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Flipped Classrooms for Advanced Science Courses
Abstract
This article explains how issues regarding dual credit and Advanced Placement high school science courses could be mitigated via a flipped classroom instructional model. The need for advanced high school courses will be examined initially, followed by an analysis of advanced science courses and the reform they are experiencing. Finally, it will conclude with an explanation of flipped classes as well as how they may be a solution to the reform challenges teachers are experiencing as they seek to incorporate more inquiry-based activities.
... Thus, many studies with positive results can be found in the literature. These results range from improvements in learning outcomes when FC is used [14], [15], through better motivation and attitude [13], [16] to better students' opinion about the learning experience [17], [18]. In addition, other studies show that FC classes are more enjoyable and make students more confident in their performance [3], [19], [20]. ...
... Generally, students prefer educational materials in video format [13], [21], [22]. The best valued features are their review and rewind possibilities, which supports a better understanding of the explained concepts [15], [18]. In addition, videos allow to explain different kinds of concepts and from different points of view [23]. ...
... In addition, teachers have to prepare in-class sessions with new materials and pedagogical techniques. Consequently, many studies have detected a significant increase of teachers' workload [15], [32]; Wanner and Palmer [33] quantified this workload in six times the amount of work needed to prepare a traditional lecture. ...
More than twenty years have passed since the term Flipped Classroom was coined. Despite of the increasing interest in this teaching methodology, fields like Computer Science still need more research in order to judge the impact of this methodology in the learning process. This work presents a comparative study between traditional lectures and a partial application of the Flipped Classroom methodology in the subject Language Processors of a Computer Science degree. The study involved 158 students during two weeks and focused on practical contents of the subject. The results show that students in the Flipped Classroom group were more responsible of their learning process, consequently they got significant better learning outcomes either during or at the end of the learning process. Students’ satisfaction was highly positive as well. This work increases the amount of experiments about Flipped Classroom within the field of Computer Science. In addition, this work serves as an example of how to begin the transition from traditional lectures to the Flipped Classroom methodology.
... On the other hand, we are witnessing an ever increasing number of research which bolster the combined findings of the present study (Chen et al. 2018b;Jeong, Canada-Canada, and Gonzalez-Gomez 2018;Camiling 2017;Thai, De Wever, and Valcke 2017;Tomory and Watson 2015;Freeman-Herreid and Schiller 2013;Davies, Dean, and Ball 2013). Within the meta-thematic dimension of the present research, qualitative studies reporting the impacts of this approach on academic dimension were synthesized based on participants' opinions; and these data also support the findings of the meta-analysis. ...
... Today's science teachers are facing challenges in keeping up with the ever-changing course content due to the flux in state-of-the-art science. The demand is generally on the inclusion of more inquiry-based activities in their syllabuses at the expense of compromising content-delivery (Tomory and Watson 2015). Whereas science teachers are reported to be worried about meeting national standards and rushing students for standardized exams (Freeman-Herreid and Schiller 2013). ...
Background: Flipped classroom, which is inversion of conventional classroom procedures in simple terms, currently stands out as a popular teaching strategy for many Science courses.
Purpose: In this article, we tried to make a reinterpretation of the findings of recent empirical studies conducted on the effectiveness of the flipped classroom approach in science education.
Design and Methods: To determine the overall effect size of the flipped classroom implementations in Science courses, a meta-analysis of 30 studies with such moderator variables as education levels, durations of implementations, various subjects areas of science and class sizes was carried out. To consolidate the academic achievement theme dwelled on in the meta-analysis part, a meta-thematic analysis based on document analysis of qualitative studies was conducted to expound in detail general characteristics of the approach, its effect on academic dimension, its contribution to the affective domain and classroom environment.
Results: The findings reveal that the flipped classroom implementations have a positive medium effect (g = 0.727) on academic achievement in Science classes. Physics and Chemistry classes have the highest effect size values while Biology has the lowest effect size; the flipped classroom practices proved best in small size classes and at Primary School level with the highest effect sizes.
Conclusions: The findings of both analyses provide insights into applicability of the approach in teaching of Science and its sub-branches. The drawbacks of the approach are also discussed with some suggestions for implication.
... Researchers who compared flipped to traditional college classrooms found positive student perceptions of the flipped classrooms (e.g., Love et al., 2014), but did not find differences in summative academic performance (Gresham, 2012). Despite the genesis of flipped instruction in an advanced placement high school course (Bergmann and Sams, 2012), only one empirical study (Grypp & Luebeck, 2015) and one literature review (Tomory & Watson, 2015) focused on flipped classrooms with advanced learners. ...
... The classroom samples were often homogeneous in ethnic and academic background. Although Bergmann and Sams (2012) originally implemented the flipped classroom in an advanced placement course, only one empirical study (Grypp & Luebeck, 2015) and one literature review (Tomory & Watson, 2015) focused on flipped classrooms with advanced learners. ...
In flipped classrooms, students learn course content by watching flipped lessons (videos) outside of class time. During class, instructors guide learning by answering questions, facilitating projects, and fostering relationships with students. Although flipped classrooms are gaining popularity in secondary school settings, most research is performed with college-age samples. In this study, we compared two sections of a summer-based cognitive neuroscience course for academically talented youth: a flipped class and a class with traditional face-to-face instruction. Measures of academic achievement did not differ between the classes. The flipped class spent more time watching and re-watching lessons than the traditional class spent reading texts. Students rated organization, clarity, and enjoyment significantly higher in the traditional class. Despite these findings, the majority of students in both classes requested flipped lessons in the future. These results can inform how to flip classrooms for highly motivated secondary school students.
... While in reciprocal teaching model, the students learn the material at home by watching video, reading, summarizing, listing the important point, and making question for the next lecturing, after that they do some excercises to complete their understanding in classroom [2]. In classroom, the students not only do some tasks, but also discuss and listen to the lecturer explanation of their problem in learning the material [8]. ...
... Based on research conducted by Long et al [5] and Tomory & Watson [8] about the instructional model, we obtain some disadvantages of the model: • It is hard to guarantee the students study at home. But, this problem can be handled by giving structured tasks that is appropriate with the instructional aim that has to be achieved. ...
This study aims to determine the effectiveness of reciprocal teaching model in higher education. The result shows that the participants taught by reciprocal teaching model have higher average score of post-test than the participants taught by traditional learning model. Statistical significance was analysed using analysis of covariance as appropriate. Further, the result of observation and interview show that the teaching model has positive effect in making a good understanding and more participation during the classroom learning process.
... Değişken Tarama araştırmalarının da TYS modeli makalelerinde önemli bir yer kapsadığı ortaya çıkmıştır (Obradovich et al., 2015;Wanner & Palmer, 2015;Abeysekera & Dawson, 2014;Chen et al., 2014;Roach, 2014). Durum çalışması, Olgubilim araştırması ve Döküman analizi en az yararlanılan yöntemler olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır (Tomory & Watson, 2015;O'Flaherty & Phillips, 2015;See & Conry, 2014). ...
... TYS modelinin etkililiğinin incelendiği araştırma makalelerinde "Akademik Başarı, Algı" nın en çok incelenen değişkenler arasında olduğu ortaya çıkmıştır(Huang & Hong, 2016;Kakosimos, 2015; Al-Zahrani, 2015; Giannakos et al., 2015;Love et al., 2014;Kong, 2014; Baepler et al., 2014;See & Conry, 2014; Davies et al., 2013). Araştırma makalelerinde TYS modelinde öğrenme ortamının tasarımına yönelik prensipleri belirlemek ile ilgili araştırmaların da önemli bir yer kapsadığı ortaya çıkmıştır(Tomory & Watson, 2015;O'Flaherty & Phillips, 2015;Obradovich et al., 2015;Kim et al., 2014; Chen et al., 2014). Motivasyon ve Bilişsel yük ile ilgili az da olsa araştırmalar bulunmaktadır(Huang & Hong, 2016; Abeysekera & Dawson, 2014). ...
... It has also been reported that both students' learning achievement and satisfaction may be enhanced by using flipped classroom teaching 8,9 . Flipped classrooms have also been shown to be effective in science education 10,11 and in K-12 education 12,13 . ...
... Teachers may experience problems with video lecture quality and find that such lectures are incapable of covering the course content (Wanner & Palmer, 2015). In addition, preparing and recording video lectures and online materials is rather time-consuming, which may make teachers reluctant to adopt technology (Howitt & Pegrum, 2015;Tomory & Watson, 2015;Wanner & Palmer, 2015). Teachers' technology integration is a dynamic complex process affected by multiple internal variables including teachers' knowledge (Fathi & Yousefifard, 2019;Lai et al., 2018), pedagogical beliefs (Ding et al., 2019;Liu et al., 2017;Tondeur et al., 2017), and attitudes toward technology integration (Sabzian & Gilakjani, 2013;Sointu et al., 2019;Teo et al., 2016). ...
This qualitative study explored teachers’ knowledge and teacher efficacy about implementing technology-integrated flipped classroom (FC) in higher education. Using the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework and teacher efficacy theories, the study probed the experiences and perceptions reported by 12 university teachers of English as a foreign language. Six themes emerged from the study. Themes 1 to 3 depicted how the EFL teachers practiced the three essential teaching tasks of technology-integrated FC. By incorporating the instructional design of FC into TPACK constructs, the study developed a new FC-situated TPACK framework. Themes 4 to 6 revealed that the teachers’ sense of efficacy increased overall but fluctuate slightly. Factors improving teacher efficacy included positive changes in student performance, supportive leadership and climate, effective group work among colleagues, and open-mindedness toward technology. While factors decreasing teacher efficacy encompassed adherence to a unified teaching model imposed by the department, technology’s non-user-friendly, and impersonal characteristics. This study provides a comprehensive view of how the sampled teachers applied FC-situated TPACK. Its findings also enhance the understanding of teacher efficacy, particularly in relation to FC instruction.
... This article explores the opportunities and limitations of teaching introductory sociology using flipped pedagogy -an approach in which content is primarily delivered outside of the classroom and students spend in-class time on problem sets and interactive learning (Naccarato and Karakok 2015;Schwartz 2014;Tomory and Watson 2015). In this article, we share lessons learned from designing a flipped classroom, focusing primarily on the structures we implemented to facilitate active learning. ...
This article describes one approach to flipping an introductory sociology course. To encourage students to practice ‘doing’ sociology, we designed a flipped classroom that included a ‘pay to play’ model, small group work and an emphasis on active learning during class time. With this course design, we linked in-class active learning with outside prework so that students could engage with critical sociological concepts and apply those concepts in practice. With this flipped design, the instructors observed that students were deeply engaged with the course topics and expressed positive perceptions of their learning and growth over the semester. As the landscape of university instruction shifts, this course design model may assist instructors looking to foster active and engaged learning remotely.
... Given that learner engagement is increased with implementation of the FCM, and given that learner engagement has been shown to increase student academic success in science (Freeman et al., 2014) as well as motivation in science and STEM (Weaver & Sturtevant, 2015), the FCM is a promising strategy for enhancing students' overall positive learning outcomes. Researchers have further supported that the FCM may be influential in enhancing low-income and minority student outcomes through the increased interactive experience inherent to the model, especially at the high school level (Tomory & Watson, 2015). ...
The effect of the flipped classroom model (FCM) on high school students’ science motivation and achievement in an urban public school was examined using a quasi-experimental pretest/posttest design. Over 4 weeks, sixty students engaged in the FCM and 62 students engaged in the traditional classroom model. Motivation was measured using the Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ-II), and achievement was measured using the Endocrine System Unit Test (ESUT). A statistically significant difference in students’ composite levels of motivation when engaging in the FCM as compared with the traditional face-to-face model was found, with a statistically significant difference among the self-efficacy subscale only. A significant difference in academic achievement was not found. The implications of the research and suggestions for future examination are discussed.
... Teachers serve as guides in the classroom, lectures videos, teaching texts, reading texts, presentations and so on by using different materials and they perform at the outside of the classroom (Turan & Göktaş, 2015). The researches showed that the FLM positively affects the attitudes and motivations of the students towards the lesson (Barber, 2015;Boyraz, 2014;Chen, She, Kameda & Ohno, 2015;Clark, 2015;Gross, Hoffman & Burke, 2015;Heyborne & Perrett, 2016;Ojennus, 2016;Tawfik & Lilly, 2015) also showed that the increase of student achievement (Baepler, Walker & Driessen, 2014;Boyraz, 2014;Donovan & Lee, 2015;Girmen & Kaya, 2019;Green, 2015;Harvey, 2014;McCallum et al., 2015;Moravec, Williams, Aguilar & O'Dowd, 2010;Tomory & Watson, 2015;Whitman Cobb, 2016). It is thought that knowing the positive-negative aspects and the application process of the FLM, which is known to have a positive effect on students' academic success and attitude, will be beneficial for teachers and academicians who will use this model. ...
The purpose of this research is; to determine the views of academicians, teachers and students where the flipped learning model is applied. In this research, the case study was adopted from the qualitative research designs. The study group of the research consists of eight teachers who work in a private high school, five teaching members who work at a private university and 21 students who study at the same university. In data analysis, the content analysis method is used. The data are coded separately by the researchers and the obtained codes are organized by the researchers and collected under the themes. And the themes presented in tables form. At the end of the research, it was presented how the features of flipped learning model (basic features, positive features, negative features) and its application process (planning, material preparation, learning, teaching process, evaluation) is and various suggestions have been developed. Flipped Learning Model Anahtar Student-Centered Education Academician' Visions Teachers' Visions Students' Visions About Article Bu araştırmanın amacı; ters yüz öğrenme modeli uygulanan okullardaki öğretmen ve öğrenci ve akademisyenlerin bu model hakkındaki görüşlerini belirlemektir. Araştırmada nitel araştırma desenlerinden durum çalışması deseni benimsenmiştir. Araştırmanın çalışma grubunu özel bir ortaöğretim kurumunda görev yapan sekiz öğretmen, özel bir üniversitede görev yapan beş öğretim üyesi ve yine aynı üniversitede öğrenim gören 21 öğrenci oluşturmaktadır. Verilerin analizinde içerik analizi yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Elde edilen temalar tablolar halinde sunulmuştur. Araştırma sonunda ters yüz öğrenme modelinin özellikleri (temel özellikler, olumlu özellikler, olumsuz özellikler) ve uygulama sürecinin (planlama, materyal hazırlama, öğrenme öğretme süreci, değerlendirme) nasıl işlediği ortaya konulmuş ve çeşitli öneriler geliştirilmiştir.
... Twelve people mentioned that when other students explain the information to them, it is easier to understand and allows them to deepen the aspects required to carry out the activities in the laboratory in a better way. In addition, because they are their peers, it increases the student-student relationship [37] and favors to solve learning difficulties [38]. In this way, there is greater confidence to ask questions about ideas or concepts that were not entirely clear, which is a bit intimidating when the professor is consulted. ...
... Primary contributors to students' learning achievement and intention to participate in FC, such as the quality of the learning activities, the usefulness of the lecture videos, opportunities for in-class collaborative learning (Tomory & Watson, 2015), students' satisfaction with prior online learning experiences (Holcomb, King, & Brown, 2004), and students' readiness for and confidence in FC (Hao, 2016), have been broadly discussed in previous studies. However, there is limited research examining them simultaneously. ...
The flipped classroom has gained a great deal of attention in educational research and practice in recent years. The purposes of this study are to understand the relationship between students’ online self-regulated learning (SRL) and their perceptions of learning in a flipped classrooms (FC), to identify possible mediators in this relationship, and to explain how this relationship predicts students’ intentions to participate in an FC. Two questionnaires were used to gather data from 576 undergraduate or graduate students in Taiwan. The structural equation model showed that students’ in-class interactions and online SRL are predictors of their perceived quality of usefulness of online learning activities and positive experience of FC, and these, in turn, associate with their intentional behaviours of participating in FC. While students’ perceived value of interactions in physical classrooms directly related to their intentions to participate in FC, their online SRL predicts their intentions to participate in flipped learning only when mediated by the perceived quality of the usefulness of the online learning activities and positive experience of FC. © 2018
... The students should form correct highlevel image schema through theoretical reflection on the learning content of words, sentences and so on. Finally, the students pass the teachers' continuous advanced assessments (Tomory et al., 2015). After the assessment, we can continue the new learning task. ...
Imageschema theory is originally an important content in cognitive linguistics and Neurology. Especially in recent years, since the image schema theory has been widely recognized worldwide in the practice of traditional English language teaching, it has attracted the attention of the education scholars. Meanwhile, the deep research on it and relevant teaching practice are gradually becoming interdisciplinary. This trend indicates that image schema theory has great potential in practical application. At the same time, it provides realistic possibility for applying the image schema theory to SPOC English teaching. Especially in the current era when information technology is developing rapidly, SPOC English teaching has been favored by many educators and students and transformed into a fashionable teaching style sweeping the world. There has been a long history of language fossilization phenomenon in English teaching, which seriously affects the learner’s acquisition of language. Therefore, the application of Image Schema Theory to SPOC English teaching through such four steps as pre-learning scenario design, deep cognition in learning, theoretical reflection after study and knowledge optimization in evaluation can fully release the vitality of teachers and students and form vibrant SPOC English teaching mode and the optimal design scheme for anti-language fossilization.
... While research into flipped classroom instruction, as specifically defined, is recent, many positive effects have been found, particularly for science education (Fautch 2015;Tomory and Watson 2015) and students seem to like the approach overall (Phillips and Trainor 2014;Jeong and González-Gómez 2016), often preferring it over traditional learning (Gilboy et al. 2015). Most of this research has been in the K-12 realm (Leo and Puzio 2016;Olakanmi 2017), but other studies have been conducted in higher education. ...
In a flipped classroom model, learning of basic content is shifted before class while in-class time is used for concept application. Empirical and controlled research studies are lacking on the best strategies to provide the necessary pre-class content instruction. In this study, we tested three methods of pre-class content learning—interactive online tutorials, video lectures, and textbook-style readings—while holding the content and the in-class application activities constant. Identical introductory, non-majors biology classes were manipulated at both a public, open-enrollment institution and a private, highly selective institution. We found that video lectures offer a small advantage to overall student learning over interactive tutorials or textbook-style readings. Although our two populations differed in their ability to effectively learn from pre-class activities, through a student-centered flipped classroom approach, students at both institutions demonstrated equal learning gains by the final assessment. Potential reasons for some observed differences are suggested.
... Some of them reviewed the trends of flipped classroom development. Tomory and Watson [3] explains how issues regarding dual credit and Advanced Placement high school science courses could be mitigated via a flipped classroom instructional model. Leung et al. [4] gave a short review on flipped classroom approach and O'Flaherty and Phillips [5] reviewed the applications of flipped classrooms in higher education. ...
The paper analyzed the global growth and development of flipped classroom research productivity in terms of publication output as reflected in SCI/SSCI for the period 2000-2015. Publication types and languages, characteristics of articles outputs, countries, subject categories and journals, and the frequency of keywords were analyzed using bibliometric methods. There are 149 articles in 78 journals listed in 41 SCI/SSCI subject categories. A sharp growth trend of publication output was observed during 2011-2015. USA played a predominant role in flipped classroom research. Education educational research, chemistry and medical were the top 3 categories and “active learning” and “blended learning” recent major topics of flipped classroom research during the past 16 years. The results could help researchers understand the characteristics of research output and search hot spots of flipped education field.
The objective of this study was to enquire how the chemistry experience of pharmacy students can be enhanced and how the virtual learning environment (VLE) for chemistry-related pharmacy modules might be improved. All MPharm students at the University of Portsmouth UK were asked to complete a project-designed online questionnaire. Data from University course module feedback questionnaires were also analysed. Qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed, using appropriate statistical evaluation. Pre-university chemistry was not correlated with current perceived relevance, difficulty or workload (p > 0.05). The latter two were positively correlated (p = 0.003). Students realised their study of chemistry was important (89%). Chemistry- and biology-related areas were rated equally enjoyable (p > 0.05), but less than pharmacy practice areas (p < 0.0001). Students' preferred choices for VLE development were video lectures > VLE quizzes > audio content. Keeping chemistry content relevant on pharmacy programmes is important. Strategies for improving learning through extended use of the VLE have been identified.
Along with the fast development in the internet technologies, every day new learning and teaching approaches are introduced and implemented. In this context, the aim of this research is to reveal the effect of Flipped Classroom model on the academic success of the students for the subject of Interaction of Matter with Heat of 8th grade Science course and opinions of students on the Flipped Classroom Model. Study group of the research consists of a total of 63 8th grade students, studied in a state middle school located in the central part of city of Konya during the 2017-2018 school year. In the research, mixed method, a method that allows integration of research results via utilization of quantitative and qualitative data collection methods conjointly is used. As the quantitative data collection tool, ”Success Test” developed by a group of four, consisting of four professionalist science teachers and researchers, and as the qualitative data collection tool, ”Semi-Structured Review” form, developed by the researcher have been used. In the research, a quasi-experimental design with a posttest control group has been used. As the result of the research It was concluded that the academic achievement of the experimental group was statistically significant and positively higher than the control group. Students consisting the experimental group has expressed that with the flipped classroom application, their success and their participation to the class has improved and they found this method to be more fun than listening to the lecturing as per the current program requires. Also, the students have stated their absence of internet access at home and the problems they encounter due to hardware inadequacies of their computers are the drawbacks of the implementation.
It is known that the next generation grows intertwined with technology, can easily communicate with peers all over the world, adapt to new technological tools very quickly, and is fond of independence. For these reasons, it has become impossible to prepare the next generation for the future with the traditional education system. In a world where digital technology dominates our lives, the flipped learning model has emerged. In this model, the student performs cognitive activities on lower levels such as acquisition information and understanding before the course. The course focuses on higher level cognitive activities such as practice, analysis, evaluation, and synthesis with the support of peers and teachers. Thus, students are transformed from individuals informed by their teachers to individuals who reach information and take it to the next step. In this chapter, the flipped learning model was introduced; its benefits and limitations, researches about the model, recommendations for implementation are discussed.
Interest in the flipped classroom in higher education has burgeoned despite the literature revealing that the effects on assessment outcomes remain elusive. In this paper, we present the results of an empirical analysis designed to compare the impact on assessment outcomes of different approaches to the flipped classroom (didactic and non-didactic). Focusing on a cohort of Intermediate Economics students we investigated the influence of these approaches on their examination results by utilising an OLS (Ordinary Least Squares) regression and probit followed by quantile regression. Our analysis revealed small positive effects when students were exposed to the ‘non-didactic’ flipped classroom but no effect when pre-lecture materials were used didactically to mimic the material given in traditional lectures. This study demonstrates the need for further meta-analysis and longitudinal studies to investigate the relationship between different forms of the flipped classroom and student assessment outcomes.
With reference to the Technology-based Learning model for flipped classrooms, a literature review on Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) papers published in the Web of Science (WOS) database was conducted, with the application of flipped learning in science education as the research topic. The study analyzed the existing research on author nationalities, application domains, research methods, participants, learning strategies, and research issues. Based on the analysis data, starting from 2015, there have been a large number of flipped classroom studies in science education. The studies were mainly from the United States; the application domains were mostly chemistry, physics, biology, and natural science and ecology. Over half of the studies adopted quantitative methods, and participants were mainly college students. In the before-class stage, the flipped classroom studies in science education mainly adopted instructional videos as the learning materials and used online learning systems as the medium for materials and online discussion. In the in-class stage, the major learning strategy was problem-based learning, while over half of the studies did not employ educational technology. In the after-class stage, most studies administered examinations to explore the learning outcomes. Accordingly, Potential research issues are proposed as a reference for future studies.
The flipped classroom approach has become one of the renowned instructional approaches in recent years. However, without proper educational tools to support students when they participate in classroom learning, their learning performances may not be as good as expected. In this study, a collective problem-solving promotion mechanism is proposed to enhance students’ interaction and learning engagement in flipped classrooms using an interactive response system (IRS). A quasi-experimental design was adopted, and university students were recruited as the participants. The students in the experimental group applied the proposed approach, while those in the control group used the conventional flipped learning approach. The results show that the students in the collective problem-solving promotion-based flipped classroom not only had better learning performances and collective efficacy but also had higher level of knowledge construction and deeper interactions. The findings can be a reference for future teaching and research.
Bu
çalışmada, ters yüz edilmiş öğrenme modelinin temel özelliklerine, dayandığı
öğrenme- öğretme kuram ve yaklaşımlarına ve öğrenme sürecinde etkili
uygulanabilmesi amacıyla dikkat edilmesi gereken unsurlara ilişkin kuramsal
analizinin yapılması amaçlanmıştır. Ters yüz edilmiş öğrenme modeline ilişkin elde
edilen kuramsal bilgiler, temel başlıklar çerçevesinde ayrıntılı bir şekilde
tartışılmıştır. Bu makale anlatıma dayalı bir derleme makalesidir. Çalışma
kapsamında elde edilen bulgular şu şekilde özetlenebilir. Öğrenme
ortamlarını olumlu etkileyen, eğitim teknolojisi ve yüz yüze etkinlikler ile
kolaylaştırılan yeni bir öğrenme modeli olarak tanımlanan ters yüz edilmiş
öğrenme modeli harmanlanmış öğrenme modellerinden biridir. Ters yüz edilmiş
öğrenme modelinde öğrenci temel düzeydeki bilgiye sınıf dışında ulaşır, sınıf
içi zamanı ise tartışma, uygulama ve problem çözme gibi üst düzey becerilerle
geçirir. Özerk benlik kuramı, bilişsel yük kuramı, öz düzenlemeli öğrenme,
yapılandırmacılık ve aktif öğrenme gibi öğrenme-öğretme kuram ve yaklaşımlarını
temel alan ters yüz edilmiş öğrenme modelinin geleneksel öğrenme modeline karşı
birçok üstün yanı vardır. Geleneksel öğrenme modelinde yeni içeriğin öğrenciye
sunulması ile geçen süre, ters yüz edilmiş öğrenme modelinde üst düzey düşünme
becerilerinin geliştirilmesini hedefleyen bağımsız uygulama etkinlikleri ile
değerlendirilmektedir. Ayrıca ters yüz edilmiş öğrenme modelinin öğrenci
başarısı, motivasyonu, tutumu ve üst düzey beceriler üzerinde olumlu etkisi
olduğu sonucuna ulaşan birçok çalışma alanyazında mevcuttur. Ters yüz edilmiş
öğrenme modelinin daha çok araştırmaya konu olması, uygulama örneklerinin
arttırılması ve yaygınlaştırılması gerekmektedir.
The researchers investigate the perceptions of dually-enrolled high school students. The researchers concentrate on the actual and perceived impact of the facility on the instructional benefits of the course. Additionally, the researchers explore the impact of combining high school and college students in a common classroom working with identical curriculum. Through critical inquiry the researchers provide a forum for dually-enrolled learners to articulate the strengths and weaknesses of the dual-enrollment model in which they participate.
In this investigation, we ascertained the extent to which differences were present in dual credit enrollment by gender and by ethnicity for students (n>150,000) enrolled in a Texas community college from the 2005-2006 through the 2011-2012 academic years. Statistical analyses revealed an increase in the numbers (i.e., from 3,069 to 3,664) and percentages (i.e., from 12.2% to 19.5%) of students who were enrolled in dual credit courses over the time period analyzed. Moreover, higher percentages of women (i.e., 20.8% in the most recent academic year) had enrolled in dual credit courses while in high school than men (i.e., 17.9% in the most recent academic year). Differences were also present as a function of ethnicity, with 33.1% Asian, 25.3% White, 17.4% Hispanic, and 7.5% Black students having been enrolled in dual credit in the most recent academic year. Differences were also revealed by gender for Hispanic and White students, but not for Asian and Black students. Implications of our findings are discussed.
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We report a mixed-methods design experiment that aims to achieve deeper learning in a breadth-oriented, college-preparatory course-AP U.S. Government and Politics. The study was conducted with 289 students in 12 classrooms across four schools and in an "excellence for all" context of expanding enrollments in AP courses. Contributions include its investigation of a model of deeper learning, development of a test to assess it, and fusion of project-based learning with a traditional curriculum. Findings suggest that a course of quasi-repetitive projects can lead to higher scores on the AP test but a floor effect on the assessment of deeper learning. Implications are drawn for assessing deeper learning and helping students adapt to shifts in the grammar of schooling.
The history of general chemistry is one of almost constant calls for reform, yet over the past 60 years little of substance has changed. Those reforms that have been implemented are almost entirely concerned with how the course is taught, rather than what is to be learned. Here we briefly discuss the history of the general chemistry curriculum and consider why meaningful change has been difficult. In this light we present a rationale for why curriculum reform is necessary, and how it can be accomplished, based on our current understanding of teaching and learning at the college level. We present a model for curriculum development based on five important questions: (i) What should students know? (ii) In what order should they learn it? (iii) What do students bring with them to the course? (iv) What materials are best suited for different purposes? and (v) How can student understanding be assessed? We use our new general chemistry course CLUE: Chemistry, Life, the Universe, and Everything as an example of materials developed in this way.
An inverted, or flipped, classroom, where content delivery includes video lectures watched outside of the classroom, is a method that can free classroom time for learner-centered activities such as active and problem-based learning. This study compared the effectiveness of an inverted classroom to a traditional classroom in three areas: 1) content coverage; 2) student performance on traditional quizzes and exam problems; and 3) student observations and perception of the inverted classroom format. A control-treatment experiment comparing an inverted classroom to a traditional lecture-style format was used. The results show that: 1) the inverted classroom allowed the instructor to cover more material; 2) students participating in the inverted classroom performed as well or better on comparable quiz and exam questions and on open-ended design problems; and 3) while students initially struggled with the new format, they adapted quickly and found the inverted classroom format to be satisfactory and effective.
The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of a traditional lecture-based curriculum versus a modified "flipped classroom" curriculum of cardiovascular, respiratory, and renal physiology delivered to first-year graduate students. Students in both courses were provided the same notes and recorded lectures. Students in the modified flipped classroom were required to watch the prerecorded lectures before class and then attend class, where they received a quiz or homework covering material in each lecture (valued at 25% of the final grade) followed by a question and answer/problem-solving period. In the traditional curriculum, attending lectures was optional and there were no quizzes. Evaluation of effectiveness and student performance was achieved by having students in both courses take the same multiple-choice exams. Within a comparable group of graduate students, participants in the flipped course scored significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) on the cardiovascular, respiratory, and weighted cumulative sections by an average of >12 percentage points. Exam averages for students in the flipped course also tended to be higher on the renal section by ∼11 percentage points (P = 0.06). Based on our experience and responses obtained in blinded student surveys, we propose that the use of homework and in-class quizzes were critical motivating factors that likely contributed to the increase in student exam performance. Taken together, our findings support that the flipped classroom model is a highly effective means in which to disseminate key physiological concepts to graduate students.
This mixed-methods research investigates the high school college preparatory achie vements and college success of 50 high school graduates who participated in Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) and belonged to groups underrepresented in higher education. High performance on the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) and acquiring college credits while in high school were found to be significant predictors of college success. In addition, AVID support and strategies contributed to students’ transition into college.
Videotape and participant observation were used to document an American high school teacher workgroup's experience with collaborative teacher inquiry and to monitor changes in practice through two cycles of instructional planning, classroom implementation, and reflective analysis. Detectable changes in practice were observed, including a substantial improvement for two of the four teachers in fidelity of implementation of an instructional innovation. Results support claim that meaningful instructional changes are more likely when teachers work in job-alike teams, are led by trained leaders, use inquiry-focused protocols, and have stable settings in which to engage in the continuous improvement of instruction.
Purchased open access license from Elsevier.
This study explores the relationship between college graduation rates and student participation and success in Advanced Placement (AP) courses and exams. We reviewed three approaches to examining this relationship: 1) comparing the college graduation rates of AP and non-AP students; 2) comparing the college graduation rate of AP and non-AP students after controlling for students' demographics and prior achievement and the demographics of their high schools; and 3) examining the relationship between percent of students from a given high school graduating from college, and the school's percent of students in Advanced Placement. We conclude that the percent of a school's students who take and pass AP exams is the best AP-related indicator of whether the school is preparing increasing percentages of its students to graduate from college. The importance of AP exam results indicates the need for schools and districts to pay close attention not only to the quality of teaching in Advanced Placement courses but also to improving the academic preparation of students prior to their enrollment in those courses.
This study focused on the relationship between students' Advanced Placement Program[R] (AP[R]) performance in AP English Language, Biology, Calculus, and U.S. History, and their subsequent college success. For each AP Exam studied, students were divided into three groups according to their AP Exam performance (no AP Exam taken, score of 1 or 2, and a score of 3 or higher). Subsequent college success was measured by students' first-year college grade point average (FYGPA), retention to the second year, and institutional selectivity. Results indicated that, even after controlling for students' SAT[R] scores and high school grade point average (HSGPA) as measures of prior academic performance, students with an AP score of 3 or higher outperformed the other two groups. Additionally, students with an AP score of 1 or 2 tended to outperform students with no AP scores except in terms of FYGPA. The implications are discussed. Percentage of Institutions in Sample by Key Variables (N = 99) is appended. (Contains 19 tables.)
Is the United States justified in seeing itself as a meritocracy, where stark inequalities in pay and employment reflect differences in skills, education,and effort? Or does racial discrimination still permeate the labor market, resulting in the systematic under hiring and underpaying of racial minorities, regardless of merit? Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s African Americans have lost ground to whites in the labor market, but this widening racial inequality is most often attributed to economic restructuring, not the racial attitudes of employers. It is argued that the educational gap between blacks and whites, though narrowing, carries greater penalties now that we are living in an era of global trade and technological change that favors highly educated workers and displaces the low-skilled. Stories Employers Tell demonstrates that this conventional wisdom is incomplete. Racial discrimination is still a fundamental part of the explanation of labor market disadvantage. Drawing upon a wide-ranging survey of employers in Atlanta, Boston, Detroit, and Los Angeles, Moss and Tilly investigate the types of jobs employers offer, the skills required, and the recruitment, screening and hiring procedures used to fill them. The authors then follow up in greater depth on selected employers to explore the attitudes, motivations, and rationale underlying their hiring decisions, as well as decisions about where to locate a business. Moss and Tilly show how an employer's perception of the merit or suitability of a candidate is often colored by racial stereotypes and culture-bound expectations. The rising demand for soft skills, such as communication skills and people skills, opens the door to discrimination that is rarely overt, or even conscious, but is nonetheless damaging to the prospects of minority candidates and particularly difficult to police. Some employers expressed a concern to race-match employees with the customers they are likely to be dealing with. As more jobs require direct interaction with the public, race has become increasingly important in determining labor market fortunes. Frequently, employers also take into account the racial make-up of neighborhoods when deciding where to locate their businesses. Ultimately, it is the hiring decisions of employers that determine whether today's labor market reflects merit or prejudice. This book, the result of years of careful research, offers us a rare opportunity to view the issue of discrimination through the employers' eyes.
There is increasing pressure to incorporate aspects of the online education model into Canadian Universities. There is also a valid criticism of traditional engineering education models based on the conventional classroom lecture. Whether lectures are seen as boring or extremely entertaining, maximizing student comprehension andengagement as well as retention of information presented in conventional lectures is a challenge being faced widely in engineering education. The strategy explored in this paper is the use of a flipped lecture component in Electronic Systems Engineering courses at the University of Regina.With assistance from the University of Regina’s Centerfor Teaching and Learning, the application of a flipped lecture technique was trialed in a Winter 2013 ESE Course. The results, and future plans are presented .
Schools are working to improve achievement through the examination of instructional practice and the use of instructional technology. This article provides informed commentary on the state of school reform and the need for continuous improvement, instructional improvement and instructional technology improvement. It also presents advocacy for the use of a continuous improvement system called lean as a toolkit for these improvement efforts. A discussion example of an at risk high school's journey through continuous improvement and the use of a lean tool for analysis for improvement resulting in the innovative use of screen capture technology is shared to highlight one application of the lean framework presented. © International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS).
Undergraduate statistics courses are perceived as challenging by both students and instructors. Students' attitudes, motivation, math anxiety, and preparedness can negatively impact the student and instructor experience and have the potential to negatively impact student learning. This article describes an attempt to address some of these challenges through structural and procedural changes to an undergraduate statistics course that is required for social science majors. The traditional lecture/homework structure of the course was "flipped" so that the majority of basic knowledge acquisition moved out of the classroom, making room for interactive activities during class time. The described changes had a positive impact on students' attitudes toward the class and instructor as well as on students' performance in the class.
The authors sought to better understand the relationship between students participating in the Advanced Placement (AP) program and subsequent performance on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). Focusing on students graduating from U.S. public high schools in 2010, the authors used propensity scores to match junior year AP examinees in 3 subjects to similar students who did not take any AP exams in high school. Multilevel regression models with these matched samples demonstrate a mostly positive relationship between AP exam participation and senior year SAT performance, particularly for students who score a 3 or higher. Students who enter into the AP year with relatively lower initial achievement are predicted to perform slightly better on later SAT tests than students with similar initial achievement who do not participate in AP.
This chapter reviews previous studies on dual enrollment and discusses the results of an evaluation of College Now, the dual enrollment program of The City University of New York. The authors find that dual enrollment participation increases postsecondary achievement.
This report describes student performance in a state-level initiative that provided first-year college coursework in chemistry to high school students. Upon successful completion of the coursework, students received both high school and college credit. In this initiative, high school teachers team taught college-level chemistry courses in collaboration with a university chemistry professor on high school campuses within proximity to the university. High school student performance was measured using an ACS standardized exam in general chemistry as well as common midterm exams and was compared with performance of traditional college students using the same assessment instruments. Course completion rates were also compared. In most cases, statistical analysis of student performance data indicates that high school students participating in the dual-credit courses developed content knowledge equivalent with measured norms for college students yet had a higher rate of course completion, suggesting that this dual-credit initiative was a viable option for increasing accessibility to college chemistry. Furthermore, broad insights were gained for addressing and potentially improving student success and course completion in response to recent shifts in funding formulas within higher education.
The traditional lecture style of teaching has long been the norm in college science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses, but an innovative teaching model, facilitated by recent advances in technology, is gaining popularity across college campuses. This new model inverts or ‘flips’ the usual classroom paradigm, in that students learn initial course concepts outside of the classroom, while class time is reserved for more active problem-based learning and practice activities. While the flipped classroom model shows promise for improving STEM learning and increasing student interest in STEM fields, discussions to date of the model and its impact are more anecdotal than data driven – very little research has been undertaken to rigorously assess the potential effects on student learning that can result from the flipped classroom environment. This study involved 55 students in 2 sections of an applied linear algebra course, using the traditional lecture format in one section and the flipped classroom model in another. In the latter, students were expected to prepare for the class in some way, such as watching screencasts prepared by the instructor, or reading the textbook or the instructor’s notes. Student content understanding and course perceptions were examined. Content understanding was measured by the performance on course exams, and students in the flipped classroom environment had a more significant increase between the sequential exams compared to the students in the traditional lecture section, while performing similarly in the final exam. Course perceptions were represented by an end-of-semester survey that indicated that the flipped classroom students were very positive about their experience in the course, and particularly appreciated the student collaboration and instructional video components.
The study investigated the impact of dual enrollment participation on the academic preparation of first-year full-time college students at a large comprehensive community college and a large research university. The research design was causal-comparative and utilized descriptive and inferential statistics. Multivariate analysis of variances were used to address the specific research question of whether dual enrollment participation and course completion impacts the cumulative college grade point average and first completed year persistence rates of first-year full-time college students. The results of the study revealed that dual enrollment participation does have a statistically significant role in higher cumulative college GPA for first-year full-time college students at both institutions studied. Students that attended the community college did not have statistically significant better persistence rates, but students at the research university who had prior dual enrollment credits did have statistically significant higher persistence rates than those students who did not. The results of the study add to the literature on the academic benefits of dual enrollment participation, as well as provide college and high school administrators a better understanding of how dual enrollment participation prepares students for academic success as they transition to full-time college enrollments.
This study compared college course grade outcomes, both during and after high school, of dual-enrollment students to those of traditional students. The study was based on a large, multiyear sample of Iowa high school and community college students. The results showed that while in high school, dual-enrollment students consistently outperformed traditional students in community college courses. However, much of the difference might be due to underlying differences in the two groups associated with the type of college the students chose to attend after high school (i.e., four-year vs. two-year). Dual enrollment students tended to perform about the same as traditional students in terms of post-high-school community college course grades. For students who enrolled in four-year institutions after high school, analyses of college course grade data suggested a small positive effect of dual enrollment on first-year college grade point average (GPA).
Students from small rural schools (class 1A, 2A, and 3A) historically have not had access to dual credit courses for several reasons including distance from a college campus, affordability, and district teaching strength. In an effort to address these problems and to begin the college experience sooner, a new program was developed by the Mathematics Department at Stephen F. Austin State University. This program is based on the creation and delivery of two online courses in mathematics, College Algebra and Plane Trigonometry.
In the knowledge economy, now more than ever, students are encouraged to attend an institution of higher education. Students actively search for resources to assist them in their progress toward a college degree, even before high school graduation. Dual enrollment is an opportunity for students to complete college courses while still in high school, and it encourages stronger collaborations between K–12 and higher education. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between demographic and policy variables in South Carolina technical college dual enrollment programs and first-to-second-year persistence of dually enrolled students once entering college. All participants in this study were high school students who continued at a technical college after graduation. Outcomes were analyzed using logistic regression to determine persistence, defined as first-to-second-year retention. Variables included dual enrollment course type, course setting, ethnicity, gender, and county of residence. Results show that course type and course setting are significant in predicting college student persistence. Recommendations and implications for future research are discussed.
Flipped learning is a general term used to describe several kinds of teaching techniques designed to engage students and inspire deep learning. Flipped learning often means that the lecture is provided in a format available outside of the classroom while the homework or other activities are done in the classroom where students get help from the Instructor or fellow students. [1] When educators decide to start to flip a class, they discover that recording all of the lectures so that they can be streamed online is a daunting task. Many begin by flipping only one or two lectures, creating a partially flipped class to test how well it works. A teaching technique promoted by the National Science Foundation is Process Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL). POGIL organizes students into teams of four or five team members. Each team member has a well-defined role to play while the team works through a POGIL activity. IT3510 is an Advanced Linux Administration class where POGIL activities were used as a partially flipped teaching technique. Several lessons were learned about implementing POGIL activities in an upper-division Information Technology (IT) course.
This paper outlines an ongoing study of the flipped classroom with second and third-year undergraduate engineering students in a numerical methods course. The flipped classroom is a new pedagogical method, which employs asynchronous video lectures and practice problems as homework, and active, group-based problem-solving activities in the classroom. It represents the combination of learning theories once thought to be incompatible-active, problem-based learning activities founded upon constructivist ideals and instructional lectures derived from direct instruction methods founded upon behaviorist principles. Using a controlled quasi-experimental research design, we conduct a study with a full 15-week numerical methods course at Utah State University during the spring semester of 2013. Students in the experimental section completed model-eliciting activities inside the classroom and video lectures and homework outside the classroom. Students in the control section completed homework outside the classroom and group lectures inside the classroom. The two groups will be compared using scores from homework, examinations, and a sixteen-question numerical methods conceptual pre- post- test pair. The three main features that distinguish this study from previous research are: 1) This is a controlled study; 2) This study examines student performance on objective measures; 3) This study uses model-eliciting activities in the experimental classroom.
Teachers' use of inquiry has been studied largely without regard for the disciplines in which teachers practice. As a result, there is no theoretical understanding of the possible role of discipline in shaping teachers' conceptions and enactment of inquiry. In this mixed-methods study, conceptions and enactment of inquiry for 60 National Board Certified Science Teachers (NBCSTs) across the secondary science disciplines of biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics were investigated. A situated cognitive framework was used. Through the analysis of portfolio text (n = 48) and participant interviews (n = 12), themes emerged for participants' conceptions and enactment of inquiry. Findings suggested that disciplinary differences exist between NBCSTs' conceptions and enactment of inquiry. Furthermore, individuals teaching in more than one discipline often held different conceptions of inquiry depending on the discipline in which they were teaching. A key implication was the critical importance of considering the discipline in understanding science teachers' varied conceptions and enactment of inquiry. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Sci Ed96:48–77, 2012
Dual enrollment in high school is viewed by many as one mechanism for widening college admission and completion of low-income students. However, little evidence demonstrates that these students discretely benefit from dual enrollment and whether these programs narrow attainment gaps vis-à-vis students from middle-class or affluent family backgrounds. Using the National Longitudinal Study of 1988 (N= 8,800), I find significant benefits in boosting rates of college degree attainment for low-income students while holding weaker effects for peers from more affluent backgrounds. These results remain even with analyses from newer data of college freshman of 2004. I conduct sensitivity analyses and find that these results are robust to relatively large unobserved confounders. However, expanding dual enrollment programs would modestly reduce gaps in degree attainment.
In this paper, we present a microanalysis of a specialized STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) high school teacher’s experience of self-initiated science inquiry curriculum reform. We examine the meanings of these two constructs: inquiry curriculum and curriculum change through the process lens of interactions, actions, and interpretations. Symbolic interactionism is the theoretical framework we used to frame our analysis of how this teacher, Darren Daley (a pseudonym) and various stakeholders purposefully and strategically engaged in “face-work” and act out lines of actions to advocate or oppose curriculum change. Symbols are used in this world of face-to-face encounters to communicate, imply, and assert, meanings through socially flexible and adjustable processes. We scrutinize how Daley (un)consciously engaged all of these to defend his decisions, actions, and outcomes and “look” to others as doing inquiry reform. The meanings of such work are not intrinsically driven or reactions to psychological and extraneous factors and forces, but emergent through interactions. The data collection methods include interviews with Daley, school administrators, students, and parents, lesson observations in Daley’s class, and gathering of school website pages, brochures, and curriculum materials. We represent data in narratives describing storied history, voices, interactions, anecdotal accounts from individuals’ experiences, and interpretations. The analysis and findings illuminate the nature of teacher agency—how it is reclaimed, sustained, reinforced, contested, exercised, and modified in more nuanced ways, hence offering an alternative lens to theorizing and empirically analyzing this construct.
I examine the influence of dual enrollment, a program that allows students to take college courses and earn college credits while in high school, on academic performance and college readiness. Advocates consider dual enrollment as a way to transition high school students into college, and they further claim that these programs benefit students from low socioeconomic status (SES). However, few researchers examine the impact of dual enrollment on academic performance and college readiness, in particular, whether SES differences exist in the impact of dual enrollment. Even fewer researchers consider the extent to which improved access to dual enrollment reduces SES gaps in academic performance and college readiness. I find that participation in dual enrollment increases first-year GPA and decreases the likelihood for remediation. I conduct sensitivity analysis and find that results are resilient to large unobserved confounders that could affect both selection to dual enrollment and the outcome. Moreover, I find that low-SES students benefit from dual enrollment as much as high-SES students. Finally, I find that differences in program participation account for little of the SES gap in GPA and remediation.
This paper reports a design experiment that attempted to strike a balance between coverage and learning in an exam-oriented, college-preparatory, high school course—Advanced Placement (AP) US Government and Politics. Theoretically, the study provides a conceptual framework for penetrating the depth/breadth tension in such courses, which are known for coverage and perhaps ‘rigour’, but lag behind contemporary research on how people learn and what learning is. Methodologically, the paper details a mixed-methods study of an alternative approach to AP coursework, conducted with 314 students across three high schools. First-year findings indicate that a course of semi-repetitive, content-rich project cycles can lead to same or higher scores on the AP exam along with deeper conceptual learning, but that attention is needed to a collateral problem: orienting students to a new kind of coursework.
In this article, the Advanced Placement Program of the College Board is described. Research studies about the academic performance of students in college classes who took AP classes in high school show convincingly that AP classes prepare students for college-level work. Information about AP Scholar programs and sources of more information about the AP Program are also given. AP classes are a viable academic option for academically talented students because they offer them opportunities to excel and earn college credits early.
This monograph argues that many high school students consider their senior year a waste of time. One remedy to this problem is dual enrollment, which allows high school students to enroll in college credit classes and receive credit for both college and secondary school requirements. Benefits of dual enrollment include: acceleration of progress for students; reduced tuition costs for students and parents; relief of high school boredom; and facilitated student recruitment. The book outlines the programs that are in existence or in development across the United States. Statistics from some of the studies that have been done in the area are offered. Research findings include the following: respondents to a follow-up survey of former dual-enrollment students in the Southside Virginia Community College (SVCC) Project Advance program reported that 94% of their dual-enrollment credits transferred. The State of Washington estimated a savings of $37 million during the 1999-2000 school year due to its Running Start program. The University of Washington reported that its Running Start students graduated with a GPA of 3.4, compared with a GPA of 3.1 among regular entering freshmen. The book stresses the need for further research in the area. (Contains 80 references. Survey instrument is appended.) (NB)
This article compiles information from program web sites, articles, and interviews with experts to describe the history and current status of the Advanced Placement program and the International Baccalaureate program. The development of the Pre-AP program, the Primary Years program, and the Middle Years program is discussed. (Contains references.) (CR)