Linda Lee

• University of Florida

This study evaluated PFAS occurrence in rural well water and surface water relative to land-application of biosolids in a tile-drained agriculture-dominated watershed. Spatial data was used to identify potentially vulnerable rural wells based on their proximity to biosolids-permitted land and location with respect to groundwater flow. Water was col...

Sustainable reuse of biosolids as fertilizers is being threatened by the presence of per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in our waste stream warranting research on strategies that will minimize PFAS mobility from land‐applied biosolids. Here, we evaluated the ability of waste‐derived sorbents aluminum chlorohydrate water treatment residuals...

Application of wastewater effluent to agricultural lands can serve as a sustainable approach to meet irrigation and nutrient needs for crop production. While nitrogen and phosphorous loadings can be effectively managed, concerns have been raised regarding the fate of emerging contaminants, including per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) may interact with peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs) and alter lipid homeostasis. Using Xenopus laevis, we investigated the effect of PFAS on (a) lipid homeostasis and whether this correlated to changes in body and hepatic condition; (b) the expression of hepatic genes regulated by PPAR; a...

Amid global concern regarding the health and environmental impacts of per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), there is an urgent need to develop and implement alternative products without PFAS. Consequently, PFAS‐free firefighting foams used for fire suppression have been developed for use in military and residential settings. To facilitate the...

Carbon‐ and nutrient‐rich biosolids are used in agriculture and land reclamation. However, per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) typically present in biosolids raise concerns of PFAS leaching to groundwater and plant uptake. Here, we investigated PFAS persistence and leaching from biosolids applied to a site constructed artificially to mimic d...

Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are environmental contaminants of growing concern due to their potential negative effects on wildlife and human health. Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances have been shown to alter immune function in various taxa, which could influence the outcomes of host–parasite interactions. To date, studies have focus...

In February 2023, a train derailment in Ohio caused a chemical spill and fires releasing contaminants into the air, soil, waterways, and buildings.

Carrot ( Daucus carota L.) can take up high concentrations of toxic heavy metals like cadmium (Cd) and store them in their edible taproots, leading to food safety risks. Cd poisoning in humans is strongly linked to damage to the liver, lungs, and bones, as well as prostate, kidney, pancreatic, and testicular cancer. Cd may also be detrimental to ca...

Carrot ( Daucus carota L.) is a hyperaccumulator of toxic heavy metals like cadmium, taking up and storing high concentrations in the taproot. Cadmium is toxic in very small concentrations in edible plant parts, translocated there from contaminated soils. Cadmium poisoning in humans is strongly linked to damage to the liver, lungs, and bones, as we...

Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in surface and ground waters supplying municipal drinking water are a growing concern. However, PFAS concentrations in water treatment residuals (WTRs)—a solid by‐product of water treatment—have yet to be explored. In a first of its kind assessment, we examine PFAS occurrence in seven calcium (Ca)‐, iron‐,...

Drinking water treatment residuals (DWTRs), solid by‐products of drinking water treatment, are dominated by calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), or aluminum (Al), depending on the coagulant used. DWTRs are often landfilled, but current research is exploring options for beneficial reuse. Previous studies have shown that Al‐ and Fe‐rich materials have potential...

The Swat and Kabul Rivers of Northern Pakistan are within an important regional watershed that support river‐based livelihoods and are impacted by untreated effluent discharges and municipal solid waste. Anecdotal evidence indicates that fish populations are decreasing in these rivers. One potential cause of poor aquatic health is pollution; theref...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) occur in the environment as mixtures, yet mixture toxicity remains poorly understood. Aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) are a common source of PFAS. Our objective was to examine chronic effects of a complex PFAS mixture on amphibian growth and development. We tested toxicity of a five-chemical PFAS mixtur...

With the goals of aiding risk assessors conducting site-specific risk assessments at PFAS-contaminated sites, this critical review synthesizes information on the ecotoxicity of PFAS to amphibians in 10 amphibian species, and 16 peer-reviewed publications. The studies in this review consisted of spiked-PFAS chronic toxicity experiments with PFOS, PF...

Some contemporary aqueous film-forming foams (AFFFs) contain n:3 and n:1:2 fluorotelomer betaines (FTBs), which are often detected at sites impacted by AFFFs. As new chemical replacements, little is known about their environmental fate. For the first time, we investigated the biotransformation potential of 5:3 and 5:1:2 FTBs and a commercial AFFF t...

Paclitaxel, isolated from Taxus wallichiana, has clinically been used as a standard anticancer agent. Although Paclitaxel has been quantified in species from forests in different countries of the world and its concentration show variation with environmental factors, no studies have been conducted on it in Pakistan. Therefore, the aim of this study...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of highly persistent contaminants that have been linked to human health effects at low exposure concentrations. Public concerns exist that land-application of biosolids may result in the release of PFAS into terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The relative importance of inorganic constituents s...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pose significant environmental and human health risks and thus require solutions for their removal and destruction. However, PFAS cannot be destroyed by widely used removal processes like nanofiltration (NF). A few scarcely implemented advanced oxidation processes can degrade PFAS. In this study, we apply...

The exceptional thermal and chemical stability and the amphiphilicity of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have resulted in widespread use and subsequent contamination in environmental media and biota. Concerns surrounding toxicity have led to numerous animal-based toxicity studies. Due to the ubiquity of PFAS and the low parts per trillio...

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic element that can accumulate in edible plant tissues and negatively impact human health. Traditional Cd quantification methods are time-consuming, expensive, and generate a lot of toxic waste, slowing development of methods to reduce uptake. The objective of this study was to determine whether hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent environmental contaminants known to adversely affect health and development in many taxa. Although PFAS generally occur as mixtures in the environment, little is known about the effects of PFAS mixtures on organisms compared to single chemical exposures. Moreover, PFAS exposure in nature occ...

Social-ecological change has placed unprecedented stress on water resources throughout the world. This has driven water users to employ a diverse range of adaptation strategies and necessitates new governance structures, such as adaptive water governance (AWG), which have the capacity to manage resources in the midst of uncertainty and complexity....

Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are chemicals associated with adverse health effects. At aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) sites, they occur as mixtures, with perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS) commonly co‐occurring in the highest concentrations. Although PFOS and PFHxS toxicities have been studie...

PFASs are highly persistent in the environment and the potential exists for terrestrial biota to accumulate PFAS, which may result in exposure of higher trophic level organisms to these compounds through consumption. However, trophic transfer of proteinophilic compounds such as PFAS has not been extensively studied and the degree to which plant-acc...

The ongoing contamination of groundwater with poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has resulted in a global and rapidly growing interest in PFAS groundwater remediation. Preferred technologies that lead to PFAS destruction are often limited by not addressing all PFAS, being energy-intensive or not being suited for in-situ application. We deve...

Values are important factors shaping people’s perceptions of social–ecological changes and the associated impacts, acceptable risk, and successful adaptation to various changes; however, little empirical work has examined how values interact to influence adaptation decision-making. We drew on 25 semi-structured interviews with community leaders, fa...

Researchers have developed numerous per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)-free aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF) formulations to replace PFAS-containing AFFF used for fire suppression. As part of the Department of Defense's Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP), we examined the direct lethal effects of seven PFAS-free...

Finished biosolids were collected and characterized from seven municipal water resource recovery facilities. Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) for the 54 quantified in the biosolids ranged from 323 ± 14.1 to 1100 ± 43.4 µg/kg (dry weight basis). For all biosolids, greater than 75% of the PFAS fluorine mass was associated with precursors. D...

Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are contaminants of concern due to their widespread occurrence in the environment, persistence, and potential to elicit a range of negative health effects. PFAS are regularly detected in surface waters, but their effects on many aquatic organisms are still poorly understood. Species with thyroid‐dependent...

The ability of nNiFe-activated carbon (AC) to transform a variety of per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in single solute, synthetic mixtures, and water types impacted by aqueous film forming foam (AFFFs)was evaluated in different matrices for 1-d, 3-d or 5-d at 50°C and/or 60 °C. Perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (PFSAs) defluorinated the most and...

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic metal that can accumulate in soils and negatively impact crop as well as human health. Amendments like biochar have potential to address these challenges by reducing Cd bioavailability in soil, though reliance on post-harvest wet chemical methods to quantify Cd uptake have slowed efforts to identify the most effective amendm...

A Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Focused Topic Meeting (FTM) on the environmental management of per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) convened during August 2019 in Durham, North Carolina (US). Experts from around the globe were brought together to critically evaluate new and emerging information on PFAS including ch...

The presence of estrogens has been linked to adverse ecological effects in surface waters downstream of agricultural and domestic wastewater sources. While laboratory studies suggest that these estrogens should not persist because of fast degradation rates, elevated concentrations in surface waters impacted by agricultural activities are commonly o...

Purpose of Review Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a family of > 4700 recalcitrant compounds, many of which are ubiquitous in the environment. This review aims to (1) identify PFAS sources and fate processes relevant to agricultural systems and (2) expand on plant uptake mechanisms and plant responses to PFAS. Recent Findings The num...

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are persistent environmental contaminants that are associated with various adverse health outcomes. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is one of the most prominently detected PFAAs in the environment, which is now replaced with shorter chain carbon compounds including perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) and perfluorobutyric acid...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are contaminants of concern due to their persistence, potential to bioaccumulate, and toxicity. While dietary exposure is the primary route of exposure for terrestrial species, data on dietary PFAS uptake and adverse effects are largely restricted to mammals. As such, substantial data gaps exist that hinde...

There is increasing concern over the presence of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in biosolids, while sales in commercially available biosolid-based products used as soil amendments are also increasing. Here, the occurrence of 17 perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) present in 13 commercially available biosolid-based products, six organic compost...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are present in water and >99% of human serum. They are found in brains of wildlife; however, little is known about effects on the developing brain. To determine the effects of PFAS on brain and cardiac innervation, we conducted an outdoor mesocosm experiment with Northern leopard frog larvae (Rana pipiens)...

Permanganate (PM) has shown to be able to oxidize a range of organic contaminants including perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). However, mechanisms of PFOS removal by PM have been questioned. To provide clarity to what may be happening to PFOS in PM systems, here we evaluated the ability of PM on PFOS destruction by conducting studies similar to prev...

Degradation of linear (L) and branched (Br) perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) using nNiFe° particles supported on activated carbon (AC) and heat is demonstrated for the first time and with several lines of evidence. At 60 °C, PFOS degradation plateaued at 50 ± 6%, while at 50 °C, 94 ± 4.1% PFOS transformed. The accelerated iron corrosion at the highe...

Studies of poly‐ and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) toxicity on amphibians, especially post metamorphosis, are limited. We examined effects of dermal PFAS exposure (30 d) on survival and growth of juvenile American toads (Anaxyrus americanus), eastern tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) and northern leopard frogs (Rana pipiens). Exposures incl...

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are pervasive in aquatic systems globally and capable of causing detrimental effects on human and wildlife health. However, most studies are conducted under artificial conditions that are not representative of environmental exposures. Environmental exposures are characterized by multiple routes of exposure, low aqua...

A simple method was developed using heated ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) with ethanol and an ENVI-Carb clean-up step for quantifying paclitaxel from various parts (leaf, stem, bark and roots) of T. wallichiana with standard liquid chromatography using a Waters Novapak Phenyl column with ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV). Method effectiveness a...

The degradation and distribution of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol AF (BPAF) were evaluated in dilute anaerobic sludge slurries amended with a single bisphenol or a mixture of all three and maintained under methanogenic conditions over a 28-d period. No significant degradation of the bisphenols was observed in methane-generating...

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) has been widely utilized in numerous industries. Due to long environmental and biological half-lives, PFOS is a major public health concern. While the literature suggests PFOS may induce neurotoxicity, neurotoxic mechanisms and neuropathology are poorly understood. Thus, the primary goal of this study was to determi...

Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been used in a variety of consumer and industrial products and are known to accumulate in sewage sludge due to sorption and their recalcitrant nature. Treatment processes ensure safe and high‐quality biosolids by reducing the potential for adverse environmental impacts such as pathogen levels; however...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic compounds that are a major public health concern due to widespread use, long environmental and biological half-lives, detection in most human plasma samples, and links to multiple adverse health outcomes. The literature suggests that some PFAS may be neurotoxic. However, there are major gaps...

Composting the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) creates a nutrient rich soil amendment and reduces the amounts of wastes going to landfills or incineration. However, the occurrence and fate of persistent and challenging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in OFMSW composts have not been well studied. The loads and leachabili...

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic compounds that are a major public health concern due to widespread use, long environmental and biological half-lives, detection in most human plasma samples, and links to multiple adverse health outcomes. The literature suggests that some PFAS may be neurotoxic. However, there are major gaps...

Global phase out of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) has led to increasing production of alternatives such as the chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonic acids (Cl-PFESAs) for which little is known on their environmental fate. In this study, sorption by soils, aerobic soil biodegradation, and oxidation potential of 6:2 Cl-PFESA (9-chlorohexa...

Previous studies evaluating VB12 with Ti(III)-citrate for potential use in in-situ remediation of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) found that linear (L)-PFOS was unaltered. We explored if alternate reductants could overcome this limitation with a primary focus on nanoscale zero valent zinc (nZn⁰). Transformation over time with VB12-nZn⁰ was quantif...

Pressures to ban bisphenol A (BPA) has led to the use of alternate chemicals such as BPA analogues bisphenol S and bisphenol AF in production of consumer products; however, information on their environmental fate is scarce. In this study, aerobic degradation of BPA, BPAF and BPS at 100 μg/kg soil and 22  2 ℃ was monitored for up to 180 d in a fore...

Over the past decade, studies have shown that exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) can cause gonadal intersex in fish. Smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) males appear to be highly susceptible to developing testicular oocytes (TO), the most prevalent form of gonadal intersex, as observed in various areas across the U.S. In this stud...

With the phaseout of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) production in most countries and its well known recalcitrance, there is a need to quantify the potential release of PFOS from precursors previously or currently being emitted into the environment. Aerobic biodegradation of N-ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoethanol (EtFOSE) was monitored in two...

Per/polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are persistent organic contaminants that are ubiquitous in surface waters. To date, their effects on aquatic systems, especially amphibians, are poorly understood. We examined the uptake and depuration of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and 6:...

On January 9, 2014, a chemical mixture containing crude methylcyclohexanemethanol (MCHM) contaminated the water supply of Charleston, West Virginia. Although the mixture was later identified as a mix of crude MCHM and stripped propylene glycol phenyl ethers, initial risk assessment focused on 4-MCHM, the predominant component of crude MCHM. The mix...

Polyolefinic monoterpenes represent a potentially important but understudied source of organic nitrates (ONs) and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) following oxidation due to their high reactivity and propensity for multi-stage chemistry. Recent modeling work suggests that the oxidation of polyolefinic γ-terpinene can be the dominant source of nightt...

Polyolefinic monoterpenes represent a potentially important but understudied source of organic nitrates (ON) and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) following oxidation due to their high reactivity and propensity for multi-stage chemistry. Recent modeling work suggests that the oxidation of polyolefinic γ-terpinene can be the dominant source of nightti...

With the pressure to ban or limit the use of bisphenol A (BPA), production of alternatives such as bisphenol AF (BPAF) and bisphenol S (BPS) are increasing, but little is known on their partitioning behavior for use in assessing distribution in the ecosystem. Octanol-water (DowpH) and soil-water partitioning were measured at several pH values for B...

Migration potential of metal(loids) associated with small-arms ammunition fired into range berms under dynamic loading conditions was assessed using pilot-scale and field-scale live-fire lysimeters. Experimental impact media at both scales was sand or sand plus a commercial heavy metal sorption amendment. After firing, artificial rainwater was appl...

Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are highly stable, persistent, and ubiquitous in the environment with significant concerns growing with regards to both human and ecosystem health. Due to the high stability to both biological and chemical attack, the only currently feasible approach for their removal from water is adsorbent technology. The main objecti...

Aerobic soil biodegradation of toluene-2,4-di(8:2 fluorotelomer urethane) (FTU) and hexamethylene-1,6-di(8:2 fluorotelomer urethane) (HMU) in a forest soil and FTU in an agricultural silty clay loam soil was monitored for up to 6 months. Fluorotelomer alcohols were measured in headspace and parent monomers and all metabolites in soil extracts. Negl...

Concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are known to be a source of nutrients and hormones found in surface water bodies around the world. While the fate and transport of nutrients have been studied for decades, much less research has been conducted on the fate and transport of hormones. To facilitate a comparison of nutrient and hormone exp...