyond that, a comprehensive societal transformation with regard to the sustainable use of natural water resources is essential for environmentally sound and healthy development. This must therefore be implemented on many different levels; with knowledge transfer and awareness-raising also having a significant role to play.
As a typical endocrine disruptor, bisphenol A (BPA) has been widely detected in various water bodies. Although the influence of BPA on traditional biological treatment system has been investigated, it is not clear whether it has potential impact on anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) process. The short- and long-term influences of BPA on reactor operational performance, sludge characteristics and microbial community were investigated in this study. Results revealed that 1 and 3 mg L⁻¹ BPA exhibited a limited adverse impact on granular sludge reactor performance. However, exposure of sludge under 10 mg L⁻¹ BPA would cause an obvious inhibition on nitrogen removal rate from 10.3 ± 0.2 to 7.6 ± 0.4 kg N m⁻³ d⁻¹. BPA would affect granular sludge metabolic substance excretion and lead to effluent dissolved organic content increase. Both the microbial community and redundancy analysis showed that BPA exhibited a negative influence on Ca. Kuenenia but a positive correlation with SBR1031. Low BPA concentration appeared a limited impact on functional genes while 10 mg L⁻¹ BPA would cause decline of hzsA and hdh abundances. The results of this work might be valuable for in-depth understanding the potential influence of endocrine disruptor on anammox sludge.
The suspected endocrine disruptor nonylphenol (NP) is closely associated with anthropogenic activities; therefore, studies on this compound have been clustered in urban areas. This study investigated the NP concentrations in drinking water sources (n = 8), terminal tap water (n = 36), and human urine samples (n = 127) collected from urban and rural areas in Wuhan, China. The mean concentrations of NP measured in drinking water sources in urban and rural areas were 92.3 ± 7.5 and 11.0 ± 0.8 ng/L (mean ± SD), respectively, whereas the mean levels in urban and rural tap waters were 5.0 ± 0.7 and 44.2 ± 2.6 ng/L (mean ± SD), respectively. Nevertheless, NP was detected in 74.1% and 75.4% of the human urine samples from urban and rural participants, with geometric mean concentrations of 0.19 ng/ml (0.26 µg/g creat) and 0.27 ng/ml (0.46 µg/g creat), respectively. Although the NP concentrations measured in the drinking water sources of urban areas were significantly higher than those in rural areas ( P < 0.05), the tap water and urine NP concentrations measured in urban areas were unexpectedly lower than those of rural areas ( P < 0.05). Additionally, this investigation showed that the materials comprising household water supply pipelines and drinking water treatment processes in the two areas were also different. Our results indicated that the levels of exposure to NP in drinking water and human urine in rural areas were not necessarily lower than those in urban areas. Thus, particular attention should be paid to rural areas in future studies of NP.
BPA is still the subject of extensive research due to its widespread use, despite its significant toxicity resulting not only from its negative impact on the endocrine system but also from disrupting the organism’s oxidative homeostasis. At the molecular level, bisphenol A (BPA) causes an increased production of ROS and hence a change in the redox balance, mitochondrial dysfunction, and modulation of cell signaling pathways. Importantly, these changes accumulate in animals and humans, and BPA toxicity may be aggravated by poor diet, metabolic disorders, and coexisting diseases. Accordingly, approaches using antioxidants to counteract the negative effects of BPA are being considered. The preliminary results that are described in this paper are promising, however, it should be emphasized that further studies are required to determine the optimal dosage and treatment regimen to counteract BPA toxicity. It also seems necessary to have a more holistic approach showing, on the one hand, the influence of BPA on the overall human metabolism and, on the other hand, the influence of antioxidants in doses that are acceptable with the diet on BPA toxicity. This is due in part to the fact that in many cases, the positive effect of antioxidants in in vitro studies is not confirmed by clinical studies. For this reason, further research into the molecular mechanisms of BPA activity is also recommended.
Bisphenol A and its substitutions are commonly used to manufacture epoxy resins, plastic materials and different kinds of daily necessities. In this process, a large number of bisphenol analogues (BPs) are continuously released directly/indirectly into the environment. Through the chain of environment–feed–farmed-animals–livestock and poultry products, BPs present the low concentration but chronic exposure for surroundings and environment. In addition, BPs have been revealed by extensive studies as emerging endocrine disruptors, whose effects on androgens/glucocorticoids have rarely been mentioned in previous reports. The (anta-) agonist/antagonist properties of 18 classic BPs were investigated in vitro: We assessed the cytotoxicity and examined the luciferase induction values of BPs in MDA-kb2 cells, incubated single or co-incubated with dihydrotestosterone (DHT), dexamethasone, flutamide and RU486 for 24 h. From the concentration of 10⁻¹⁰ to 10⁻⁵ M, BPs had negligible cytotoxicity for MDA-kb2 cells, except for 4,4′-(9-Fluorenylidene)diphenol with the IC50 1.32 μM. All 18 BPs had the response to androgen/glucocorticoid receptors (AR/GR). BPs at nanomolar and trace concentrations are agonists, while BPs at micromolar and higher concentrations are antagonists. Molecular docking showed that BPs interact with AR/GR through hydrophobic bonds, hydrogen bonds, T-type π-stacking and water-bridge. These experimental data demonstrate the universality of the endocrine-disrupting effects of BPs and suggest the urgency of paying attention to the usages of BPs.
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant, mainly from the manufacture and use of plastics. The use of BPA is restricted, and its new analogs (including bisphenol AF, BPAF) are being produced to replace it. However, the effect of BPAF on the male reproductive system remains unclear. Here, we report the effect of BPAF on Leydig cell regeneration in rats. Leydig cells were eliminated by ethane dimethane sulfonate (EDS, i.p., 75 mg/kg) and the regeneration began 14 days after its treatment. We gavaged 0, 10, 100, and 200 mg/kg BPAF to rats on post-EDS day 7–28. BPAF significantly reduced serum testosterone and progesterone levels at ≧10 mg/kg. It markedly reduced serum levels of estradiol, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone at 100 and 200 mg/kg. BPAF significantly reduced Leydig cell number at 200 mg/kg. BPAF significantly down-regulated the expression of Cyp17a1 at doses of 10 mg/kg and higher and the expression of Insl3, Star, Hsd17b3, Hsd11b1 in Leydig cells at 100 and 200 mg/kg, while it induced a significant up-regulation of Fshr, Dhh, and Sox9 in Sertoli cells at 200 mg/kg. BPAF induced oxidative stress and reduced the level of SOD2 at 200 mg/kg. It induced apoptosis and autophagy by increasing the levels of BAX, LC3B, and BECLIN1 and lowering the levels of BCL2 and p62 at 100 and 200 mg/kg. It induced autophagy possibly via decreasing the phosphorylation of AKT1 and mTOR. BPAF also significantly induced ROS production and apoptosis at a concentration of 10 μM, and reduced testosterone synthesis in rat R2C Leydig cells at a concentration of 10 μM in vitro, but did not affect cell viability after 24 h of treatment. In conclusion, BPAF is a novel endocrine disruptor, inhibiting the regeneration of Leydig cells.
Bisphenol E (bis (4-hydroxyphenyl) ethane, BPE), as a typical endocrine disrupting chemical, is commonly detected in source water and drinking water, which poses potential risks to human health and ecological environment. This paper investigated the removal of BPE by ferrate(VI) (FeVIO4²⁻, Fe(Ⅵ)) in water. Under the optimal condition of [Fe(VI)]0:[BPE]0 = 10:1 and pH = 8.0, a removal efficiency of 99% was achived in 180 s. Sixteen intermediates of BPE were detected, and four possible reaction pathways were proposed, which mainly involved the reaction modes of double-oxygen and single-oxygen transfer, bond breaking, carboxylation and polymerization. The double-oxygen transfer mechanism, different from traditional mechanisms, was newly proposed to illustrate the direct generation of di-hydroxylated products from parent BPE, which was demonstrated by theoretical calculations for its rationality. Significantly, NO2⁻, HCO3⁻, Cu²⁺, and humic acid, constituents of water promoted the removal of BPE. Additionally, samples from river, tap water, synthetic wastewater, and secondary effluent were tested to explore the feasibility of Fe(Ⅵ) oxidation for treating BPE in water. It was found that 99% of BPE was degraded within 300 s in these waters except for synthetic wastewater. The toxicity of BPE and its intermediates was evaluated by ECOSAR program, and the results showed that Fe(Ⅵ) oxidation decreased the toxicity of reaction solutions. These findings demonstrated that the Fe(Ⅵ) oxidation process was an efficient and green method for the treatment of BPE, and the new insights into the double-oxygen transfer mechanism aid to understand the reaction mechanisms of organic pollutants oxidized by Fe(Ⅵ).
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a common industrial chemical with significant adverse impacts on biological systems as an environmental contaminant. UV/hydrogen peroxide (UV/H2O2) is a well-established technology for BPA treatment in water while UV/sodium percarbonate (UV/SPC) is an emerging technology with unclear biological impacts of treated effluent. Therefore, in this study, the toxicity evaluation of BPA solution treated with UV/H2O2 and UV/SPC was preformed and compared based on transformation products (TPs) profile, quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR), Escherichia coli (E. coli) toxicity assays, and metabolomic analysis. TPs with hydroxylation, double-ring split, and single-ring cleavage were generated from BPA during the treatments of both technologies, but TPs with quinonation were specifically detected in UV/H2O2 treated solution at the UV dose of 1470 mJ cm⁻². QSAR prediction based on TPs profiles (excluding benzoquinone TPs) suggested that UV/H2O2 and UV/SPC treatments of BPA may increase matrix toxicity due to the formation of multi-hydroxylated TPs; however decreased bioaccumulation potential of all TPs may mitigate the increase of toxicity by reducing the chance of TPs to reach the concentration of toxicity threshold. In vivo assays with E. coli showed inhibited cell growth, arrested cell cycle, and increased cell death in BPA solution treated with UV/H2O2 at the UV dose of 1470 mJ cm⁻². Metabolomic analysis indicated that BPA solution treated with UV/H2O2 at UV dose of 1470 mJ cm⁻² impacted E. coli metabolism differently than other solutions with unique inhibition on glycerolipid metabolism. Moreover, BPA interfered in various metabolic pathways including alanine, aspartate and glutamate metabolism, starch and sucrose metabolism, pentose phosphate pathway, and lysine degradation, which were mitigated after the treatments. UV/SPC showed advantage over UV/H2O2 of attenuated impact on butanoate metabolism with UV irradiation. This study has generated valuable data for better understanding of biological impacts of BPA and its solutions treated with UV/H2O2 or UV/SPC, thus providing insights for their application prospect for water and wastewater treatment.
In recent years the science of nanomaterials (NMs) has trended toward the fabrication of engineered nanostructures in laboratories and industries for environmental remediation of contaminants (e.g., persistent inorganic-organic pollutants). Methodologies for developing functionalized NMs include organic ligands, enzyme immobilization, inorganic moieties, and surface polymerization. NM functionalization holds the promise of designing new materials and devices for full-scale application of nanotechnology in the environmental field. NMs have shown encouraging outcomes of potential adsorption of pollutants and transforming them into lesser or nontoxic forms. Functionalized metal oxides (MOs) such as Fe0–, TiO2–, and ZnO-doped nanoparticles (NPs), etc., and metal hexacyanoferrates are outpacing bare NMs, which have drawbacks including a negative impact on human health and the ecosystem, lack of reusability and limited activity/selectivity, and cost of treatment. For instance, covering the NP core surface with a capping agent was suggested to protect NMs from corrosion and lower their toxicity. Furthermore, composites of NMs with various ferrites and natural magnetites that can be easily retrieved using an external magnetic field have been designed in order to obtain recoverable and reusable NMs. Properties of some NMs, such as zeolites, can be further tailored by localization of some organic functional groups in order to enhance the selectivity toward specific pollutants. Likewise, functionalized carbon nanotube (CNT)-based sensors have shown higher selectivity and sensitivity to the target analytes. This chapter summarize current information on functionalization techniques of different types of functionalized NMs and their application in the removal of organic pollutants (OPs) such as PAHs, pesticides, organic dyes, and some heavy metals. The chapter concludes with the future scope of functionalized NMs in the area of wastewater treatment industries.
Novel flexible Pt/Al2O3 membranes were prepared and applied as catalysts for the degradation of organic pollutants in the presence of peroxymonosulfate (PMS). 100% of bisphenol A (BPA) could be removed within 20 min by using fresh Pt/Al2O3-membrane-activated PMS, which represents outstanding performance compared to catalysts reported in recent years. The influence of the PMS dosage, initial BPA concentration, and initial pH on BPA degradation were studied. The mechanism of BPA degradation in this system was investigated in depth. The BPA degradation process was not inhibited by the addition of radical scavengers to the system, and no free radicals were detected using ESR analysis. Additionally, the PMS molecules were only decomposed in the presence of both the catalysts and BPA. The results also demonstrated that only electron-rich aromatics could be degraded by this system. Furthermore, in contrast to typical degradation pathways involving the generation of free radicals, no intermediates formed via OH addition reaction were detected. Based on these findings, a nonradical pathway was suggested rather than a conventional OH/SO4⁻ radical-based advanced oxidation process (AOP) mechanism. BPA is efficiently degraded by the transfer of electrons from its π-π aromatic ring to PMS via the noble metal Pt as transfer medium in this reaction. The findings in this work broaden the understanding of the use of activated PMS for the degradation of organic pollutants, and extend the application of flexible inorganic membranes in wastewater treatment.
This research exemplifies the effectual mineralization of bisphenol-A (BPA) persisting in thermal cash receipts thru feasible integrated electro-oxidation cum biodegradation. About 150 mg/L of residual BPA from thermal cash receipts was eluted at supra alkaline conditions. The non-biodegradable eluted BPA was electro oxidized in a membrane less cell employing Ti-TiO2/IrO2/RuO2 anode and Ti as cathode. The optimized process parameters were of pH 9, chloride concentration of 17 mM and applied current density of 20 mA cm-2 and reaction time of 10 min. Owing to it, the BPA were electro transformed into dichloro-2-hydroxy acetophenone, dihydroxy benzoic acid, 4-hydroxy benzoic acid, trihydroxy benzene and 2-hydroxy proponoic acid by the united smack of OCl- ions and OH radicals. In silico toxicity analysis revealed that intermediates namely dichloro-2-hydroxy acetophenone, dihydroxy benzoic acid and trihydroxy benzene exhibited mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. The biodegradability of the electro transformed BPA solution tweaked to 0.459. Further, the electro-transformed BPA products were degraded using acclimatized naphthalene degrading microbial consortia by 90% in 50 h employing partial packed bed reactor. The toxic intermediates formed after electro-oxidation was converted into aliphatic compounds such as maleylacetate, malate, fumarate, acetopyruvate, oxodipic acid by the bacterial enzyme system. On the whole about 91% COD and 56% TOC removal was obtained by this unified scheme. It was also confirmed that the final effluent exhibited zero toxicity and doesn’t pose estrogenic activity via in silico toxicity analysis.
Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a principal reactant in the preparation of polycarbonate (PC) plastics and has been shown in in vitro cell proliferation studies to exhibit estrogen-like characteristics. Reusable baby bottles, water carboys, and other housewares are often made of PC. A high-pressure liquid chromatographic (HPLC) protocol was used to determine residual BPA in PC and BPA migrated to food simulants in contact with PC under controlled time/temperature conditions. Confirmation of BPA was performed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC−MS). Residual amounts of BPA found in PC food contact articles ranged from 7 to 58 μg/g. In migration tests the plastic was exposed to water, ethanol/water mixtures, and Miglyol (a food oil simulant) in sealed vials at a constant temperature of 65 °C, for up to 10 days. BPA in food simulants ranged from 13 to 368% of BPA available to migrate from the polymer. GC−MS methods were applied to the analysis of water stored in reusable PC 5-gal water carboys. The amount of BPA found in the water ranged from ND to 5 ppb. Keywords: Bisphenol-A; polycarbonate; migration; baby bottles; hydrolysis
We have developed a relative binding affinity-serum modified access (RBA-SIMA) assay to determine estrogen receptors within intact cultured MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. We used this assay to predict low dose activity of two xenoestrogens in mice. In serum-free medium, bisphenol A, a component of polycarbonates and of resins used to line metal food cans, showed a lower relative binding affinity (RBA; 0.006%) than octylphenol (0.072%) and nonylphenol (0.026%), which are used as surfactants in many commercial products (all RBAs are relative to estradiol, which is equal to 100%). In 100% serum from adult men, bisphenol A showed a higher RBA (0.01%) than in serum-flee medium and thus enhanced access to estrogen receptors relative to estradiol. In contrast, octylphenol showed a 22-fold decrease in RBA (0.0029%) and nonylphenol showed a 5-fold decrease in RBA (0.0039%) when measured in adult serum. This indicates that, relative to estradiol, serum had less of an inhibitory effect on the cell uptake and binding in MCF-7 cells of bisphenol A, while serum had 2 greater inhibitory effect on octylphenol and nonylphenol relative to estradiol. Extrapolation of these relative activities in adult serum predicted that the estrogenic bioactivity of bisphenol A would be over 500-fold greater than that of octylphenol in fetal mouse serum. Bisphenol A and octylphenol were fed to pregnant mice at 2 and 20 mu g/kg/day. Exposure of male mouse fetuses to either dose of bisphenol A, but to neither dose of octylphenol, significantly increased their adult prostate weight relative to control males, which is consistent with the higher predicted bioactivity of bisphenol A than octylphenol in the RBA-SMA assay. In addition, our findings show for the first time that fetal exposure to environmentally relevant parts-per-billion (ppb) doses of bisphenol A, in the range currently being consumed by people, can alter the adult reproductive system in mice.
A large number of phthalate esters were screened for estrogenic activity using a recombinant yeast screen. a selection of these was also tested for mitogenic effect on estrogen-responsive human breast cancer cells. A small number of the commercially available phthalates tested showed extremely weak estrogenic activity. The relative potencies of these descended in the order butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) > dibutyl phthalate (DBP) > diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) > diethyl phthalate (DEP) > diisiononyl phthalate (DINP). Potencies ranged from approximately 1 x 10(6) to 5 x 10(7) times less than 17beta-estradiol. The phthalates that were estrogenic in the yeast screen were also mitogenic on the human breast cancer cells. Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) showed no estrogenic activity in these in vitro assays. A number of metabolites were tested, including mono-butyl phthalate, mono-benzyl phthalate, mono-ethylhexyl phthalate, mon-n-octyl phthalate; all were wound to be inactive. One of the phthalates, ditridecyl phthalate (DTDP), produced inconsistent results; one sample was weakly estrogenic, whereas another, obtained from a different source, was inactive. analysis by gel chromatography-mass spectometry showed that the preparation exhibiting estrogenic activity contained 0.5% of the ortho-isomer of bisphenol A. It is likely that the presence of this antioxidant in the phthalate standard was responsible for the generation of a dose-response curve--which was not observed with an alternative sample that had not been supplemented with o,p'-bisphenol A--in the yeast screen; hence, DTDP is probably not weakly estrogenic. The activities of simple mixtures of BBP, DBP, and 17beta-estradiol were assessed in the yeast screen. No synergism was observed, although the activities of the mixtures were approximately additive. In summary, a small number of phthalates are weakly estrogenic in vitro. No data has yet been published on whether these are also estrogenic in vitro. No data has yet been published on whether these are also estrogenic in vivo; this will require tests using different classes of vertebrates and different routes of exposure.
The potential dietary exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) from the use of food and beverage cans coated with bisphenol A-based epoxies
was determined. The calculation was based on migration data from extraction studies using food-simulating solvents and time
and temperature conditions recommended by U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The study demonstrates that no detectable
BPA was found in the extracts from beverage cans using a method sensitive to five parts per billion (5 ppb) in the food simulant;
the average migration of BPA from food cans was determined to be 37 ppb. Using these data, along with the use patterns for
food and beverage cans, the maximum potential dietary exposure to bisphenol A was estimated to be approximately 2.2 ppb. Because
the conditions of the migration tests exaggerate actual use conditions, this value overstates the reasonably anticipated actual
potential exposure.
In establishing chemical environmental safety a hazard assessment using environmental exposure and effects information is required. Environmental degradation information is factored into estimates of exposure. The environmental degradation of polycarbonate grade Bisphenol A 2,2′-Bis (p-hydroxyphenyl propane) CAS#80-05-7, used in the manufacture of plastics, was measured using local waters in the Houston Ship Channel. A spike of 3 mg/l BPA was added to four laboratory units containing fresh water (control), Houston Ship Channel water, Patricks Bayou water (200 yards downstream from a BPA chemical plant discharge), and the chemical plant treated process effluent. Greater than 90% degradation was observed in all treatments except the control within four days. The initiation of biodegradation in the units was in the following order: effluent> Patricks Bayou> Houston Ship Channel.
Estrogen-like chemicals are unique compared to nonestrogenic xenobiotics, because in addition to their chemical properties, the estrogenic property of these compounds allows them to act like sex hormones. Whether weak or strong, the estrogenic response of a chemical, if not overcome, will add extra estrogenic burden to the system. At elevated doses, natural estrogens and environmental estrogen-like chemicals are known to produce adverse effects. The source of extra or elevated concentration of estrogen could be either endogenous or exogenous. The potential of exposure for humans and animals to environmental estrogen-like chemicals is high. Only a limited number of estrogen-like compounds, such as diethylstilbestrol (DES), bisphenol A, nonylphenol, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), have been used to assess the biochemical and molecular changes at the cellular level. Among them, DES is the most extensively studied estrogen-like chemical, and therefore this article is focused mainly on DES-related observations. In addition to estrogenic effects, environmental estrogen-like chemicals produce multiple and multitype genetic and/or nongenetic hits. Exposure of Syrian hamsters to stilbene estrogen (DES) produces several changes in the nuclei of target organ for carcinogenesis (kidney): (1) Products of nuclear redox reactions of DES modify transcription regulating proteins and DNA; (2) transcription is inhibited; (3) tyrosine phosphorylation of nuclear proteins, including RNA polymerase II, p53, and nuclear insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor, is altered; and (4) DNA repair gene DNA polymerase beta transcripts are decreased and mutated. Exposure of Noble rats to DES also produces several changes in the mammary gland: proliferative activity is drastically altered; the cell cycle of mammary epithelial cells is perturbed; telomeric length is attenuated; etc. It appears that some other estrogenic compounds, such as bisphenol A and nonylphenol, may also follow a similar pattern of effects to DES, because we have recently shown that these compounds alter cell cycle kinetics, produce telomeric associations, and produce chromosomal aberrations. Like DES, bisphenol A after metabolic activation is capable of binding to DNA. However, it should be noted that a particular or multitype hit(s) will depend upon the nature of the environmental estrogen-like chemical. The role of individual attack leading to a particular change is not clear at this stage. Consequences of these multitypes of attack on the nuclei of cells could be (1) nuclear toxicity/cell death; (2) repair of all the hits and then acting as normal cells; or (3) sustaining most of the hits and acting as unstable cells. Proliferation of the last type of cell is expected to result in transformed cells.
There is a concern that chemicals in our environment are affecting human health by disrupting normal endocrine function. Much of the concern has focused on chemicals that can interact directly with steroid hormone receptors. We have used a yeast-based assay to assess chemical interactions with the estrogen, androgen, and progesterone receptors. The yeast transformants used in this study contained the human estrogen, androgen, or progesterone receptor along with the appropriate steroid responsive elements upstream of the beta-galactosidase reporter gene. Chemicals were added to yeast cultures in doses ranging from 10(-12) to 10(-4) M and following incubation, the yeasts were then lysed and assayed for beta-galactosidase activity. Diethylstilbesterol and 17-beta estradiol were most active in the estrogen receptor assay, followed by the phytoestrogen, coumestrol. p-Nonylphenol and bisphenol A were approximately 5000- and 15,000-fold less active, respectively, than estradiol. Methoxychlor, DDT and its metabolites, o,p'-DDD, and o,p'-DDE ranged in potency from 5 to 24 X 10(6) less potent than estradiol. Testosterone and dihydrotestosterone were most potent in the androgen receptor assay, followed by estradiol and progesterone. p,p'-DDE was approximately 10(6)-fold less potent than testosterone. None of the industrial chemicals tested interacted with the progesterone receptor. These data demonstrate the utility of using yeast-based receptor assays for detecting chemical interaction with steroid receptors and these assays should serve as a useful component of an in vitro-in vivo strategy to assess the effects of chemicals on endocrine function.
In the present study we have examined the effects of the environmental estrogenic chemical bisphenol A on proliferative activity, cell cycle kinetics and differentiation of the mammary gland of female Noble rats. Differentiation measured by the degree of lobular maturation revealed that the conversion of immature structures to mature structures was significantly increased in response to exposure to both low (0.1 mg/kg/day) and high (54 mg/kg/day) doses of bisphenol A compared to controls. The proliferative activity of epithelial cells was increased by 143% over controls by the exposure of animals to the low dose of bisphenol A, whereas a 220% increase over controls was observed for the high dose of bisphenol A. The labelling index and growth fraction were 19% and 27%, respectively, for a low dose of bisphenol A; and 27% and 45%, respectively, for a high dose of bisphenol A, compared to 18% and 31%, respectively, in controls. A significant increase in the conversion of mammary epithelial cells from G0, to G1, and S-phase cells by 1.8 and 4.5-fold, respectively, was observed in animals exposed to the high dose of bisphenol A compared to that of controls. Based on the previously reported estrogenic activity of an equivalent dose of bisphenol A to that of diethylstilbestrol (DES) (0.1 mg/kg/day), a calculated theoretical dose of the order of 10(6)-fold higher of bisphenol A will be required to produce the same biological effects as DES. A comparison of the proliferative activity of DES and that of an equivalent dose of bisphenol A observed in this study, however, revealed that its influence on proliferative activity in the epithelial cells of the mammary gland was profound. The weak estrogenic activity of bisphenol A does not explain its profound effect on cell proliferation observed in this study. Perturbation of the cell cycle is considered a risk factor for the development of cancer. Bisphenol-mediated perturbation of the cell cycle in epithelial cells may produce adverse effects in the mammary glands of Noble rats.
Estrogen-mediated accumulation of apolipoprotein II (apoII) mRNA in the avian liver is due, in part, to its stabilization. This stabilization appears to be due to the estrogen-regulated mRNA stabilizing factor (E-RmRNASF) that is expressed in response to estrogen. The E-RmRNASF protects the mRNA from targeted endonucleolytic degradation (Ratnasabapathy, Cell Mol Biol Res 41: 583-594, 1995). To determine whether certain environmental xenobiotics altered the expression of the gene encoding E-RmRNASF by mimicking estrogen, roosters were given estrogen, tamoxifen, clomiphene, hexachlorophene, lindane, rotenone, chlordecone, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT); Araclor, methoxychlor, dieldrin, toxaphene, or bisphenol-A parenterally. Uniformly radiolabeled, capped, and polyadenylated apoII mRNA, incubated in vitro in the presence of liver cytosolic extracts from birds that received estrogen, tamoxifen, hexachlorophene, chlordecone, or Araclor, remained stable, indicating that these agents were estrogenic and stimulated the expression of E-RmRNASF. However, the same mRNA was degraded in similar extracts from control roosters and those treated with clomiphene, DDT, methoxychlor, dieldrin, rotenone, toxaphene, lindane, or bisphenol-A. To determine whether the latter agents were antiestrogenic, roosters were given a 1:5 molar combination of estrogen and each of the xenobiotics. ApoII mRNA showed degradation in liver extracts from roosters that received clomiphene, toxaphene, or bisphenol-A, indicating that these agents prevented estrogenic stimulation of expression of the E-RmRNASF and were antiestrogenic. However, the rest of the xenobiotics failed to antagonize estrogenic stimulation of E-RmRNASF gene expression. These results set a precedent in showing the estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects in vivo of environmental xenobiotics on the expression of a regulatory protein involved in estrogen-mediated mRNA stabilization.
In recent years, evidence from disparate observations has indicated adverse changes in the reproductive health and fecundity of animals and humans. In humans, there is strong evidence for such trends in the incidences of testicular and female breast cancer, and concern has also been expressed regarding semen quality, cryptorchidism, hypospadias and polycystic ovaries. Laboratory studies have indicated that some chemicals in the environment, both natural and synthetic, have the potential to disrupt the endocrine system and that these could, at least theoretically, be partly responsible for the observed changes. Chemicals thus identified include the naturally occurring steroid hormones, phyto- and myco-estrogens, and anthropogenic chemicals such as synthetic hormones, organotins, organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, alkylphenol polyethoxylates, phthalates and bisphenol-A. While there is no direct evidence from human studies to confirm a causal link between exposure and effect, concern exists and is strengthened by reports of adverse reproductive and developmental effects in wildlife, possibly mediated via endocrine disruptive pathways. The development of imposex in neogastropod molluscs exposed to tributyltin has been attributed to such a mechanism and in wild populations of fish, alligators and birds, instances of masculinisation or feminisation in polluted areas have been noted. Among mammals, disturbed fertility of Florida panthers and some marine species has also been reported. A concentrated research and monitoring programme is required to clarify the nature and extent of effects on reproductive health in humans and wildlife, and to assess human and wildlife exposure to relevant naturally occurring or anthropogenic endocrine disrupting substances. This will enable a more robust evaluation of the contribution that environmental chemical exposure may have on adverse trends in the reproductive health of humans and wildlife.
Twenty-four brands of plastic baby feeding bottles were purchased and all were found to be made of polycarbonate. Taking a batch of one representative sample, the polymer was tested for stability and possible release of bisphenol A following domestic practice of sterilization. Sterilization was by alkaline hypochlorite, steam, or washing in an automatic dishwasher at 65 degrees C with detergent. A total of 20 cycles of sterilization and subsequent food use were performed for each of the three procedures. Bisphenol A migration was in all cases not detectable in infant feed using a very sensitive method of liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection with a 0.03 mg/kg detection limit.
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