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The fungal endophyte dilemma

  • November 2008
  • Fungal Diversity 33:163- 73
Authors:
Kevin David Hyde at Mae Fah Luang University
Kevin David Hyde
Kasem Soytong at King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang
Kasem Soytong
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Abstract

Much has been written on endophytes and there have been many definitions of endophytes proposed. In this commentary we comment on the considerable amount of work that has been published on endophytes and detail the various definitions that have been put forward. Mycorrhizal fungi occur within roots which are symptomless and most definitions of endophytes would accommodate this ecological group. Mycorrhizae however, are not usually regarded in the same mode as endophytes. We highlight what we consider to be some of the major advances in endophyte studies and briefly comment on the occurrence of endophytes and their roles. The mutualistic role of non grass endophytes is mostly speculative and here we explore the roles of endophytes as saprobes and/or latent plant pathogens. Endophytes, especially those from medicinal plants have become the focus of research for bioactive compounds - we provide possible explanations for this. The study of endophytes is alluring and we propose reasons for this; high diversity; easy to apply statistics; easy to study. We discuss some important needs when pursuing endophyte studies. The isolation of endophytes is a method-dependent process and therefore it should be realized that in any study, the endophytes isolated will be dependent on the methodology used and intensity of the study. Direct analysis of DNA may provide an alternative method to reveal endophytes present in plant material.
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65D
F
 *!  
5       
6 *  11 *   !
-$../0DF1
* 1       
! > -$..40 91  1*
 1  6 
   6   
91
  1   !
,5   5 91  
< !   *
*    1   
6->$..40!

    
*        
    6 
-+  , JJ0!   
11 
 1**
  13 
     !
8  1
+9$!

I
/J/ 3 >1 1 5         "  -K
/J/*7JJ0!
J3J/J 3   11      5  1 1 5
 5 -1 J/< &!J/I< !J/4<7J/4<#
&J/J0!
J443J/3 95'1-#!J44<##J4/<#
 J/0
J/$3$... 3  *  '5  1 -    J/I<  JJ
JJ0
J/43JJ 3 #*   - 10 1 -   J/4 JJ.<  
JJ.<!JJ0!
JJ.3$...3 95'11-"JJ.<"JJH<
!JJJ<L!$...0!
JJ 3 #    3 *'1 1* * " #
-JJ0!
JJ/3)1'1-6!JJ/0!
$...3$../ 3  *  '5  1 1 -!!  
$...0!0
$...3$../3*'51-!!>!$...<>$..40
$..H3"5  1!131 C 
66-?,$..H0!
$..I 3 "5   ! 1    *  3
*1 6 *!%  5 
*51-6+$..I0!
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  <    5
*     
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 H05 '5  *
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*$..40! % 1
 *    1
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1*!
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 * '5 - # J//JJ
JJ40< 5    3 3
1!,5591
31!
%  * 5    
  1 -> $..4< *
$..4< 11  7 $..40! 
 * 1   
*    3
  
1 5 -L  ! $...< *
$..40! ,5   
    *  3
-*$..40!
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 1  *  
1! ( 1  * 1
1155
      
C -* $..40!  
5 *

16511
-*<$..40!
+ &!  &!
!
    91
1*51
 1* -,  ! $..4< 1 
! $..40!    <
5   '   - 0
1*1-,
! $..4< 1  ! $..4<  
! $../0! )  1   
1*1
 '   5 *   3
1! 1   1
 1 5   
   * 3   3
1 -N  , $..<   !
$../0!   1  
11  1  1* 
1  1  1  
1 5    
1    1
5 -   ! $..0! 7 
      1 
-50
1->$..40
11   
 1 6 : *3
 5   5 -   !
$..<>$..4<,!$..40!
+    

1 '5*
1    * 5  
*8- +5 !JJ/<  !
$..H< * $..4< 11  7
$..40!    91 
1*1-* 
91+5!JJ/0!*
-$..401D1F 
3 5      
 !  D1F  
 1 5 
  1    5  1
1   5   ;  
    1! %  *
5 *8  
1 - * $..40   1
5*!
&   91  1 
*5*1
 ,

 *!
!
11!
$

 

7
JJ/


 

7
JJ/
"

 

7
JJ/
%

$

&

% 
!$...
!(   ! 

  * *  
 1   1
-!!   , $..H< 8  !
$..40    #1 -JJH0
1  1   1
 8   5  *!
 $.. 119 H... 
* 5 *   *
*   -  #1
JJH0!%  *1
*   D F 5 
1 
 $ *   * 
  1 *  1
*!6!-$..$0
 I.. 1    
* 1!  6 I
 *    IO 
* 1 -/O   0
  1  5 5
 1! 6  ! -$..$0 3
 1
1  D 
5'F!
   9  * 13
 * 1   5  - &
1!0 * *  ! -JJ0   
911#
  1 -  N $..<
*!JJJ< *$..<*
$..<8 !$..4<,!
$../0!  1  *    
1   5 1  
   -  

4
$...0
 5  1   
-  ! JJ0!  1 
'5  1 *   
     1
-*$..$03 115
   ** -%%
$..$0! * 5  1 *
   1  
#  1  
 1 11 11

1   1 -&  ! JJI<
* $..$0!    1
  1 5 * 
*1*
   1   
! -  , $..H< 8  !
$..4<,!$../0
  *   91
   *  * 1
*1-6 
! $..$0! 1
 1    5 
  * ! %  
13DF-
 #1 JJH0  1 
  1! )  *   
  5  1  D
F  1 
     1
! ) 1* 5   
555
 D F 3  5  
*1!

#  *   
 *    1 1 3
5   I 11 1  ->
$..403 
'C;51
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 91  '*   
1  5  !
,5       
  1 *8 ) 5 
5*'!
    1
11**
2
! 1  9 
 * 1   
   * 5 
5'    53*
    3
5!
$!% 1   
  -   0 
 *    I. 3
!
!K* 11 
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  *
6     
511
H!1   * 11
   5 D11F  
*     
 5     
3!
I!   5 
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     
1    
*!
91
 1*   5 C
*  5' -  10< 
  5'    9 
*1<11
5'   19<  3
1
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* 5 913
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51!
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,$..40!
"+- ! $...0 '
  1  !  
 1** 5 !
$ $  &
1  1   
      1*
-7  , $..<   ! $..<
!$..I0!1
1 5   1 
! $  ' 9
-L, $...0 
1-L
 , $...<   , $..<
!$..< !$..40!
>  5'  1
    
1      
1*!      
*'*5
   1   
15 * *
5  5    1*
 5 1    ! 
5 1 1 1 -!!
! $ $ 
' 10! >  5' 5
**!
0)   11    
 -!!   ! $...<
  ! $..H0 5 * 
**!
$0)  C   
   -!! &1 

J
! $..< 7  ! $..I< 3
1  ! $..I $..4< R63
%RC6  ! $..4< "8 
!$../<!$../0*
  5
19*!
0)   5  1 1
 1*    3
1*5
  1*  5 1 
<1*
     5 5
!
H0> 1  * 
61-!!
8! $..4<"'$../<
%!$../05
 * 1   
1  1  
!
#    

   1 
1   1 1 
 1 *! 
    * 11  
1*      3
1151!
 *  1   
  * 9  
 => - 91  0 5
   C  9!
    =>
 -?  ! $... $..<   !
$../0 ?? - ! $..4< !
$../0  3"&  -='  +S
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4.
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%*I23H4!
> )!#!  # M!7!?! -$..H0! 
     2
    11
  C!  %3
*24J344J!
> >!! -$..40!    
121
!+"5$2I3!
> >!! % N! ?* ?!! # !!
  !>! -$...0! > 1 
1 1E  & 2
$43$4H!
+ #!7!  , =!! -JJ0! 1 
12    3
*      1 
!)2#(
 ) $ -! !#! "  &!%!
#0!>  %2II34/!
+ %!)!  ? %! -$..I0! 
   2 1
  C  
! )   !* 
+     # -! M!
 M!! 7 M!  ! @0!
 T #"#  + "2$I3
$J!
+5 !+ , !!  ? !)! -JJ/0!
   1 
 ,119
,   >! 2
$43I!
#* !  M!  # ?!#! -JJ0! 
   - 11!2 1
  *   1!
%"J42434!
# !! %U !   +!#! -J440!
      
1   1 !  5
$J2/43.!
# ?!#! -J/0!  *  1 
1 5 1   5
1! )2 ,   $ 
-! =!M! ''   M!   , 0!
#*   #*2 $.I3
$$$!
# ?!#! -J//0!  1   
2   1  
*!J2$3J!
# ?!#!  # !! -J4/0!   
  1 
 =5! # M  +
I2.H3.H!
#?!#! @!-J/0! *
6   1  
!%4I2I3!
# ! -J//0!  1  2 
  *5 1  !
J2.3!
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*!" 1
/2J3$.!
#! -JJ40! 1* 
   ! )2 ,
 .   / -!
>!#! ?  K!! +50! +'5
@92I3J!
# !  & >! -J/J0! ) 
5  *  1!
%/2/.I3/!
 + >! -/0! ,  $ 
$  ,&!,(
,*'   +! K $!
&16!
 %!%!  #1 )!,! -JJH0!  
      53
5 1! )2   
0$   $-!
K! ! ?0! +53, &
2HJ3/.!
8 !!   !! -$..0!
     11  
1 3 1! 
$23J!
 &!%! M5"! & !, !
-$..0! ?? 1 5 * =>
1  6 
11,!
$2$3/!
 &!%! %6 !,!#! & ! 
, !! -$../0!   
   !  
 13  = ' ! 
.2$3!
 !M!   @! -J/40! &  
1    / ! >
1 !    +
%/J2$H3$HJ!
 !M!   @! -JJ.0!>1 
19*'
156!%
"JH23J!
 !M!  @!   &!! -JJ0!
1    
  $! = ,5 I$2
3I!
L M! , !!   @! -$...0!
1   5 1!
%".H2$.$3$$!
? !"!  , !! -$..H0! 
1!)2$/ , -!
>!K &!>**!7 "!,110!
1K2$/3$//!
? ! ? %!  = ?! -$..0!
 5  1 
1!$2J3/.!
? &!! , !!  &5 !#!! -$...0!
)  1   "
 *  1  =>
C!=5  H4243.!
?&!!,!!&5!#!!-$..0!
 9 1  1 
5"*
=> C! %  
J23!

4
, ?!!  + ! -JJ$0! # 
1 ! )2 2 
2K!J!-!
7! 70! 5 > 
=2$$I3$I.!
,7!!#!N!,!!#',!
%! -$../0! +  1 
 5 $J  # 
1!234I!
, !!   ! -$..40! 
  3  C! #1
%$/2$/3$/J!
,!!+*+!  +! # !7! &
!%'6,!#! 7!&
! -$..40! +  1* !
+#243I!
M !"!  !7!  M! -$..0!
K 1  5  *
  -30 P33   
5!%$.2IJ3$!
!!!,!!! -$..H0!+
3  1  
 !   42 J3
J.!
&1 !#! , !!  &5 !#!! -$..0! >
    V11( 1
*  * => C! 
$2I3!
& ?!#!%!,7!!  %!"! - J/I0!
1   5  1
! =5 N M  >
"$/2$J3$!
&M!#! &*''=!+! =!+!*?!>!
 # M!#! -JJI0! * >  +2
11 1  
1    !
M@#.24.434.44!
& 7!#! N M! ? !!  ? &!! -$..40!
1   5  
+   +8 #! 
$I2J3/.!
%% M! -$..$! @  ** 
 1   *! M 
?5"$.2/43HH$!
%>!%!*?!>!,7!%!K !=!
6! -$../0! , 
1     
+>6!243H!
% &! # !7!   @! -$...0!
1   5  
%  5 1  
$19!5I$2H3
I/!
=' &!?!  +S ! -$..H0! 93
1  1  91 
   1   !
% 2H3HJ!
='&!?!+S!-$..I0!
*16
2    !
%*42$4.3$/.!
@ "! K6 !  M!  ! 
"W6M! -$../01 9
 #  1*
5!2443/!
 +! 5' M! ?' !  , !!
-$..0!   *  1*
      > 1
!%" .2HH3HIH
@! -JJ0!1 !)2
,#"-! M!,! >5
!!,01=5'24J3J4!
@!-JJ0! 1 1
  1  1 ! .*
#()$*
    - !#!
"  &!%! #0 >   ! 
%2/43..!
@!  !M!-JJ.0! @  
15/&1
!%"JH2.443./.!
@!  &!! -J/I0! X
1!5/2$3$H!
 7! &! ! & ! %6
!,!#!  , !! -$..H0! > 
1 ,  1E
23H.!
 7!  !7!M!  "! & !
%6!,!#! ,!!  &!
-$..I0! %1  
6  ! 1 
* 1  !  
/243
>!& ! , !!M!+!?!
-$..0! +     1
#&    1 51
=5!$$2
$.I3$/!
 ! , !! & ! %6
!,!#!  !+!?! M -$..40! @ 
     1 511 "
!$I2I434!
1 )! M5 "! & ! %6
!,!#!  , !! -$..I0! "* =>
1     
1 1  , 
-,0! $.243/!
1 )! & ! ' K!
%6 !,!#! , !!  M5 "!
-$..40! > 1   5
1 * 11  
!%*2I2I4J3IJ.!
"' #! -$../0! %  *2
  11!   2
J3I!
"!#! # &!%! -JJ0! #
 (  ) $3 >  
%!
"!!-JJH0!1
 >6 1 # !
%/243/I!
" !!   ?!M! -JJ.0! 
  1    1 1!
%"JH2/$43/.!
4$
" >!#! # @!  1 !7! -$../0
6  2 1 
5!23HI!
" M!  & M!,! -J J0! ?1
   1  13
    5! % /I2 HJ3
I!
"8 =!  ! #' "! ,
!  M !+!?! -$../0! %
6  * 1
    1   
1 #   ! 
2J3!
 !#! M3# M!%! ,' !%! 
, %!&!  ' #!"! -J/40! @3
1 
! 42.$3.$H!
1 ! -J/0!  *  
   "!  
+%$2/H3J4!
R63%RC6!+?!!N*6)!
-$..40!  1 *   
 !   $42 43
JI!
 #!7! % >! ! &1 !>!  
!! -$..0!    1
'5     ! 
.2IJ3!
6 +!  + #! -$..I0!  1
!%".J23/!
6 +! + #!  !  "L >!!
-$..$0! 1 2    
*   *!
%".2JJ3..H!
6 +! ?' !  !  + #!
-JJ/0! 13  ))! 
*   13 !
*$I2$3$$4!
!7*=!+S!-$../0!
   1   
*! 
.23H!
* ! -$..40! 1    2 
E!+ "5 $2 4I3
/J!
11 +  7 %!M! -$..40! +13
  1   1 
5 12    1!
+"5$2J.3.!
 >! * ?!>!   ! -JJ0! 9
 9 1 * & 
 1    5! 
$.2$H3$!
*?!>!-$..$0!%*!
#M 1$H2H3$.!
* ?!>! -$..0! 1   
* 1! %*  ) I2
II3IHH!
* ?!   +! -$..0! +11 
* 1    1!
%*%+"542
HJ3I.$!
* ?!>! , 7!%!  !  "!! 
 X! -JJ0! 9   1
   *! M  )
%*42H43H$!
* ?!>! % "!K! % %!#! #
%!%! 15 !+!  , 7!%! -JJJ0!
#  1   
1  ! ! 4!
%*HI2JJ3J$!
 !!   K! -$...0!
1    1  
  !% "
.H2HI3H4!
 "!X!  N 7!X! -$..0! 12  
 *! = 
"1/2HH/3HIJ!
 ?! & N!! , !!   N!=! -$../0!
7 =>    
1    
-+0!2.3$$!
 !=!   !&! -$.. .0!   
2     
! )2 , #-! #7!
+  M!! 70! % '' =5
'23HI!
 M!!  , !! -$..0! , 
  $!  
" $23HIJ!
 M!! , !!  M !+!?! -JJJ0!
1   5  1
1 5
 1 3 =5  H$2
I3H!
8 %!K!  !"! ' ,!! K **
  ,!! -$..40! ?  
   1  $
  1   1!
$H243IH!
K 7' %! > >5 >!@!  )!>! 
%!&! > M5 >!>! 7 +!! 6
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$3$$J!
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... In addition, endophytes discovered in darnel ryegrass were the earliest known record of the appearance of endophytic fungi [26]. Hyde and Soytong (2008) divided the endophytes fungi into clavicipitaceous and nonclavicipitaceous types [27], Epichloë and Neotyphodium are predominantly isolated from clavicipitaceous fungi, and the latter were mostly isolated from Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Mucormycota [28]. Studies have shown that nonclavicipitaceous fungi were subdivided into three categories, the fungi that colonize the aerial part and the inter-rhizosphere, the fungi that were distributed in the tropics and occurred in the plant leaves, and the DSE that only colonize the host root septa containing melanin [29]. ...
... In addition, endophytes discovered in darnel ryegrass were the earliest known record of the appearance of endophytic fungi [26]. Hyde and Soytong (2008) divided the endophytes fungi into clavicipitaceous and nonclavicipitaceous types [27], Epichloë and Neotyphodium are predominantly isolated from clavicipitaceous fungi, and the latter were mostly isolated from Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Mucormycota [28]. Studies have shown that nonclavicipitaceous fungi were subdivided into three categories, the fungi that colonize the aerial part and the inter-rhizosphere, the fungi that were distributed in the tropics and occurred in the plant leaves, and the DSE that only colonize the host root septa containing melanin [29]. ...
A review on plant endophytes in response to abiotic stress
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2024
Endophytes, as microorganisms widely present in plants, have an important role in plant growth and development. Abiotic stresses are very essential influence on plant growth and development. Endophytes in host plants are diverse, however, beneficial endophytes are used to make plants resistant to abiotic stresses. This review focuses on studying the regulatory roles of different endophytes under abiotic stresses, and explained the special pathway and related mechanism of endophytes under heavy metal stress, such as cadmium, manganese and zinc stress. How do the dominant endophytes respond to salt and heat stress and affect plant physiological characteristics? In addition, we also summarized the potential and application of endophytes in reducing the toxicity of plant pathogens, promoting crop growth, biomedicine and ecological restoration, and other aspects, to provide reference for further in-depth research on the mechanism of action of plant endophytes under abiotic stresses and effective utilization of endophytes.
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... Endophytes are microbes that colonize living, internal plant tissues without harming the host (Bacon & White, 2000). Endophytic fungi are found in all vascular plants (Zhang et al. 2006).However, scientists have explored in detail only the endophytic communities of a few plants ( Hyde and Soytong 2008). Environmental conditions, as well as the age of the host species or tissue, determine the distribution of endophytes in a host. ...
... This was attributed to either nutrient supplementation or the induction of abiotic or biotic stress conditions on fungal colony growth and expression (Shivanna & Vasanthakumari 2011, Tibpromma et al. 2018, Nischitha and Shivanna, 2020. According to Marquez et al. (2012), most endophytic fungal surveys rely on incubation methods/techniques and often prioritize fast-growing species over slow-growing ones, which are commonly excluded (Hyde and Soytong, 2008). The employment of direct isolation methods led to the retrieval of most cultivable fungi, including the morphotype that exhibited a failure to sporulate despite exposure to UV light, nutrient stress, and extended culture. ...
Diversity of endophytic fungal community in Jatropha heynei N. P. Balakr Diversity of endophytic fungal community in Jatropha heynei N.P. Balakr
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
Endophytic fungi co-exist symbiotically with their host plants in a diverse range of geographic and environmental conditions. Forty seven endophytic fungal species belonged to 26 genera and 16 families were recovered from root, leaf and fruit regions of Jatropha heynei by four isolation media such as Potato dextrose agar (PDA), Malt extract agar (MEA), Water agar (WA) and Czapek dox agar (CZA). These fungal communities were grouped into 35 asexual ascomycetes (anamorphs) of 18 genera, and 11 sexual ascomycetes (telomorphs) from 6 genera. Colonization frequency of endophytic fungi was more in WA followed by PDA, MEA and CZA media. Some fungi were media-specific and some of them were found in all of the media tested. Seasonal specificity was observed. Alternaria tenuissima, Ulocladium sp, Exserohilum echinochloae and Xylaria curta were isolated only during the winter season, while Cladosporium herbarum, Zygorhynchus sp., were exclusively isolated only in the rainy season. The genus Fusarium was the most abundant in root and in the summer season, while Alternaria, Exserohilum and Colletotrichum were equally abundant in the leaf and during winter season. This study emphasizes the significance of incubation techniques, plant parts and seasons in determining endophytic fungal assemblages in Jatropha heynei.
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... 14 The time required for each sterilizing agent can be determined in a pilot study which usually varies with host plant tissue type, age, sensitivity and thickness in such a way to avoid damage of host tissue. [15][16][17][18] Isolate obtained after surface sterilization from the plant samples are assumed to be endophytic, and it is crucial to be confident in surface sterilization process. Optimization of concentration and time of exposure for these sterilizing agents is tedious but essential part of isolation techniques, mainly because chemical agents applied for surface sterilization are generally toxic to plant tissues. ...
Optimization of Sterilization Parameters for Isolation of Endophytes from Allium sativum and Exploring its Antibacterial Activity
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2024
Endophytic bacteria reside within the plant cell and are beneficial to it in a number of ways like growth, protection to environmental conditions and sustainability in favor of the hosts. Throughout the ages, Garlic (Allium sativum L.) has legendary therapeutic importance. The important step in endophyte isolation is the removal of plant tissue surface microflora, called as surface sterilization. Endophytes from medicinal plants may mimic the compound produced by the host plant and also plays an important role in production of bioactive compound, so it is necessary to isolate endophytes, not the epiphytic microbes. The present investigation was undertaken with an aim to optimize the sterilization parameters viz: time and concentration of ethanol and sodium hypochlorite for isolation of endophytic bacteria as well as exploring their antibacterial activity from Allium sativum. The results revealed that concentration and exposure time of sterilizing agent caused prominent surface sterilization but have negative effect on isolation of endophytes. Experimental results revealed that 70% ethanol (6 min), 2% sodium hypochlorite (1 min) followed by 70% ethanol (30 sec) is effective for surface sterilization of leaf and 70% ethanol (6 min), 3% sodium hypochlorite (1 min) followed by ethanol (30 sec) for bulb of Allium sativum. A total of 86 bacterial endophytes were recovered and screened for antibacterial activity against Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhi and Proteus. Out of 86 bacterial endophytes, only (9%) endophytes were found to be inhibiting one or all test human pathogen. The findings of the present study suggest that use of optimized sterilization conditions are effective for removing surface bacterial strains without affecting endophytes as well as the Allium sativum plant of the Jaunpur district represents an excellent reservoir of endophytic bacteria and novel source of bioactive compounds. On the other hand different concentration and time of their exposure to different parts of plant is required for proper surface sterilization of that part and isolation of endophytes.
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... Different from the results of previous studies, in our study, it was found that the endophytic fungi of A. sinensis were mainly identified as 4 phyla, 73 orders, 448 genera, and most of them belonged to Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. This may be due to different research methods, not all endophytes may have been isolated since some may not grow under laboratory conditions, some may grow too slowly to be found (Hyde and Soytong, 2008). In addition, the separation method also determines the diversity of the endophytic fungi to a large extent (Das et al., 2007). ...
Anatomical, chemical and endophytic fungal diversity of a Qi-Nan clone of Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Spreng with different induction times
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2024
Recently, some new Qi-Nan clones of Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Spreng which intensively produces high-quality agarwood have been identified and propagated through grafting techniques. Previous studies have primarily focused on ordinary A. sinensis and the differences in composition when compared to Qi-Nan and ordinary A. sinensis . There are few studies on the formation mechanism of Qi-Nan agarwood and the dynamic changes in components and endophytic fungi during the induction process. In this paper, the characteristics, chemical composition, and changes in endophytic fungi of Qi-Nan agarwood induced after 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years were studied, and Qi-Nan white wood was used as the control. The results showed that the yield of Qi-Nan agarwood continued to increase with the induction time over a period of 3 years, while the content of alcohol extract from Qi-Nan agarwood reached its peak at two years. During the formation of agarwood, starch and soluble sugars in xylem rays and interxylary phloem are consumed and reduced. Most of the oily substances in agarwood were filled in xylem ray cells and interxylary phloem, and a small amount was filled in xylem vessels. The main components of Qi-Nan agarwood are also chromones and sesquiterpenes. With an increasing induction time, the content of sesquiterpenes increased, while the content of chromones decreased. The most abundant chromones in Qi-Nan agarwood were 2-(2-Phenethyl) chromone, 2-[2-(3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl) ethyl] chromone, and2-[2-(4-Methoxyphenyl) ethyl] chromone. Significant differences were observed in the species of the endophytic fungi found in Qi-Nan agarwood at different induction times. A total of 4 phyla, 73 orders, and 448 genera were found in Qi-Nan agarwood dominated by Ascomycota and Basidiomycota . Different induction times had a significant effect on the diversity of the endophytic fungal community in Qi-Nan. After the induction of agarwood formation, the diversity of Qi-Nan endophytic fungi decreased. Correlation analysis showed that there was a significant positive correlation between endophytic fungi and the yield, alcohol extract content, sesquiterpene content, and chromone content of Qi-Nan agarwood, which indicated that endophytic fungi play a role in promoting the formation of Qi-Nan agarwood. Qi-Nan agarwood produced at different induction times exhibited strong antioxidant capacity. DPPH free radical scavenging activity and reactive oxygen species clearance activity were significantly positively correlated with the content of sesquiterpenes and chromones in Qi-Nan agarwood.
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... The communities of fungal endophytes colonise plants without causing any disease symptoms in the hosts (Hyde and Soytong 2008). Endophytic fungi are noticeably distributed right through the tissues of plants and are connected with various plant structures, viz., shoots, leaves, stems, branches and roots (Porras-Alfaro and Bayman 2011). ...
Foliar phenols and flavonoids level in pteridophytes: an insight to culturable fungal endophyte colonisation
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2024
  • ARCH MICROBIOL
There are many available reports of secondary metabolites as bioactive molecules from culturable endophytes, nevertheless, there are scarce research pertaining to the levels of metabolites in plants with respect to the incidence and colonisation of fungal endophytes in the same foliar tissues. Therefore, the study was focussed to examine whether fungal endophyte colonisation and the accumulation of secondary metabolites, such as flavonoids and phenols, in the plants are related in any way. For this reason, the study aims to analyse phenols and flavonoids from the fronds of eleven pteridophytes along with the culture-dependent isolation of fungal endophytes from the host plants subsequently assigning them to morphological category and their quantitative analysis and further resolving its identities through molecular affiliation. The results revealed that nine morpho-categories of fungal endophytes were allotted based on culture attributes, hyphal patterns and reproductive structural characters. Highest numbers of species were isolated from Adiantum capillus-veneris and least was recorded from Pteris vittata and Dicranopteris linearis. Maximum phenol content was analysed from the fronds of P. vittata and lowest was recorded in A. capillus-veneris. Highest flavonoid content was measured in D. linearis and lowest was detected in Christella dentata. Significant negative correlation was observed between phenol content of ferns and species richness of fungi. Moreover, significant positive correlation was observed with the relative abundance of Chaetomium globosum and flavonoid content of ferns and negative significant relation was found between relative abundance of Pseudopestalotiopsis chinensis and phenol content of pteridophytes. The occurrence and the quantitative aspects of endophytes in ferns and their secondary metabolites are discussed.
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... Some of the SMs that EFs can biosynthesize are antibiotics, anticarcinogenic, cytotoxic, insecticides, and allelopathic chemicals (Rashmi and Venkateswara 2019;Alam et al. 2021). EFs are a fascinating area of research, because they could be used in many different ways in the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, medical, agricultural, flavor, cosmetic, and fragrance industries (Hyde and Soytong 2008). Table 4 shows that peptides, steroids, saponins, terpenoids, lignins, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, phenols, polyketides, and phenolic acids are the most common types of SMs made by EFs and their hosts. ...
A review on endophytic fungi: a potent reservoir of bioactive metabolites with special emphasis on blight disease management
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2024
  • ARCH MICROBIOL
Phytopathogenic microorganisms have caused blight diseases that present significant challenges to global agriculture. These diseases result in substantial crop losses and have a significant economic impact. Due to the limitations of conventional chemical treatments in effectively and sustainably managing these diseases, there is an increasing interest in exploring alternative and environmentally friendly approaches for disease control. Using endophytic fungi as biocontrol agents has become a promising strategy in recent years. Endophytic fungi live inside plant tissues, forming mutually beneficial relationships, and have been discovered to produce a wide range of bioactive metabolites. These metabolites demonstrate significant potential for fighting blight diseases and provide a plentiful source of new biopesticides. In this review, we delve into the potential of endophytic fungi as a means of biocontrol against blight diseases. We specifically highlight their significance as a source of biologically active compounds. The review explores different mechanisms used by endophytic fungi to suppress phytopathogens. These mechanisms include competing for nutrients, producing antifungal compounds, and triggering plant defense responses. Furthermore, this review discusses the challenges of using endophytic fungi as biocontrol agents in commercial applications. It emphasizes the importance of conducting thorough research to enhance their effectiveness and stability in real-world environments. Therefore, bioactive metabolites from endophytic fungi have considerable potential for sustainable and eco-friendly blight disease control. Additional research on endophytes and their metabolites will promote biotechnology solutions.
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... At present, studies have reported that endophytes can be isolated from all plant species and each plant may contain at least one or more endophytes (Zhang et al., 2020). Furthermore, there are various plants, including liverworts, mosses, lycophytes, equisetopsids, ferns, and seed plants (Ezra et al., 2004;Hyde and Soytong, 2008). Endophytic species differ based on different host plants; in addition, the same plant may have different endophytic species owing to different growth environments (Compant et al., 2021). ...
Exploring the diversity, bioactivity of endophytes, and metabolome in Synsepalum dulcificum
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2024
Synsepalum dulcificum exhibits high edible and medicinal value; however, there have been no reports on the exploration of its endophyte resources. Here, we conducted analyses encompassing plant metabolomics, microbial diversity, and the biological activities of endophytic metabolites in S. dulcificum. High-throughput sequencing identified 4,913 endophytic fungal amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) and 1,703 endophytic bacterial ASVs from the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of S. dulcificum. Fungi were classified into 5 phyla, 24 classes, 75 orders, 170 families, and 313 genera, while bacteria belonged to 21 phyla, 47 classes, 93 orders, 145 families, and 232 genera. Furthermore, there were significant differences in the composition and content of metabolites in different tissues of S. dulcificum. Spearman’s correlation analysis of the differential metabolites and endophytes revealed that the community composition of the endophytes correlated with plant-rich metabolites. The internal transcribed spacer sequences of 105 isolates were determined, and phylogenetic analyses revealed that these fungi were distributed into three phyla (Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, and Mucoromycota) and 20 genera. Moreover, 16S rDNA sequencing of 46 bacteria revealed they were distributed in 16 genera in three phyla: Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Firmicutes. The antimicrobial activities (filter paper method) and antioxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS assays) of crude extracts obtained from 68 fungal and 20 bacterial strains cultured in different media were evaluated. Additionally, the α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of the fungal extracts was examined. The results showed that 88.6% of the strains exhibited antimicrobial activity, 55.7% exhibited antioxidant activity, and 85% of the fungi exhibited α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. The research suggested that the endophytes of S. dulcificum are highly diverse and have the potential to produce bioactive metabolites, providing abundant species resources for developing antibiotics, antioxidants and hypoglycemic drugs.
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... De Bary first coined the word "endophyte" to describe all organisms that reside inside plant tissues in 1866 (Hyde and Soytong, 2008;Aswani et al., 2020). The term was coined during the study of endophytic tree leaf fungi and was used to describe fungi that can colonise the internal tissues of plants without appearing to harm them, including latent pathogens that can live asymptomatically in their host for a while (Petrini, 1991). ...
Assessment of Antibacterial and Antifungal Efficacy of Endophytic Fungi Isolated from Psoralea Corylifolia Linn.
Article
  • Feb 2024
Endophytic fungi that inhabit host plants symbiotically and cause no harm to the host plants. In past few decades variants of endophytic fungi have been isolated and identified with medicinal properties finding wider application as bio-control agents, bio-fertilizer, bio-stimulant and natural products. In lieu of this, the present study aims to isolate, identify, and evaluate the antibacterial and antifungal activities of endophytic fungi obtained from Psoralea corylifolia Linn. Total 4 endophytic fungi were isolated from the root, stem and leaves of host plant that is Piriformospora indica, Alternaria alternate, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium citrinum. Antibacterial activity of three crude extracts including butanol, ethyl acetate, and methanol of different fungal endophytes was appraised against Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, and Salmonella typhi, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus and Antifungal efficacy of different crude extracts of fungal endophytes was also appraised against three pathogenic fungal strains including Aspergillus niger, A. fumigatus and Candida albicans. The result revealed that the maximum antibacterial efficacy was found in methanol extract of Piriformospora indica in the test organism bacillus subtilis that was 20.3±0.57 followed by ethyl acetate that was 18.66±0.57. The maximum antifungal activity was found in methanol extract of Alternaria alternate in the test organism Aspergillus niger that was 43.1 followed by Penicillium citrinum in the test organism Aspergillus fumigatus that was 42.8. More study will be done in future on exploration and exploitation of these microorganisms for pharmaceuticals applications and also used as a biocontrol agent. The present study is the first report on the investigation of antifungal and antibacterial properties of endophytic fungus that have been isolated from Psoralea corylifolia.
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... The interactions between these endophytic fungi and plants beneficially impact plant survival, fitness, biodiversity, and ecosystemic function [2]. Clavicipitaceous (usually associated with grasses) and nonclavicipitaceous (not found in grasses) are usually considered to be two major groups of endophytic fungi [3]. Among them, Trichoderma and Aspergillus spp. ...
Identification and Characterization of a Plant Endophytic Fungus Paraphaosphaeria sp. JRF11 and Its Growth-Promoting Effects
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
  • J. Fungi
Endophytic fungi establish mutualistic relationships with host plants and can promote the growth and development of plants. In this study, the endophytic fungus JRF11 was isolated from Carya illinoinensis. Sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and 18S rRNA gene combined with colonial and conidial morphology identified JRF11 as a Paraphaosphaeria strain. Plant–fungus interaction assays revealed that JRF11 showed significant growth-promoting effects on plants. In particular, JRF11 significantly increased the root biomass and soluble sugar content of plants. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis demonstrated that JRF11 treatment reprogrammed a variety of genes involved in plant mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling and starch and sucrose metabolism pathways through Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis. Our research indicates that beneficial endophytic fungi are able to interact with plants and exhibit outstanding plant growth-promoting activities.
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After Air, Light, and Water, the Next Most Important Thing Is Grass: An Introduction to the Epichloë–Grass Symbiosis
Chapter
  • Jan 2024
Epichloë (Clavicipitaceae) is a genus of filamentous fungal endophytes that have co-evolved with cool-season grasses with which they form perpetual, symbiotic associations. In natural ecosystems Epichloë endophytes have implications for species diversity, food web structures, and fundamental ecological processes. In many managed pastoral systems, selected Epichloë strains are regarded as necessary components of the sward as they confer bioprotective traits to their host grasses. The most agriculturally important associations are those between selected strains of asexual, vertically transmitted Epichloë spp. and the widely used pasture species: perennial ryegrass and tall fescue. Selected Epichloë strains confer invertebrate, especially insect, pest deterrence to their plant hosts from the production of several alkaloidal secondary metabolites. Additional Epichloë-mediated attributes include tolerance against fungal diseases and abiotic stresses, such as those caused by drought and/or nutrient deficiencies. Strains of mutualistic Epichloë have been developed into highly efficacious biocontrol products and are widely utilized within the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand for pasture persistence and wildlife deterrence.
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Fungal Endophytes of Grasses: A Defensive Mutualism between Plants and Fungi
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 1988
Many grasses are infected by systemic fungal endophytes (Clavicipitaceae, Ascomycetes) that produce physiologically active alkaloids in the tissues of their hosts. Infection makes grasses toxic to domestic mammals and increases resistance to insect herbivores. Some grasses are sterilized by endophyte infection while remaining vegetatively vigorous; other infected grasses remain completely fertile. Plant growth and seed production can be increased by infection. This symbiotic association may be a defensive mutualism in which the fungi defend their hosts against herbivory, thereby defending their own resources. -from Author
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A novel technique for isolating orchid mycorrhizal fungi
Article
  • Nov 2008
We describe a technique for isolating mycorrhizal fungi from roots of orchids. This technique involves selection and treatment of roots, preparation of pelotons, treatment of pelotons, culture of pelotons so that fungal hyphae grow out and strain purification. The technique is considered better because 1) problems of fungal and bacterial contamination are resolved, 2) endophytic bacteria are suppressed and also used to promote hyphal growth from the pelotons, 3) live and dead pelotons, and those from which fungi are culturable or unculturable can easily be identified, providing increased isolation efficiency, 4) a single taxon can be isolated from a single peloton containing several mycorrhizal taxa, 5) slow-growing mycorrhizal taxa can easily be isolated. The implications and potential use of this technique in future studies is discussed.
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Geographic Survey of Fungal Endophyte Community Composition in Leaves of Coastal Redwood
Article
  • Mar 1993
This geographic survey of the leaf fungal endophytes in Sequoia sempervirens (coastal redwood) is the initial stage in a larger study to explore their symbiotic relationships. Leaves from six sites along a north to south transect, representing the range of Sequoia sempervirens from southern Oregon to the central coast of California, were sampled for endophytes within a 31-day period. Of the 16 species identified, one endophyte Pleuroplaconema sp. was isolated most frequently from all sites, being detected in 55.4%-74.6% of leaves. The lowest percentage of Pleuroplaconema sp. at the southernmost site also had the lowest total infection frequency with 18.6% of leaves being uninfected. Redwood at all other sites had between 1-4% frequency of uninfected leaves. Other species with consistent presence in the redwood populations were: Cryptosporiopsis abietina, Phomopsis occulta, Hypoxylon bipapillatum, Gelatinosporium sp., Nodulisporium sp., Geniculosporium sp, Aureobasidium sp., and Phlyctema sp. The relatively constant endophyte composition in Sequoia sempervirens leaves along this north to south transect provides a basis to explore the mutualistic, pathogenic and saprobic nature of these endophytic relationships.
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The Foliar Fungal Endophytes of the Amazonian Palm Euterpe oleracea
Article
  • May 1994
A survey of the fungal endophytes in leaves of trees and saplings of Euterpe oleracea was carried out over two years. An average of 25% of the leaf discs taken from 10 trees and 10 saplings over four samplings were colonized by endophytic fungi. Overall fungal colonization was positively correlated with leaf age, plant growth stages, site, and the interactive effects of growth stage × season and growth stage × site. Fewer isolates were recovered from younger than from older leaves, and from trees than from saplings. Fifty-seven species and six familial taxa assigned mainly to the Ascomycotina and Deuteromycotina were isolated. Xylaria cubensis and Letendraeopsis palmarum were the most common species. Significant differences in the number of isolates of the 21 most frequent species were observed with respect to plant growth stages, season and site. A community ordination analysis showed that depending upon the host tissue, vein or intervein, trees and saplings located at different sites were characterized by distinct endophytic communities.
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Fungal Endophytes
Chapter
  • Jan 2004
Fungal endophytes have been isolated from almost every vascular plant studied and much has been written about their role and ecology. In this paper we review these aspects, but also review the role of molecular techniques in endophyte identification, the possible relationship with host specificity of fungal saprobes and suggest future areas for study.
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