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Forensic geomorphology
... There are numerous and varied methods employed by forensic search teams to detect the clandestine burial of murder victims (Pringle et al., 2012a;Parker et al., 2010). Current best practice suggests a phased approach, which moves from large-scale remote sensing methods (Kalacska et al., 2009) through to initial ground reconnaissance (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014) and control studies before full searches are initiated (Harrison and Donnelly, 2009;Larson et al., 2011). These full searches have themselves involved a variety of methods including, for example, forensic geomorphology (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014), forensic botany (Aquila et al., 2014) and entomology (Amendt et al., 2007), scent-trained search dogs (Lasseter et al., 2003), physical probing (Ruffell, 2005a), thanatochemistry (Vass, 2012) and near-surface geophysics (see e.g. ...
... Current best practice suggests a phased approach, which moves from large-scale remote sensing methods (Kalacska et al., 2009) through to initial ground reconnaissance (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014) and control studies before full searches are initiated (Harrison and Donnelly, 2009;Larson et al., 2011). These full searches have themselves involved a variety of methods including, for example, forensic geomorphology (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014), forensic botany (Aquila et al., 2014) and entomology (Amendt et al., 2007), scent-trained search dogs (Lasseter et al., 2003), physical probing (Ruffell, 2005a), thanatochemistry (Vass, 2012) and near-surface geophysics (see e.g. France et al., 1992;Powell, 2004;Nobes, 2000;Cheetham, 2005;Pringle and Jervis, 2010). ...
... Ground penetrating radar is arguably the most commonly used near-surface geophysical technique for clandestine grave detection (see e.g. Mellet, 1992;Calkin et al., 1995;Davenport, 2001;Ruffell, 2005b;Schultz, 2007;Billinger, 2009;Novo et al., 2011;Ruffell and McKinley, 2014), and Nobes (2000) deploys the technique alongside electromagnetic prospection methods. Forensic burials differ strongly from historical and/or archaeological graves (e.g. ...
... References to forensic geology over the last 20 years are equal to a mean value of 23,000/y ( Figure 2A); it is possible to observe that the number of publications ( Figure 2B) and academic meetings/events in geosciences with special sessions devoted to forensic geology is strongly increasing [12], enforcing its position among other forensic sciences disciplines. A strong tradition of scientific research associated with the topic of forensic geology has developed among the academic communities and experts, mainly in the USA [1,2,4,5,[30][31][32], UK [6][7][8][9][10]12,[17][18][19][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41], and Australia [20,27]. geology has developed among the academic communities and experts, mainly in the USA [1,2,4,5,[30][31][32], UK [6][7][8][9][10]12,[17][18][19][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41], and Australia [20,27]. ...
... A strong tradition of scientific research associated with the topic of forensic geology has developed among the academic communities and experts, mainly in the USA [1,2,4,5,[30][31][32], UK [6][7][8][9][10]12,[17][18][19][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41], and Australia [20,27]. geology has developed among the academic communities and experts, mainly in the USA [1,2,4,5,[30][31][32], UK [6][7][8][9][10]12,[17][18][19][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41], and Australia [20,27]. One of the most famous criminal investigations in the world, which is closely associated with the use forensic geology, involves the murder case of the honorable Aldo Moro, kidnapped and killed by terrorists in 1978 in Rome (Italy). ...
One of the most famous criminal investigations involved the use of forensic geology to assist law enforcement agencies in the homicide case of the Italian honorable Aldo Moro. Notwithstanding this important tribute to forensic geology, in Italy, the role and value of using geological and soil materials (known as earth materials) to support law enforcement agencies in solving criminal investigations remain uncommon. This absence may be due to few educational courses for geology undergraduates/graduates devoted to laboratory and field training in forensic geology. The flipped classroom model may encourage a modern educational approach for teaching and learning forensic geology. The designed flipped classroom model applies theoretical concepts for forensic geology, which is learned by the attendees at home, whereas the class activities are devoted to laboratory and field experiences assisted by teaching staff. The laboratory activities involve techniques for collecting geological trace evidence and comparing color/sedimentological/mineralogical/microfossil features, whereas the field experiences consist of sampling strategies, search activities for burials, and field surveying. This approach has been trialed by the Messina University since 2014 and represents a successful tool for multitasking teaching and learning aimed to further develop forensic geology, encourage the inclusion of forensic geologists within the police enforcement in Italy, and improve the knowledge of law experts such as prosecutors and defense lawyers.
... In addition to variables such as available moisture, the extent to which these anomalies are presented is strongly influenced by soil characteristics such as texture (i.e., fraction of clays/sands) and structure (aggregations) [10,11]. For example, sandy soils typically show less evident cracking than clay-rich soils [12]. ...
... However, this is likely to be dependent on the local soil type: in this study, the sandy clay loam soils readily form cracks under disturbance. In coarse-textured soils (e.g., sands), anomalies such as cracks and depressions may be less evident or may persist for a shorter period [12,25]. The size of the grave, number of bodies in the grave, and indeed the size of individuals within the grave (e.g., large adult male compared to a small child) will also impact the degree of soil anomalies present. ...
Forensic investigations of single and mass graves often use surface anomalies, including changes to soil and vegetation conditions, to identify potential grave locations. Though numerous resources describe surface anomalies in grave detection, few studies formally investigate the rate at which the surface anomalies return to a natural state; hence, the period the grave is detectable to observers. Understanding these processes can provide guidance as to when ground searches will be an effective strategy for locating graves. We studied three experimental graves and control plots in woodland at the Australian Facility for Taphonomic Experimental Research (Sydney, Australia) to monitor the rate at which surface anomalies change following disturbance. After three years, vegetation cover on all grave sites and control plots had steadily increased but remained substantially less than undisturbed surroundings. Soil anomalies (depressions and cracking) were more pronounced at larger grave sites versus the smaller grave and controls, with leaf litterfall rendering smaller graves difficult to detect beyond 20 months. Similar results were observed in two concurrent burial studies, except where accelerated revegetation appeared to be influenced by mummified remains. Extreme weather events such as heatwaves and heavy rainfall may prolong the detection window for grave sites by hindering vegetation establishment. Observation of grave‐indicator vegetation, which exhibited abnormally strong growth 10 months after commencement, suggests that different surface anomalies may have different detection windows. Our findings are environment‐specific, but the concepts are applicable globally.
... Physical characteristics of the region could be identified through by topography [1], geology [2], regional morphology [3], soil type [4], climate [5], hydrology [6] [7], and so on [8]. The Lima Puluh Kota District has a topographic variation, where more than half the area contains mountainous topography (with slopes of more than 40%), which has percentage is around 56.3%. ...
... The basic streaming pattern is a characteristic drainage pattern that can be distinguished from other drain patterns, while the modification flow pattern (Figure 4) [28] [1]. Different drainage pattern and changed from the basic pattern, but the general pattern remains dependent on the underlying pattern, the characteristics of the basic drainage pattern and modification can be seen in Table 5[8] [5]. ...
Research areas are prone to landslides hazard. Detail location is in the Tanjung Balik area, Pangkalan Koto Baru Sub District, Lima Puluh Kota District, West Sumatra Province. Located is along the Riau – West of Sumatra Province Highway throughout kilometers 10-15. Coordinate are between 00˚08'40''-0˚11'20''N and 100˚45'20''-100˚47'00''E. The research objectives determine the geomorphological conditions, drainage patterns, and structural geology in the research area. The methods are geological survey and geomorphological analysis. The
results of the analysis concluded that the geomorphology of the research area was classified into two, namely Structural Steep Hills Geomorphology Unit (S2) and Denudation Slightly Steep Hill Geomorphology Unit (D3). The Structural Steep Hills Geomorphology Unit (S2) is in the Southern region of the research area with distribution percentage around 27%, while the Denudation (S2) dominates in the North, West, East and slightly in the South with a distribution percentage around 73%. Drainage pattern is classified as sub-dendritic types. Geological analysis of structures from joint readings shows the main stresses that have relatively north-south direction.
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere (1,2), with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods (3) to ground reconnaissance and control studies before full searches are initiated (4). These full searches have involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology (5), forensic botany (6) and entomology (7), scent-trained search dogs (8,9), physical probing (10)(11)(12), thanatochemistry (13,14), and near-surface geophysics (15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23). ...
... Searches generally start from large-scale remote sensing methods (32,33), such as aerial and ultraviolet photography (30,34), thermal imaging (34), to ground-based observations of vegetation changes (11), surface geomorphology changes (5), soil type (4) and depositional environment(s) (30), near-surface geophysics (1), diggability surveys (4) and probing of anomalous areas (10,12) before topsoil removal (11), and finally controlled excavation and recovery (26,35,36). A typical search will only use a few of these techniques, depending on the circumstances in the individual case. ...
Police witness intelligence stated a murdered adult male “Fred” had been vertically buried in wooded hilly terrain 30 years ago in the Midlands, U.K. Conventional search methods were unsuccessful; therefore, the police requested a geophysical investigation to be undertaken to determine whether “Fred” could be detected. A multiphased geophysical approach was conducted, using bulk ground conductivity and metal detectors, then follow‐up magnetics and ground penetrating radar (GPR) survey profiles on electromagnetic (EM) anomalous areas. A tight grid pattern was used to account for the reduced target size. Relatively high‐resolution EM and GPR techniques were determined optimal for this terrain and sandy soil. Geophysical anomalies were identified and the most promising intrusively investigated, and this was found to be a large boulder and tree roots. Study implications suggest careful multiphase geophysical surveys are best practice and give confidence in cold case searches. This study yielded a no‐body result, effectively saving police time and costs from further investigations.
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere (Pringle et al., 2012a;Parker et al., 2010), with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods (Kalacska et al., 2009) down to initial ground reconnaissance (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014) and control studies before full searches are initiated (Harrison and Donnelly, 2009;Larson et al., 2011). These full searches have also involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014), forensic botany (Aquila et al., 2014) and entomology (Amendt et al., 2007), scent-trained search dogs (Lasseter et al., 2003;), physical probing (Ruffell, 2005a;), thanatochemistry (Vass et al., 2008;) and near-surface geophysics (France et al., 1992;Nobes, 2000;Ruffell, 2005b;Pringle and Jervis, 2010a;Novo et al., 2011). ...
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere (Pringle et al., 2012a;Parker et al., 2010), with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods (Kalacska et al., 2009) down to initial ground reconnaissance (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014) and control studies before full searches are initiated (Harrison and Donnelly, 2009;Larson et al., 2011). These full searches have also involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014), forensic botany (Aquila et al., 2014) and entomology (Amendt et al., 2007), scent-trained search dogs (Lasseter et al., 2003;), physical probing (Ruffell, 2005a;), thanatochemistry (Vass et al., 2008;) and near-surface geophysics (France et al., 1992;Nobes, 2000;Ruffell, 2005b;Pringle and Jervis, 2010a;Novo et al., 2011). geophysical search technique(s) and equipment configuration(s). ...
In most Latin American countries there are significant numbers of missing people and forced disappearances, currently ~ 74,000 only in Colombia. Successful detection of shallow buried human remains by forensic search teams is currently difficult in varying terrain and climates. Within this research we built four simulated clandestine burial styles in tropical rainforests, as this is a common scenario and depositional environment encountered in Latin America, to gain knowledge of optimum forensic geophysics detection techniques. The results of geophysically monitoring these burials using ground penetrating radar, magnetic susceptibility, bulk ground conductivity and electrical resistivity are presented from one to forty three weeks post-burial. Radar survey results with both the 250 MHz and 500 MHz frequency antennae showed good detection of modern simulated burials on 2D profiles and horizontal time slices but poor detection on the other simulated graves. Magnetic susceptibility, bulk ground conductivity and electrical resistivity results were generally poor at detecting the simulated targets. Observations of botanical variations on the test site show rapid regrowth of Malvaceae and Petiveria alliacea vegetation over all burials that are common in these forests, which can make detection more difficult.
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere [18,19], with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods [20] to initial site reconnaissance [21] and control studies before full ground searches are initiated [22,23]. These full searches have also involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology [21], forensic botany [24,25] and entomology [26,27], scent-trained search dogs [28,29], physical probing [30][31][32], thanatochemistry from soil samples [33][34][35] and near-surface geophysical investigations [36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43]. ...
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere [18,19], with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods [20] to initial site reconnaissance [21] and control studies before full ground searches are initiated [22,23]. These full searches have also involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology [21], forensic botany [24,25] and entomology [26,27], scent-trained search dogs [28,29], physical probing [30][31][32], thanatochemistry from soil samples [33][34][35] and near-surface geophysical investigations [36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43]. ...
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere [17,18], with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods [19] down to initial ground reconnaissance [20] and control studies before full searches are initiated [21,22]. These full searches have also involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology [20], forensic botany [23,24] and entomology [25,26], scent-trained search dogs [27,28], physical probing [29][30][31], thanatochemistry [32][33][34] and near-surface geophysics [35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42]. ...
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere [17,18], with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods [19] down to initial ground reconnaissance [20] and control studies before full searches are initiated [21,22]. These full searches have also involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology [20], forensic botany [23,24] and entomology [25,26], scent-trained search dogs [27,28], physical probing [29][30][31], thanatochemistry [32][33][34] and near-surface geophysics [35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42]. ...
... The most commonly used methods to locate clandestine graves are foot searches [6] and cadaver dogs [7,8], however, depending on equipment and expertise availability, techniques such as geographic profiling [9][10][11][12][13][14], and various remote sensing methods, such as satellite [15], infrared [16], thermal [17], and aerial imaging [18] (including with a drone and other unmanned aerial vehicles [19][20][21][22]), light detection and ranging (LiDAR) [12,23,24], and near-surface geophysical techniques [25][26][27][28] can also be used. See Ruffell and McKinley [29,30] and Donnelly and Harrison [31] for a more detailed look into grave location techniques. ...
Research in many forensic science fields commonly uses domestic pigs ( Sus spp.) as proxies for human remains, due to their physiological and anatomical similarities, as well as being more readily available. Unfortunately, previous research, especially that which compares the decompositional process, has shown that pigs are not appropriate proxies for humans. To date, there has not been any published research that specifically addresses whether domestic pigs are adequate human proxies for the geophysical detection of clandestine graves. As such, the aim of this paper was to compare the geophysical responses of pig cadavers and human donor graves, in order to determine if pigs can indeed be used as adequate human proxies. To accomplish this, ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) responses on single and multiple pig cadaver graves were compared to single and multiple human donor graves, all of which are in known locations within the same geological environment. The results showed that under field conditions, both GPR and ERT were successful at observing human and pig burials, with no obvious differences between the detected geophysical responses. The results also showed that there were no differences in the geophysical responses of those who were clothed and unclothed. The similarity of the responses may reflect that the geophysical techniques can detect graves despite what their contents are. The study implications suggest that experimental studies in other soil and climate conditions can be easily replicated, benefiting law enforcement with missing persons cases.
... Determination of inorganic and organic particle diameters in water have with characterization purposes is of great importance in forensic science for example identifying the sample soil source location. Some procedures using geomorpholy techniques [1] and laser granulometry detecting particles with diameters of μm [2,3], have already been reported. This soil particle sizing procedure can also be coupled with spectroscopic protocols [4], x-ray diffraction and electronic miscroscopy [5], color pattern from samples pictures [6,7]. ...
A cheap and simple experimental setup for executing particle sizing in water disperion by means of dynamic light scattering (DLS) and consequently the necessary software to evaluate the calculations of photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS) are described here in order to characterize beach sand by its source location according to the mean beach sand grain hydrodynamic diameter. Despite the existence of similar commercial particle sizing equipments, the innovation presented here consists of a portable measurements able to be used in the field. It consists of an easy handling apparatus composed by a solid-state laser pointer as light source and a smartphone CCD camera as detector for video acquiring. Correlation calculus of light intensity variations were performed in a software developed by the authors. The performance test of the proposed protocol was evaluated to characterize beach sand particles on aqueous solution determining its hydrodynamic diameter. The limitations of the technique were explored and comparison with optical microscopy results and literature were performed.
... This may identify promising locations, where control studies and trial datasets help optimise a search strategy, before full surveys are conducted [4]. These subsequent forensic terrestrial or aquatic forensic searches will be case-specific and may employ forensic geomorphology [5], botany [6] and entomology [7], victim recovery dogs [8], probing [9], thanatochemistry [10] and geophysical methods [11][12][13][14][15][16] before intrusive investigations are undertaken [16]. Intrusive investigations can include topsoil removal, controlled excavation and potential evidence recovery. ...
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere [4], with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods [5] to ground reconnaissance and control studies before full searches are initiated [6]. These full searches have involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology [7], forensic botany [8], scent-trained search dogs [9][10][11], thanatochemistry [12] and near-surface geophysics [13][14][15][16]. ...
The Battle of Kettle Creek was the only major victory for U.S. forces in Georgia during the American Revolutionary War that took place on February 14, 1779. Around 50 loyalist prisoners were subsequently, and controversially, convicted of treason and 5 hanged. The battlefield site was only identified in 2008 and the land was purchased by the American Battlefield Trust in 2018. This article aims to present results from a forensic archaeological search to answer two questions: (1) was it possible to identify the burial ground(s) for site preservation from this historic battlefield site; and (2), were the fallen soldiers from the battle buried in a mass grave or in individual interments? Search methods included a phased investigation approach of a desk study, then ground searches involving cadaver dogs, geophysics (GPR), and subsequent forensic archaeological excavation and soil analysis (specifically mtDNA and VOC extractions) to recover possible trace evidence of human burials. Results suggest the main battlefield burial area was able to be identified, with 24 cadaver dog alert locations, geophysical and soil anomalies suggesting individual burials where fallen soldiers were interred. Archaeological excavation found contemporary battlefield artifacts, and although human remains were not recovered, the soil analysis showed the presence of mtDNA in these locations. Despite the difficult ground search conditions due to the large search area, 200 + years age of burials, and limited remains, such a focused search strategy has been proven to be an effective approach to detect other historic battlefield burial sites.
... Other technique for finding human bodies in water use geophysical components. In [10,11], magnetometers, underwater metal detectors, and side-scanning sonar with water-penetrating radar (WPR) are used to search for homicide victims buried at unknown locations in peat bogs. Later, [12] used the same WPR to search for objects inside human-made structures, to search for homicide victims and human remains buried at unknown locations in peat bogs, and to detect human remains. ...
This research proposes a methodological approach to searching for floating bodies or floating body parts in rivers using hydroinformatic tools. These tools may allow possible search locations and potential release sites to be determined. The approach draws from hydrometric field information, two-dimensional (2D) hydrodynamic modeling, particle tracking (PT) models, and large-scale particle image velocimetry (LSPIV). This methodology was applied to a case study of the La Miel river in Colombia, where existing reports of deceased persons are available. A series of hydraulic accidents have been defined to represent the hydrodynamic and transport processes that occur in such situations. The results indicate that potential search locations, namely places where human floating bodies or floating body parts may be found, are principally on the left and right shores of recirculation systems.
... The main application is related to crimes against life, environment, nation, and war issues (Pye and Croft, 2004). In the case of clandestine buried materials, complex search may include multidisciplinary techniques, such as multi-method D r a f t geophysics (France et al., 1992;Pringle et al., 2015), geomorphology (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014) and ...
The detection of buried clandestine objects challenges forensic and archeologic search group teams on varying terrains, and variable scales of research. Therefore, the study of controlled buried objects is useful for trainings in geophysical acquisition and processing. In this study, we applied ground survey data for testing the magnetic method at controlled geophysical sites for the location of ordinary objects and firearms. We used data filtering techniques in order to facilitate the location of magnetic targets. Also, we experienced the 3D inversion of analytic signal of the vertically integrated magnetic field (ASVI), for the location of targets in depth. As a result, the study determined the location of four magnetic targets, and a three-dimensional view was constructed from the estimated magnetic susceptibility. We concluded that modeling transformed magnetic data is an affordable technique for application in near-surface investigations. Also, this experiment exemplifies the relevance of magnetic methods for location of excavation sites on the basis of geophysical methods.
... Also, logistical restrictions and security issues can mean that destructive techniques are not always feasible or desirable options. Search teams have relied on personal experience, "sniffer" dogs and hints from other approaches including geomorphological analysis to obtain leads for further investigation [46,56,[64][65][66]. Shortages in manpower, varying chances of success using trained dogs, and an increasing sophistication in planning and carrying out the associated crime, limit reliance on these approaches alone for investigative leads. ...
In this study, we present an experiment design and assess the capability of multiple
geophysical techniques to image buried human remains in mass and individual graves
using human cadavers willingly donated for scientific research. The study is part of a
novel, interdisciplinary mass grave experiment established in May 2021 which consists
of a mass grave with 6 human remains, 3 individual graves and two empty control
graves dug to the same size as the mass grave and individual graves. Prior to
establishing the graves, we conducted background measurements of electrical
resistivity tomography (ERT), electromagnetics (EM), and ground penetrating radar
(GPR) while soil profiles were analyzed in situ after excavating the graves. All graves
were also instrumented with soil sensors for monitoring temporal changes in soil
moisture, temperature, and electrical conductivity in situ. Measurements of ERT, EM
and GPR were repeated 3, 37, 71 and 185 days after burial with further repeated
measurements planned for another twelve months. ERT results show an initial
increase in resistivity in all graves including the control graves at 3 days after burial and
a continuous decrease thereafter in the mass and individual graves with the strongest
decrease in the mass grave. Conductivity distribution from the EM shows a similar
trend to the ERT with an initial decrease in the first 3 days after burial. Distortion in
linear reflectors, presence of small hyperbolas and isolated strong amplitude reflectors
in the GPR profiles across the graves is associated with known locations of the graves.
These initial results validate the capability of geoelectrical methods in detecting
anomalies associated with disturbed ground and human decay while GPR though
show some success is limited by the geology of the site.
... It is often found that depth of buried objects is normally shallow, typically less than 3 m bgl, whilst clandestine graves are often around 0.5 m bgl [22]. Searches for clandestine burials often start with large-scale methods, such as remote sensing [23,24], aerial and ultraviolet photography [25,26], thermal imaging [27], or even visual observations of vegetation changes at groundlevel [28], surface geomorphology changes [29], soil type [30] and depositional environment(s) [31], near-surface geophysics [32], and probing of anomalous areas [33,34] before removing topsoil [28] and ultimately performing controlled excavation and recovery of remains [25]. ...
In most Latin American countries, there are significant numbers of missing people and forced disappearances, over 120,000 in Colombia alone. Successful detection of shallow buried human remains by forensic search teams is difficult in varying terrain and climates. Previous research has created controlled simulated clandestine graves of murder victims to optimize search techniques and methodologies. This paper reports on a study on controlled test site results over four simulated dismembered victims' clandestine graves as this is sadly a common scenario encountered in Latin America. Multispectral images were collected once post-burial, electrical resistivity surveys were collected 4 times, and ground penetrating radar (GPR) surveys were collected three times up to the end of the 371 day survey monitoring period. After data processing, results showed that the multispectral data set could detect the simulated clandestine and control graves, with electrical resistivity imaging relative high resistances over some of the simulated graves but not over the empty control graves. GPR results showed good imaging on the Day 8 surveys, medium imaging on the Day 294 surveys, and medium to good imaging on the Day 371 surveys. Study implications suggest that, while clandestine graves of dismembered homicide victims would likely result in smaller-sized graves when compared to graves containing intact bodies, these graves can still potentially be detected using remote sensing and geophysical methods.
... Therefore, forensic investigators have depended on techniques adopted by archeologists [8], where the focus has been on the secondary indicators such as soil disturbance, detection of object other than the buried body, or bodies which includes coffins and metal artifact; such as keys, belts, and jewelries [9]. Findings have revealed that a major measurable contrast must exist between the target and the host environment before a sensitive remote sensing measuring instrument can be engaged in forensic investigation [1,[10][11][12]. Even considering this, factors that must be considered includes conductivity of the soil, soil types and soil horizon, chemical and mineral content, water content, porosity, and estimated depth of burial [4]. ...
A geophysical investigation for buried human remains after 8 years of burial involving the use of Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) was carried out at Owo, Ondo State, Southwestern Nigeria. This study was aimed at identifying the burial location of a corpse buried in a coffin about 8 years ago for exhumation and reburial in another location consequent upon litigations and controversies surrounding the land of the burial. The results obtained were used to generate 2D model and different resistivity maps which were able to identify suspected zone. Excavation of the suspected zone was carried out for the exhumed and relocation of the buried human remains. Electrical Resistivity has therefore been found useful in search for detecting human remains buried in a coffin with the key indicator being lower electrical resistivity relative to the surrounding area.
... However, there is still some scepticism about the usefulness of this discipline [25] with regard to the variability of exploration conditions. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) has been widely used to analyze peat deposits due the low electrical conductivity of the peat [20,[26][27][28][29][30][31], which allows for a large penetration depth. Moreover, the change in water content with respect to the mineral sediment provides strong reflections for excellent geophysical imaging [32]. ...
We present a case study of a bog showing how an integrated approach of multi‐method
geophysical sounding and local soil sampling can be used to identify, differentiate, and map organic
sediments. Our study is based on ground‐penetrating radar (GPR), electrical resistivity tomography
(ERT) and shear‐wave seismic (SH seismic) profiling applied to sediments of the former Lake
Duvensee (northern Germany), nowadays a bog. This is a well‐known locality for remains from the
Mesolithic hunter‐gatherers’ occupation that has been attracting archaeological and
geoarchaeological research for100 years. The bog is embedded in low conductive glacial sand and
is characterized by layers of different gyttja sediments (detritus and calcareous). The present study
was conducted in order to identify the bog morphology and the thickness of the peat body and lake
sediments, in order to understand the basin evolution. To validate the geophysical results, derived
from surface measurements, drilling, soil analyses as well as borehole guided wave analysis of
electromagnetic waves and Direct‐Push (DP‐EC) have been carried out and used for comparison. It
turned out that each method can distinguish between sediments that differ in grain size, particularly
between peat, lake sediments (gyttjas and mud) and basal glacial sand deposits. GPR is even able to
separate between strongly and weakly decomposed peat layers, which is also clear considering
resistivity variations in the ERT computation. From the association between geophysical properties
and sediment analysis (e.g., water content and organic matter) different gyttjas were distinguished
(coarse and fine) and seismic velocity was correlated to bulk density. Moreover, GPR and SH‐wave
seismics present different resolutions, confirming that the latter allows measurements, which are
more focused on determining the extension of basal sand deposits, the depth of which is difficult to
reach with GPR. Representative values of electrical resistivity, dielectric permittivity, and shear
wave velocity have been determined for each sediment type and are therefore available to complete
the investigation of wetland environments. Fine grained lake sediments were difficult to
differentiate by the applied methods. This could be a result of high ionic concentration within the
permanent groundwater body, partly masking the sediment properties.
... While these forensic targets are shallow, typically within three meters below the subsurface [1], locating them by trial and error excavations without useful hints could be costly and labor intensive even for small search areas like back yards. Search teams have relied on personal experience [1], the use of specially trained sniffer dogs [4] and hints from other approaches, including geomorphological analysis [5], to obtain leads for further investigation. Shortages in manpower, varying chances of success using trained dogs, and increasing sophistication in planning and carrying out the associated crime, limit reliance on these approaches alone for investigative leads [6]. ...
The detection of buried firearms remains a critical issue in law enforcement. We assess the suitability of magnetic gradiometers to detect buried rifles and handguns at multiple depths using numerical modeling and field investigations. Our simulation is based on a simple approach to characterize handguns and rifles as long magnetic dipoles with the firearm characterized by its magnetization, length, centre, azimuth and plunge which allows us to calculate their total magnetic field and gradient anomalies. We compare these synthetic data to field gradiometer data collected with a Gem Systems GSM-19GW Overhauser magnetometer at a field site near Toronto, Canada, where six firearms are buried. Our field magnetometer consists of two sensors with a relative vertical sepration of 0.55 m. We measure the largest anomaly (+/-20 nT) for a rifle at 0.6 m depth, and the smallest anomaly (+/-2 nT) for a handgun buried at 1.8 m depth. The measured anomalies spatially coincide with the locations of weapons while dipole anomalies align along the orientation of the firearms. Our modeling results show that vertically buried weapons produce significantly stronger anomalies than horizontal ones, and even slight tilts enhance the anomalies. We recommend a 0.25 m grid spacing to search for weapons using magnetometry. Our study shows that a range of firearms buried up to 1.8 m can be detected, suggesting that gradient magnetometers are useful tools in forensic weapon searches.
... It is important to study and observe the characteristics of landforms and their relationship with human life in order to be aware of the potential hazards and disasters in a region. Landforms are characterised by differences in the structure and process of geomorphology, topography and constituent material (Strahler 1957, Verstappen 1983, Ruffell, McKinley 2014. In prior decades, the classification of landform properties has been carried out by calculating Secondary forest and mixed garden Consists of industrial plantation forests and some garden planting, coconuts, fruits and others. ...
This study presents the information on the dynamics of changes in land use/land cover (LULC) spatially and temporally related to the causes of flooding in the study area. The dynamics of LULC changes have been derived based on the classification of Landsat imagery for the period between 1990 and 2016. Terrain surface classification (TSC) was proposed as a micro-landform classification approach in this study to create flood hazard assessment and mapping that was produced based on the integration of TSC with a probability map for flood inundation, and flood depth information derived from field observation. TSC as the micro-landform classification approach was derived from SRTM30 DEM data. Multi-temporal Sentinel-1 data were used to construct a pattern of historical inundation or past flooding in the study area and also to produce the flood probability map. The results of the study indicate that the proposed flood hazard mapping (FHM) from the TSC as a micro-landform classification approach has the same pattern with the results of the integration of historical inundation or previous floods, as well as field investigations in the study area. This research will remain an important benchmark for planners, policymakers and researchers regarding spatial planning in the study area. In addition, the results can provide important input for sustainable land use plans and strategies for mitigating flood hazards.
... Ground penetrating radar (GPR) research is commonly used in crime scene investigations (CSI) worldwide owing to its rapid, precise and nondestructive technique (NDT) [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. These advantageous characteristics make GPR an efficient and extensively used method to find missing people in different environments [8][9][10][11][12][13]. ...
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) investigations have the potential to non-destructively detect buried or hidden targets and are therefore often used in forensic research. This study presents a particular application of GPR methods to search for a missing person in a specific subsurface environment: a natural cave. The search for missing people in Italy is a problematic and delicate task that needs improvement. Results of this study highlight not only the ability to detect both hollow and forensic targets, but also precisely locate and define their geometries. Moreover, GPR findings efficiently focus archaeological excavation and body recovery in an exact area and help to minimise time digging in erroneous places.
... It is often found that depth of buried objects is normally shallow, typically <3 m below ground level (bgl), whilst clandestine graves are often around 0.5 m (22). Searches for clandestine burials often start with large-scale methods, such as remote sensing (23,24), aerial and ultraviolet photography (25,26), thermal imaging (27), or even visual observations of vegetation changes at ground-level (28), surface geomorphology changes (29), soil type (30), and depositional environment(s) (31), near-surface geophysics (32), diggability surveys (30) and probing of anomalous areas (33,34) before removing topsoil (28) and ultimately performing controlled excavation and recovery of remains (25). ...
Colombian forensic investigators required assistance locating clandestine burials of missing persons related to human right atrocities from 14 years ago. Geoscientific search methods were trialled, including a predictive spatial statistical model, using various input and database information, to select the most likely grave locations in difficult mountainous terrain. Groundwork using forensic geomorphology, near‐surface geophysics (ERT) and subsequent probing identified suspect burial positions. One site was in mountainous terrain and the other in former school grounds, both difficult to access and in poor weather conditions. In the mountainous area, a negative resistivity anomaly area was identified and intrusively investigated, found to be a buried rock. In school grounds, after MESP and intelligence were used to identify a burial site, surface depressions were identified, and ERT datasets collected over the highest priority depression; intrusive investigations discovered a hand‐dug pit containing animal bones. This approach is suggested for Latin American searches.
... Drainage pattern changed from the basic pattern, but the general pattern remains dependent on the underlying pattern. The characteristics of the basic drainage pattern and its modification are in Table 4 [22,23]. ...
The research area is in the location hit by landslide frequently. Located in Riau-West Sumatra Highway in Km 89-94, Pangkalan Sub District, Lima Puluh Kota District, West Sumatra Province. The research objective to analyse the geomorphological conditions, which is relevance an increased vulnerability to landslides in the study area. The method used consist of geomorphology analysis using morphometric, morphography and morphogenetic parameters. The results of the analysis concluded that the geomorphology of the reserach area is classified into two: High Hills Steep Structural Geomorphology Unit (S2) dominates in all regions and Slightly Steep Hills Denudational Geomorphology Units (D3) is located in the Northeast, the percentages of distribution are 83%, and 17% respectively. Drainage pattern classified to parallel system. Lithology constituent consisting of claystone, siltstone, sandstone, and andesite. Structural geology analysis of joint show trend pattern to the Northwest -Southeast.
... Certainly a forced imposition of new inhabitants is absorbed with great difficulties, when the number of newcomers is so high. 8 Fan 11 debates on labour immigration which involves concerns over ethnic interactions and tensions, and security issues of illegal immigration and border control. He arguments on migration having demographic, economic, and social impacts on both sending and receiving areas. ...
Adriana Galvani*
Tale of two cities and two continents
Abstract
In this work, globalisation and immigration are discussed. One particular case is examined for its global value of impact of civilisations.
Immigration from Africa is a daily concern for every citizen living around the Mediterranean Sea. Immigrants are distributed by governments in all big and small cities, but the inclusion process is too long to be visible, so contrasts and even hate between residents and refugees are diffused questions. Refugees don’t work, they are maintained by EU funds, in the meantime, resident citizens are affording an unending crisis with unemployment, decrease of revenues and, at the same time, increase of prices of all the goods.
The two cities we examine and compare, are Ferrara in Italy and Lagos in Nigeria; the first one, the quietest city of the region and untroubled cultural UNESCO heritage, the second, the most dangerous settlement of the world.
... Certainly a forced imposition of new inhabitants is absorbed with great difficulties, when the number of newcomers is so high. 8 Fan 11 debates on labour immigration which involves concerns over ethnic interactions and tensions, and security issues of illegal immigration and border control. He arguments on migration having demographic, economic, and social impacts on both sending and receiving areas. ...
Abstract
In this work, globalisation and immigration are discussed. One case is examined for its global value of impact of civilisations. Immigration from Africa is a daily concern for every citizen living around the Mediterranean Sea. Immigrants are distributed by governments in all big and small cities, but the inclusion process is too long to be visible, so contrasts and even hate between residents and refugees are diffused emotions. Refugees don’t work, they are maintained by EU, meanwhile citizens are affording an unending crisis with unemployment, decrease of revenues and, at the same time, increase of prices. The two cities are Ferrara in Italy and Lagos in Nigeria; the first one, the untroubled cultural UNESCO heritage, the second, the most dangerous city of the world.
Keywords: globalisation, immigration, unemployment, political, economic, vanishing
... Lup lens to observe mineral and fossil. Comparator grain size and The geomorphology is defined as a study that describes the shape of land and process and the relationship [13]. The landform and the process in the arrangement of spatial. ...
TalawiHilir Village, Talawi HilirSubdistrict, Sawahlunto City, West
Sumatra Province is one of the areas that have interesting geological conditions to
study. The objective of this research are interpret of some unicharacteristic include:
geomorphologic processes, depositional environment and potentialgeotourism. The
methods of study consist of geological data field collection and laboratory include: rock
sample, collect data of strike/dip, contact between lithologies, structure of geology,
geomorphological photo and map. The result of the analysis of geomorphological
aspects of the study area was classified into four units: Alluvial Plain Fluvial
Geomorphology Unit, High Hills Undulating Structural Geomorphology Unit, Steep
Hills Structural Geomorphology Unit, Very Rough Mountains Denudation
Geomorphology Unit. Petrological analysis classified into four units lithologies:
Claystone Unit, Limestone Units, Sandstone Units and Breccia Unit. Claystone Unit as
interprets in shallow marine depositional environments on the lower fan, which is
characterized by the flow turbidite. Limestone Unit as interpret as depositional
environments in shallow sea, the Sandstone Unit as interpret as lacustrine depositional
environment and Breccia Unit as interpret as alluvial fan depositional environment.
Geotourism potential particularly in geological variation, research area were unique
characterization on landscape, landform, rock outcrop, rock unit, rock type, and
minerals.
... There are many published studies that illustrate the 16 application of geophysical methods in forensic studies . Q3 17 Such studies have often been implemented with good results 18 through the use of both ground penetrating radar (GPR) and 19 electrical resistivity methods. There are in fact several studies that 20 highlight the application of the electrical resistivity method in 21 forensic studies [7,13,14,23,[30][31][32][33][34]. ...
In forensic geophysical research, using controlled experiments assists forensic search practitioners in identifying optimal technique(s) and equipment configuration(s) in different burial scenarios. The objective of the research is to observe the geophysical response to different types of buried wrappings, taking into consideration the influence that the presence or absence of a decomposing body (pig carcass) in a lateritic soil in central-western Brazil can have. In this article, the GPR results are presented after a 15 day burial period during the rainy season, and the results of Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) after a burial period of 6 months during the dry season. The controlled site was built in the research area of the University of Brasília, in a region with soil, typical of the Brazilian savannah. 14 simulated clandestine graves of murder victims were constructed, in which seven pig carcasses were wrapped or covered by: soil (backfill), a plastic bag, a bed sheet, cement block, construction debris, a wooden coffin and hydrated lime, respectively a further seven burials, presenting only the wrappings acted as comparison (control burial). During the GPR survey a 400 MHz frequency antenna was used. The resistivity surveys were carried out before and after the burial of the targets with dipole–dipole and Wenner–Schlumberger array configurations, with different spacing of electrodes (1.00 and 0.50 m). The comparison between the various scenarios with and without pig carcasses revealed that good reflection events occurred mainly due to the wrappings and that pig carcasses attenuated the GPR signal. Electrical resistivity results showed that the Wenner–Schlumberger array presents a better resolution of the lateral boundaries of the burials, and the dipole–dipole array presents a better sensitivity to heterogeneity of the buried materials. The burials with the pig carcasses wrapped in the various materials presented better resistivity contrasts as opposed to the control burials.
... Ruffell et al. (2009) successfully identify historical (150-160 years old) unmarked cemetery graves using aerial photographs and confirm positions by geophysical surveying. Remote sensing of geomorphology changes has also been used for successful detection of clandestine graves (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014) and localized vegetation growth that have different characteristics to background areas, for example, different species and with more or stunted growth when compared with surrounding areas (Dupras et al., 2011;Larson et al., 2011). ...
Graveyards and cemeteries around the world are increasingly designated as full. There is therefore a requirement to identify vacant spaces for new burials or to identify existing ones to exhume and then re-inter if necessary. Geophysical methods offer a potentially non-invasive target detection solution; however, there has been limited research to identify optimal geophysical detection methods against burial age. This study has collected multi-frequency (225 MHz – 900 MHz) ground penetrating radar, electrical resistivity and magnetic susceptibility surface data over known graves with different burial ages and soil types in three UK church graveyards. Results indicate that progressively older burials are more difficult to detect but this decrease is not linear and is site specific. Medium-high frequency GPR and magnetic susceptibility was optimal in clay-rich soils, medium-high frequency GPR and electrical resistivity in sandy soils and electrical resistivity and low frequency GPR in coarse sand and pebbly soils respectively. A multi-geophysical technique approach should be utilised by survey practitioners where grave locations are not known to maximise target detection success. Grave soil and grave cuts are important grave position indicators. Grave headstones were not always located where burials were located. This study demonstrates the value of these techniques in grave detection and could potentially date burials from their geophysical responses.
... This process occurs before determining search strategies, undergoing site reconnaissance and phased site investigations, and then intrusively investigating anomalous areas [2,6,8]. Geoscientific site investigation methods vary depending upon the specific case, search site, and numerous other factors that are reviewed elsewhere [2,3], but can include scent-trained human remains detection dogs [8,9], forensic geomorphology [10], forensic botany [11,12] and entomology [13,14], near-surface geophysics [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23], intrusive probing [24,25] and soil geoscience analysis [26][27][28]. ...
In homicide investigations, it is critically important that post-mortem (PMI) and post-burial interval (PBI) of buried victims are determined accurately. However, clandestine graves can be difficult to locate; and the detection rates for a variety of search methods can be very low. This paper presents elemental analysis results of 18 months of decomposition fluids from an in situ buried animal cadaver used as a human clandestine burial proxy. Study results showed potassium, sulphate and sodium are key detectable elements which mirror observed conductivity temporal changes from this and other studies. Seasonal rainfall has a strong influence on both fluid generation and subsequent concentration which needs to be accounted for. Study implications suggest inorganic elements could provide both detection and potential dating of discovered clandestine burials.
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere [18], with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods [19] to ground reconnaissance and control studies before full searches are initiated [20]. These full searches have involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology [21], forensic botany [22] and entomology [23], scent-trained search dogs [24,25], physical probing [26][27][28], thanatochemistry [29] and near-surface geophysics [30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38]. ...
Around 27,000 people were killed in the province of Asturias during the Spanish Civil War, with several thousands killed after the war ended. There are currently over 2,000 known mass burial locations throughout Spain, but many more are unknown. Geophysics is a useful tool employed to help in the active attempts to document and improve knowledge about victims from this conflict. This paper details a non-invasive study of the Cementerio de El Salvador, in the city of Oviedo, Northern Spain. Part of the cemetery contains a known mass burial with approximately 1,300 individuals from the Spanish Civil War and post-war repression eras. Multi-frequency near-surface geophysical techniques were undertaken, after permission, to enhance knowledge about which, if any, techniques should be used to detect, delineate and analyse such mass graves. Multi-frequency (250MHz and 500MHz) ground-penetrating radar surveys were acquired together with 2D and 3D Electrical Resistivity Tomography datasets. The results have established the limits of the mass grave and improve the knowledge of the internal mass grave structure. The paper also shows the importance of considering the climatic conditions during data acquisition. This has important implications for the successful detection of recent historical mass burials using near-surface geophysics.
... High-resolution Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) constitute a powerful tool for search purposes. These DEMs furnish a georeferenced fly-through visualization of the topographic surface, that is, fundamental for ground-search purposes; indeed, Digital Terrain Models (DTMs; e.g., a digital surface interpolating ground) and/ or Digital Surface Models (DSMs; e.g., a digital surface interpolating ground as well as vegetation and human structures) aid searches, for they may detect georeferenced topographic expressions related to graves (22,32) as well as detailed 3D images of vegetation changes (33). Subsurface features may be investigated according to geophysical (Ground Penetrating Radar-GPR, magnetometry, and electrical resistivity) and geochemical methods (23,25,29,(34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39)(40)(41)(42)(43), which are also used in archeology (24)(25)(26)44). ...
Previous research on the RAG color-coded prioritization systems for the discovery of clandestine graves has not considered all the factors influencing the burial site choice within a GIS project. The goal of this technical note was to discuss a GIS-based quantitative approach for the search of clandestine graves. The method is based on cross-referenced RAG maps with cumulative suitability factors to host a burial, leading to the editing of different search scenarios for ground searches showing high-(Red), medium-(Amber), and low-(Green) priority areas. The application of this procedure allowed several outcomes to be determined: If the concealment occurs at night, then the “search scenario without the visibility” will be the most effective one; if the concealment occurs in daylight, then the “search scenario with the DSM-based visibility” will be most appropriate; the different search scenarios may be cross-referenced with offender's confessions and eyewitnesses’ testimonies to verify the veracity of their statements.
... Ruffell et al. (2009) successfully identify historical (150-160 years old) unmarked cemetery graves using aerial photographs and confirm positions by geophysical surveying. Remote sensing of geomorphology changes has also been used for successful detection of clandestine graves (Ruffell and McKinley, 2014) and localized vegetation growth that have different characteristics to background areas, for example, different species and with more or stunted growth when compared with surrounding areas (Dupras et al., 2011;Larson et al., 2011). ...
Graveyards and cemeteries around the world are increasingly designated as full. Therefore, there is a requirement to identify vacant spaces for new burials or to identify existing ones to exhume and then reinter if necessary. Geophysical methods offer a potentially noninvasive target detection solution; however, there has been limited research to identify optimal geophysical detection methods against burial age.We have collected multifrequency (225-900 MHz) ground-penetrating radar (GPR), electrical resistivity, and magnetic susceptibility surface data over known graves with different burial ages and soil types in three UK church graveyards. Results indicate that progressively older burials are more difficult to detect, but this decrease is not linear and is site specific. Medium- to high-frequency GPR and magnetic susceptibility was optimal in clay-rich soils, medium- to high-frequency GPR and electrical resistivity in sandy soils, and electrical resistivity and low-frequency GPR in coarse sand and pebbly soils, respectively. A multigeophysical technique approach should be used by survey practitioners where grave locations are not known to maximize target detection success. Grave soil and grave cuts are important grave position indicators. Grave headstones were not always located where burials were located. We have determined the value of these techniques in grave detection and could potentially date burials from their geophysical responses. © 2017 Society of Exploration Geophysicists. All rights reserved.
... One form of trace may offer insight into one aspect of the forensic reconstruction. However, as outlined in the published literature (such as [2,21,22]), multiple forms of evidence will often offer independent lines of enquiry that can achieve a corroborative and stronger indication of activity and/ or sources that are relevant in reconstructing events. The importance of having the capacity to map the interaction of the different and pertinent forms of trace material within a forensic reconstruction is therefore significant. ...
There has been a call for forensic science to actively return to the approach of scientific endeavour. The importance of incorporating an awareness of the requirements of the law in its broadest sense, and embedding research into both practice and policy within forensic science, is arguably critical to achieving such an endeavour. This paper presents a conceptual model (FoRTE) that outlines the holistic nature of trace evidence in the ‘endeavour’ of forensic reconstruction. This model offers insights into the different components intrinsic to transparent, reproducible and robust reconstructions in forensic science. The importance of situating evidence within the whole forensic science process (from crime scene to court), of developing evidence bases to underpin each stage, of frameworks that offer insights to the interaction of different lines of evidence, and the role of expertise in decision making are presented and their interactions identified. It is argued that such a conceptual model has value in identifying the future steps for harnessing the value of trace evidence in forensic reconstruction. It also highlights that there is a need to develop a nuanced approach to reconstructions that incorporates both empirical evidence bases and expertise. A conceptual understanding has the potential to ensure that the endeavour of forensic reconstruction has its roots in ‘problem-solving’ science, and can offer transparency and clarity in the conclusions and inferences drawn from trace evidence, thereby enabling the value of trace evidence to be realised in investigations and the courts.
... Forensic investigators will generally incorporate a variety of methods as part of an interdisciplinary protocol when searching for clandestine graves and physical evidence associated with criminal activity. With the growing interest in the field of forensic geoscience (Davenport, 2001a;Fenning and Donnelly, 2004;Pye and Croft, 2004;Ruffell and McKinley, 2005;Morgan and Bull, 2007;Pye, 2007;Schultz, 2007a;Ruffell et al., 2009a;Schultz and Martin, 2012;Ruffell and McKinley, 2014), the use of geophysical tools as part of a multidisciplinary search protocol have become accepted search methods by criminal investigators. While early geophysical research concluded that ground-penetrating radar (GPR) was the most important geophysical tool for delineating forensic graves (France et al., 1992;France et al., 1997), more recently, it has been shown with controlled research that electrical resistivity is an important geophysical tool for forensic grave detection in certain soils that may limit the effectiveness of GPR (Jervis et al., 2009a;Jervis et al., 2009b;Pringle et al., 2012a;Pringle et al., 2016). ...
Geophysical techniques such as ground-penetrating radar (GPR) have been successfully used for forensic searches to locate clandestine graves and physical evidence. However, additional controlled research is needed to fully understand the applicability of this technology when searching for clandestine graves in various environments, soil types, and for longer periods of time post-burial. The purpose of this study was to determine the applicability of GPR for detecting controlled graves in a Spodosol representing multiple burial scenarios for Years 2 and 3 of a three-year monitoring period. Objectives included determining how different burial scenarios are factors in producing a distinctive anomalous response; determining how different GPR imagery options (2D reflection profiles and horizontal time slices) can provide increased visibility of the burials; and comparing GPR imagery between 500 MHz and 250 MHz dominant frequency antennae. The research site contained a grid with eight graves representing common forensic burial scenarios in a Spodosol, a common soil type of Florida, with six graves containing a pig carcass (Sus scrofa). Burial scenarios with grave items (a deep grave with a layer of rocks over the carcass and a carcass wrapped in a tarpaulin) produced a more distinctive response with clearer target reflections over the duration of the monitoring period compared to naked carcasses. Months with increased precipitation were also found to produce clearer target reflections than drier months, particularly during Year 3 when many grave scenarios that were not previously visible became visible after increased seasonal rainfall. Overall, the 250 MHz dominant frequency antenna imagery was more favorable than the 500 MHz. While detection of a simulated grave may be difficult to detect over time, long term detection of a grave in a Spodosol may be possible if the disturbed spodic horizon is detected. Furthermore, while grave visibility increased with the 2D reflection profiles, particularly with the 250 MHz antenna, the combination of both imagery options is recommended when evaluating GPR data during a search for a clandestine grave.
... Current forensic search methods to detect both isolated and mass clandestine burials of murder victims are highly varied and have been reviewed elsewhere [18], with best practice suggesting a phased approach, moving from large-scale remote sensing methods [19] to ground reconnaissance and control studies before full searches are initiated [20]. These full searches have involved a variety of methods, including forensic geomorphology [21], forensic botany [22] and entomology [23], scent-trained search dogs [24,25], physical probing [26][27][28], thanatochemistry [29] and near-surface geophysics [30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37]. ...
... Other related studies also acknowledged the feasibility of these and some other geophysical methods for grave detection (Ellwood, 1990;Witten et al., 2001;Stanger and Roe, 2007;Frohlich and Lancaster, 1986;Bigman, 2012;Nobes, 2000;Ellwood et al., 1994;King et al., 1993;Powell, 2004;Ruffell, 2005). The following studies have also successfully detected graves or burial locations with other methods (Brilis et al., 2000(Brilis et al., , 2001Dickinson, 1976;Statheropoulos et al., 2011;Ruffell et al., 2009;Ruffell and McKinley, 2014;Killam, 2004;Dupras et al., 2006;Larson et al., 2011;Pringle et al., 2012). ...
A suspected old royal cemetery has been surveyed at the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) campus, Kumasi, Ghana using Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) with the objective of detecting graves in order to make informed decisions with regard to the future use of the area. The survey was conducted on a 10,000 m2 area. Continuous Vertical Electrical Sounding (CVES) was combined with the roll along technique for 51 profiles with 1 m probe separation separated by 2 m. Inverted data results indicated wide resistivity variations ranging between 9.34 Ωm and 600 Ωm in the near surface. Such heterogeneity suggests a disturbance of the soil at this level. Both high (≥ 600 Ωm) and low resistivity (≤ 74.7 Ωm) anomalies, relative to background levels, were identified within the first 4 m of the subsurface. These were suspected to be burial tombs because of their rectangular geometries and resistivity contrasts. The results were validated with forward numerical modelling results. The study area is therefore an old cemetery and should be preserved as a cultural heritage site.
... One key and high-profile "target" for forensic search teams to detect and locate is human remains buried within clandestine graves (1,5,12). These searches generally start from large-scale remote sensing methods (13,14), aerial and ultraviolet photography (10,15), thermal imaging (16), to ground-based observations of vegetation changes (4), surface geomorphology changes (17), soil type (1) and depositional environment(s) (10), near-surface geophysics (11), diggability surveys (1) and probing of anomalous areas (18,19) before topsoil removal (4), and finally controlled excavation and recovery (5,15,20). A typical search will only use a few of these techniques, depending on the circumstances of each case (C. ...
This ongoing monitoring study provides forensic search teams with systematic geophysical data over simulated clandestine graves for comparison to active cases. Simulated “wrapped,” “naked,” and “control” burials were created. Multiple geophysical surveys were collected over 6 years, here showing data from 4 to 6 years after burial. Electrical resistivity (twin electrode and ERI), multifrequency GPR, grave and background soil water were collected. Resistivity surveys revealed that the naked burial had low-resistivity anomalies up to year four but then difficult to image, whereas the wrapped burial had consistent large high-resistivity anomalies. GPR 110- to 900-MHz frequency surveys showed that the wrapped burial could be detected throughout, but the naked burial was either not detectable or poorly resolved. 225-MHz frequency GPR data were optimal. Soil water analyses showed decreasing (years 4 to 5) to background (year 6) conductivity values. Results suggest both resistivity and GPR surveying if burial style unknown, with winter to spring surveys optimal and increasingly important as time increases.
Corpus delicti, or body of evidence, is a fundamental to criminal prosecutions. This contribution takes a more literal perspective by exploring the ‘no-body murder'. Body disposal is not a single event; it is a complex process that dynamically responds to social and environmental circumstances. This contribution explores the legislative response to no-body murders through the Prisoners Act 2020 and presents six dimensions explaining non-disclosure of location of victim remains. Four high-profile no-body cases are presented, demonstrating the complexities inherent in searching for the long-term missing, presumed dead. This chapter focuses on the offender deposition strategy, the operational response, and environmental dimensions that explain prisoner non-disclosure and the failures to detect clandestine depositions.
Geographical Information System (GIS) is underutilized within the forensic discipline, especially concerning the discovery of clandestine graves. GIS, viewshed analysis, and probability maps are being introduced into desk‐based research both for archaeology and forensic purposes. This study aims to investigate how useful GIS can be to narrow down large search areas when locating clandestine graves. Combining GIS, viewshed analysis, and probability maps allows for the exploration of potential areas of concealment and diggability on Saddleworth Moor to find the remaining missing Moors victim, Keith Bennett. Methods included viewshed analysis consisting of what is visible and not visible from a certain location while the probability map registers the likelihood of penetrability across the Moors landscape. Using two GIS software programs, QGIS and ArcGIS Pro, maps were constructed examining the A635 on Saddleworth Moor and the potential location of Keith Bennett. This takes into consideration the geology, terrain, water networks, and road systems. Analysis of the GIS maps demonstrated that two possible areas were likely to be able to conceal Keith Bennett's body. It then aids to identify areas for further investigation. This study also indicates that GIS data analysis has the potential to aid in criminal and civil investigations and helps narrow down search areas to manageable sizes. Not only does it aid in cold case criminal investigations but it can also be utilized within everyday desk‐based research on recent investigations.
South Africa experienced since 2008 high escalations in rhinoceros poaching. It is essential to protect southern Africa’s heritage by developing/adapting new research methods and techniques that can assist prosecutors to improve their successes in achieving convictions. The paper aimed to investigate the use of forensic geomorphology in the context of a poached rhino to assist in the prosecution of suspected poachers in the absence of any DNA linkages. Two experimental study sites mimicked the aspects of the landscape in which rhinoceros normally occur. Trace evidence was removed from the suspects that moved through the landscape in order to verify if any significant similarities could be identified against control samples collected at poaching sites and at locations based on the terrain utilized by the poachers during the simulated poaching incident. The paper concluded that a linkage could be recognized between the selected landscape and the collected trace evidence. The results indicate that the first experimental study site illustrated a definite linkage between the suspects and the poaching site, whereas the second experimental study site suggested that there was a possibility that a linkage could be made. This study only used inorganic material such as sand grains to link suspects to scenes.
In most Latin American countries there are significant numbers of both missing people and forced disappearances, c. 84 000 alone in Colombia. Successful detection of buried human remains by forensic search teams can be difficult in varying terrain and climates. This paper reports on the geophysical and botanical monitoring of simulated clandestine graves in two different environments over 24 months to establish optimal detection methods and equipment configurations. Twelve clandestine burials were simulated at three different burial depths (0.5, 0.8 and 1.2 m) commonly encountered in Latin America. The simulated targets were three pig carcasses, three human skeletons, three graves with burnt human beheaded skeletons and finally three empty graves to act as control. Geophysical detection methods included ground-penetrating radar, magnetic susceptibility, bulk ground conductivity and electrical resistivity. Geophysical results showed that apparent electrical resistivity was optimal to detect targets (85% success) in semi-rural areas and ground-penetrating radar was optimal to detect targets (92%) in tropical rainforest areas, followed by magnetic susceptibility and bulk ground conductivity. Botanical results evidenced variations in both study sites, which should be noted by forensic search investigators, with rapid growth of Raphanus in the tropical rainforest graves and Malvaceae and Petiveria in the rural study site. This paper shows the importance of conducting long-term controlled studies to assist forensic search teams with expected results and optimum equipment configuration(s).
Electrical resistivity and self-potential are effective geophysical tools for monitoring the soil and groundwater pollution because they are accurate, rapid, costless and non-distractive techniques. Direct or indirect burying of the corpses into the soil is one of the main factors which pollute the soil and the groundwater after decomposition of the tissues and bones. Therefore, the main objective of this study are using these tools to evaluate the rate of soil and groundwater pollution due to burying the corpses in chipboard coffins at depths approximately 0.70–1.30 m (Christians burial method) and directly into the soil at depths about 1.5–1.8 m (Muslims burial method). Beside, assessing the contamination depths and flow paths of the groundwater investigated area. The study area was carefully chosen because of: 1- it contains two different burial methods, 2- presence of shallow groundwater aquifer, 3- the surface layer which contains the burial depth is porous and permeable, 4- the cemeteries are near enough to the population density and agricultural lands. The study area was divided to three main sites; site 1, site 2 and site 3 for Christian cemeteries, Muslims ones and control area that does not contains any cemeteries respectively. Five two-dimensional electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) profiles were surveyed and analyzed using RES2DINV software (two profiles on the site 1, two profiles on the site 2 and one profile on the site 3). 121 points of vertical electrical sounding (VES) at the same depth were collected and analyzed in 3D iso-resistivity map. Self-potential survey (SP) were performed on the same 121 points of VES stations for comparison where the data was contoured to build 3D iso-potential map. The geophysical results were correlated with the available borehole data. The results revealed presence of three resistivity zones of high resistivities (1000–3000 Ω m), moderate ones (50–1000 Ω m) and low ones (<50 Ω m). The main constituents of these three zones are clastic sedimentary rocks with different grain sizes. The rapid decreasing in the resistivity values in the site 2 than that in the site 1 is resulting from the rapid decomposition of the death bodies due to direct burying in the ground without coffins leading to more pollution rates of the soil and the groundwater than burying in coffins. Increasing of the burial depth causes increasing of the contamination rate of the shallow groundwater aquifer. Positive and negative values of potentials were recorded in 3D iso-potential contour map reflecting the flow direction from low to high potentials. The negative values were attributed to the leakage of more the putrefactive liquid resulting from decomposition of the death body. Positive potential values were caused due to the semi-fluid masses consisting of water and putrefied tissues which are mostly generated by the corpses buried in coffins with less amount of fluids and the putrefactive liquid evaporation and low humidity.
Finding hidden bodies, believed to have been murdered and buried, is problematic, expensive in terms of human resource and currently has low success rates for law enforcement agencies. Here we present, for the first time, ten years of multidisciplinary geophysical monitoring of simulated clandestine graves using animal analogues. Results will provide forensic search teams with crucial information on optimal detection techniques, equipment configuration and datasets for comparison to active and unsolved cold case searches. Electrical Resistivity (ER) surveys showed a naked burial produced large, low-resistivity anomalies for up to four years, but then the body became difficult to image. A wrapped burial had consistent small, high-resistivity anomalies for four years, then large high-resistivity anomalies until the survey period end. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) 110–900 MHz surveys showed the wrapped burial could be detected throughout. 225 MHz GPR data was optimal, but the naked burial was poorly imaged after six years. Results suggested conducting both ER and GPR surveys if the burial style was unknown when searching for interred remains. Surveys in winter and spring produced the best datasets, and, as post-burial time increases, surveying in these seasons became increasingly important. This multidisciplinary study provides critical new insights for law enforcement and families of the disappeared worldwide.
This article presents the conceptual foundations for the formation of a new research field “Judicial Geography”, including the prerequisites for its creation, academic, and theoretical development, both in Russia and abroad. The purpose of the study is to study the possibility of applying geographical methods and means in criminal law, criminal procedure, and in judicial activity in general via the academic direction “Judicial Geography”. The author describes in detail the main elements of judicial geography and its role and significance for such legal sciences, as criminal law, criminal procedure, criminalistics, and criminology among others. The employed research methods allow showing the main vectors of the development of judicial geography, taking into account the previous achievements of Russian and worldwide academics. The author indicates the role and place of judicial geography in the system of legal sciences. This study suggests a concept of using scientific geographical methods in the study of various legal phenomena of a criminal and criminal-procedural nature when considering the idea of building judicial bodies and judicial instances, taking into account geographical and climatic factors. In this regard, the author advises to introduce the special course “Judicial Geography”, which would allow law students to study the specifics of the activities of the judiciary and preliminary investigation authorities from a geographical point of view, as well as to use various geographical methods, including the mapping method, in educational and practical activities. The author concludes that forensic geography may become a new milestone for subsequent scientific research in geography and jurisprudence.
Thermal imaging is commonly used by forensic search investigators to locate missing persons, but there is little research on it’s actual effectiveness to detect individuals after death. This paper aims to answer fundamental questions on how long thermal imaging is effective to detect a body lying on the surface and when is the optimal time in a day to survey. A simulated murder victim, using a freshly dispatched pig (Sus scrofa) carcass, was left on the soil surface of a test site and imaged three times a day over a 61-day study period. Images were quantitatively analysed to determine what the relative thermal response the cadaver had with respect to background values, with results corrected for daily temperature (ADD) and decomposition rate (TBS scores). Results evidenced the surface cadaver could be detectable throughout the 61 day study period, but there were differences depending on when the survey was conducted during the day. Morning surveys were found to be optimal up to 10 days PMI (0-90 ADD), evening/dusk surveys optimal from 10 to 40 days PMI (90-400 ADD), midday surveys optimal from 40 to 50 days PMI (400-530 ADD) and then evening surveys to the end of the 61-day (400-680 ADD) study period. Implications suggest that thermal imaging is recommended to detect missing persons even after death and surveys should be undertaken at specific time periods during the day to improve search detection success if PMI can be estimated.
Crime reconstruction takes place in a complex ecosystem and needs to be responsive to the context of each case. For accurate, reproducible and transparent crime reconstructions to take place, a holistic approach is needed that considers the different stakeholders, different types of trace material, integral human decision‐making and interconnected nature of the forensic science process. For robust reconstruction, there needs to be a consideration of both the distinctive types of trace material that can contribute to the reconstruction, and an understanding of the interplay of human decision‐making within reconstruction approaches. In addition, it is also necessary to consider source attribution of a trace material in addition to the activities that led to the generation, identification, transfer, and persistence of the trace. This requires explicit and tacit forms of knowledge, and an incorporation of the inherent uncertainty and risk in the reconstruction approach. The communication of conclusions reached in a crime reconstruction that address what the evidence means is also an important consideration given the different requirements of intelligence and evidence. Therefore, undertaking a crime reconstruction within a holistic framework that seeks to incorporate the complexity of the forensic science ecosystem is valuable for achieving a problem solving approach that offers reproducible, transparent reconstructions with a clear articulation of risk and uncertainty that can be of value to investigators and the courts.
This article is categorized under:
• Forensic Science in Action/Crime Scene Investigation > Crime Scene Reconstruction
• Forensic Science in Action/Crime Scene Investigation > From Traces to Intelligence and Evidence
The assault on D-day by Easy Company of the 101st Airborne Corps on a German howitzer battery at Brecourt Manor (Normandy) that was firing upon Utah Beach is a famous action of World War 2. Understanding the firefight and disablement of the guns depends on where the four howitzers and crew were located. Three of the locations are unequivocal, with post-WW2 accounts and the search described here in agreement. One Howitzer position (the northernmost of the four) remains in contention, with two different positions described. A geoforensic search strategy (desktop study, geophysics, excavation) was deployed that shows strong evidence for the location of the debated fourth gun, together with aerial photographic and military tactical evidence for why this fourth Howitzer was moved to a second location close to D-day.
Soil horizons within stratigraphic sequences document periods of stability on which people lived and performed other activities. These important geoarchaeological units can be identified in GPR reflection profiles and traced across ancient landscapes to provide important spatial information about now buried environments. Swamps and peat bogs are fresh water environments where radar energy can often penetrate deeply to produce images of thick sequences of clastic and organic material. Changes in these wetland environments can be identified with GPR as they often began as lakes and springs, filled in with organic matter and were finally transformed into swamps and bogs. Human habitations visible with GPR within these environments can consist of platforms for living and work activities.
In homicide investigations, it is critically important that postmortem interval and postburial interval (PBI) of buried victims are determined accurately. However, clandestine graves can be difficult to locate; and the detection rates for a variety of search methods (ranging from simple ground probing through to remote imaging and near-surface geophysics) can be very low. In this study, simulated graves of homicide victims were emplaced in three sites with contrasting soil types, bedrock, and depositional environments. The long-term monthly in situ monitoring of grave soil water revealed rapid increases in conductivity up to 2 years after burial, with the longest study evidencing declining values to background levels after 4.25 years. Results were corrected for site temperatures and rainfall to produce generic models of fluid conductivity as a function of time. The research suggests soilwater conductivity can give reliable PBI estimates for clandestine burials and therefore be used as a grave detection method.
© 2015 American Academy of Forensic Sciences.
Problem statement In post-disaster situations, it is often necessary to undertake rapid visual site reconnaissance to characterise patterns of damage and identify reconstruction opportunities and constraints. Rapid visual site analysis can occur over a period of hours to days rather than weeks to months. The time constraint is often necessary to assess the viability of initial reconstruction scenarios and help broaden the range of choice among site planning options. Rapid assessment can also minimise the use of scarce local post-disaster resources during the initial reconnaissance phases of planning. Because it involves visual methods rather than equipment-intensive survey techniques, it serves as an initial scoping of alternatives. It may follow emergency shelter response planning methods (for example, Sphere Project, 2011, ch 4) and be followed by more comprehensive site mapping and screening. This action–research project reviews the literature on post-disaster site analysis with an emphasis on the tsunami-affected area of north-eastern Japan. Because research on rapid visual site analysis in post-disaster contexts is limited, we combined field-based site analysis methods, adapted for post-disaster planning, with visual methods for assessing seismic and tsunami hazards.
The Gallipoli Campaign of 1915 was one of the most strategically significant theatres during the Great War of 1914-1918. The land campaign followed the failure of the naval expedition which was intended to force the Dardanelles by sea power alone, silencing the Turkish forts on the narrows and forcing entry to the Sea of Marmara and ultimately to Constantinople (Istanbul). This paper examines the impact of terrain on the outcome of the land campaign. A land system analysis of the Gallipoli Peninsula was carried out, and five land systems, based on aspects of geology, geomorphology, hydrogeology and vegetation, were identified. The landings of 25 April 1915 were made at Cape Helles and Anzac Cove, with objectives to capture the high ground. The land system analysis demonstrates that these landing places were disadvantaged by terrain, with steep, deeply-incised slopes, narrow beaches and inadequate water supplies. A later landing at Suvla Bay in August 1915 had more terrain advantages, with wide landing beaches and locally available water supplies, but the tactical advantages of a lightly held terrain were not exploited. Overall, the Gallipoli Campaign failed primarily because of: inadequate planning and leadership by the Allied forces; poor communications; the efficiency of the Turkish armies in the siting of defensive positions according to terrain; the lack of detailed information with regard to terrain and geology available to the British and ANZAC troops; and a paucity of locally-derived groundwater supplies.
Mass graves in both an international and domestic setting often present a difficult, time-consuming and complicated detection problem. Historically, witness testimony has been relied upon to determine location. Other detection methods such as geophysical resistivity, magnetometry and ground penetrating radar may be, and have been, employed for the detection of graves with some success. However, these methods require that the grave locale is known fairly precisely and that personnel can physically walk the grave site to undertake data collection. Remote sensing (i.e. airborne and satellite imagery) is a detection tool that can be used to search larger geographical areas without placing investigative personnel at risk. Hyperspectral imagery acquired from aircraft or satellite provides over a hundred layers (bands) of data that can be selectively examined and analyzed to detect subtle changes in the reflectance spectra of the surface. Work presented here indicates, from an ongoing long-term experimental mass grave and an actual mass grave site, that remote sensing is a powerful detection tool, one which has the capacity to discriminate a mass grave from its surroundings in real-time or in certain cases even retrospectively.
The Western Front was the most important theatre of war during the 1914-1918 world conflict. In particular, the Somme-Flanders lowland was not only of great strategic importance, but was also associated in Britain and its Empire with some of the most costly battles of the war. Battlefield terrain played an important part in determining the character and outcome of many of these engagements. The Somme region consists of a rolling chalk upland, while Flanders is a clay plain composed of Palaeogene clays with occasional sand units. Within both these areas, the occurrence of low (< 150 metres) hills and ridges provided the focus for many of the most famous attritional battles of the Western Front, as each side fought to gain the strategic advantage provided by the high ground. Despite a range of historical studies documenting the impact of geology on trench construction, water supply, tunnelling and the availability of aggregates, few have considered terrain as a whole in influencing the outcome of battles in the Somme-Flanders area. This paper assesses the influence and tactical importance of terrain in the British area of operations on the Western Front.
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) blooms in water bodies present serious public health issues with attendant economic and ecological impacts. Llyn Tegid (Lake Bala) is an important conservation and amenity asset within Snowdonia National Park, Wales which since the mid-1990s has experienced multiple toxic cyanobacteria blooms threatening the ecology and tourism-dependent local economy. Multiple working hypotheses explain the emergence of this problem, including climate change, land management linked to increased nutrient flux, hydromorphological alterations or changing trophic structure - any of which may operate individually or cumulatively to impair lake function. This paper reports the findings of a sediment fingerprinting study using dated lake cores to explore the linkages between catchment and lake management practices and the emergence of the algal blooms problem. Since 1900 AD lake bed sedimentation rates have varied from 0.06 to 1.07 g cm−2 yr−1, with a pronounced acceleration since the early 1980s. Geochemical analysis revealed increases in the concentrations of total phosphorus (TP), calcium and heavy metals such as zinc and lead consistent with eutrophication and a rising pollution burden, particularly since the late 1970s. An uncertainty-inclusive sediment fingerprinting approach was used to apportion the relative fluxes from the major catchment land cover types of improved pasture, rough grazing, forestry and channel banks. This showed improved pasture and channel banks are the dominant diffuse sources of sediment in the catchment, though forestry sources were important historically. Conversion of rough grazing to improved grassland, coupled with intensified land management and year-round livestock grazing, is concluded to provide the principal source of rising TP levels. Lake Habitat Survey and particle size analysis of lake cores demonstrate the hydromorphological impact of the River Dee Regulation Scheme, which controls water level and periodically diverts flow into Llyn Tegid from the adjacent Afon Tryweryn catchment. This hydromorphological impact has also been most pronounced since the late 1970s. It is concluded that an integrated approach combining land management to reduce agricultural runoff allied to improved water level regulation enabling recovery of littoral macrophytes offers the greatest chance halting the on-going cyanobacteria issue in Llyn Tegid.
Nine sediment samples from Filippos B port, Kavala, northern Greece, were collected and analyzed for their content of 42 elements. The results indicate that both major and trace elements can be divided into two groups according to their anthropogenic source. The first group includes Al, Cl, Fe, K, Mg, Na, P, S, Ag, As, Cd, Ce, Hg, La, Mo, Pb, Sb, Se, U, and Y, which come from a phosphoric fertilizer industry, while the rest of the elements (B, Ba, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Ga, Ge, Li, Mn, Ni, Rb, Sn, Th, Ti, V,W, Zn, and Zr) belong to the second group and can be traced to the other local industrial activities, as well. Bivariate analysis indicated that among the elements within each group high positive correlation coefficients exist.
Abstract Forensic soil science represents a newly-developed discipline of soil science, and has matured to the extent that
well-defined questions and successful crime scene investigations can be answered in increasingly refined ways. This chapter
considers two case studies and highlights the kinds of investigations that have been carried out on complex soil materials
from shoes, vehicles and crime scenes by the Centre for Australian Forensic Soil Science (CAFSS). The two case examples are
described in ways that show parallel approaches to more recent types of case investigations where soils as evidence are being
applied with more certainty in criminal and environmental investigations. The history of forensic soil science and the importance
of pedology and soil mineralogy are also briefly reviewed from a world perspective. The significance and relevance of established
concepts and standard terminologies used in soil science but especially in pedology with practical relevance to forensic science
are discussed. The systematic forensic soil examination approach described in this paper uses soil morphology (e.g. colour,
consistency, texture and structure), mineralogy (X-ray powder diffraction) and chemistry (e.g. based primarily upon mid-infrared
spectroscopy/diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform (DRIFT) analyses). Forensic soil characterisation usually combines
the descriptive and analytical steps for rapid characterisation of whole soil samples for screening, and detailed characterisation
and quantification of composite and individual soil particles after sample selection, size fractionation and detailed mineralogical
and organic matter analyses using advanced analytical methods. X-ray powder diffraction methods are arguably the most significant
for both qualitative and quantitative analyses of solid materials in forensic soil science. The two crime scene examples described
in this paper use combined pedological (including field investigations), mineralogical and spectroscopic methods in the forensic
comparison of small amounts of soil adhering to a suspect's shoe and carpet in a vehicle boot with control soil specimens.
These case examples illustrate that forensic soil examination can be very complex because of the vast diversity and heterogeneity
of soil samples. The interpretation of soil forensic tests and methods is not equally applicable to all soils, and should
also be made in the context of the forensic soil examination (e.g. the sieving of large amounts of stone and gravel from ASS
samples to obtain a more representative sample to make comparisons).
Geographical information systems (GIS), recognised as instrumental in the documentation, mapping and analysis of spatial crime data, can provide a framework for the integration and analysis of spatial data whether remotely generated on a regional scale, ground surveyed or sampled on a local scale at a crime scene. In this paper a missing person homicide case study is discussed to illustrate the role of spatial thinking in search methodologies and the application of GIS and spatial analysis techniques.
Differential global positioning systems were used to collect data from an area of mixed moorland, bog and agricultural ground in the west of Ireland where police intelligence suggested human remains may have been hidden by a murderer. These data allowed the creation of a digital terrain model (DTM) at a resolution not achieved by conventional terrain mapping. The resultant topographic maps and 3D visualisations allowed a sector, or topographic domain, approach to be used at a scale finer than
usual in geomorphology. This in turn allowed small water catchments to be defined. These data informed the sampling of shallow groundwater for carbon content and isotope analysis. Two anomalies were indicated, in places consistent with known criminal behaviour. The locations were surveyed by a ground penetrating radar system, and by a cadaver dog. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) failed to indicate any subsurface disturbance or grave, yet the cadaver dog indicated a point of interest close to the location of one anomaly identified from groundwater sampling. Further searching near this location failed to discover human remains, yet the isotope, topography and dog indications showed that some anomaly existed. This finding may be a false-positive, the result of previous excavation activity or that the remains had ‘returned to earth’, in the light of the missing person never having been found. Regardless, the spatial search methodology described is an innovative combination of new technology, traditional landscape interpretation and hydrological chemical analysis. Adaptation, testing and use of this protocol for similar searches are recommended. The approach also has broader application to environmental, humanitarian and military investigations.
The analyses of 738 soil and sediment samples taken during the investigation of 20 forensic cases are combined in a database for retrospective comparisons. Quartz sand grain surface textures are combined into grain types which are analysed at one of five orders of classification. This classification also provides frequency data on the number of grain types found in a sample, the individuality of the quartz grain type assemblages and quartz grain type ratios. The technique, developed primarily as an exclusion mechanism, suggests possibilities, in some circumstances, that significant interpretations can be achieved at different orders of classification. The technique provides excellent exclusionary results and, when combined with other independent lines of analysis, is a powerful tool in forensic interpretation because it uses quartz as its discriminatory mineral. The technique also highlights the potential for computer image recognition analysis.
This book contains a selection of papers from the International Military Geology and Geography Conference, held at the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, New York in June 2003. Studies in Military Geography and Geology expands a series of recent publications originating from conferences and symposia on military geology that began in 1994. The 25 contributions address a broad range of military topics ranging from the strategic perspective, through analyses of historical battles at the operational and tactical levels, to the use of advanced technologies applied to present-day military problems.
Terrain has a profound effect upon the strategy and tactics of any military engagement and has consequently played an important role in determining history. In addition, the landscapes of battle, and the geology which underlies them, has helped shape the cultural iconography of battle certainly within the 20th century. In the last few years this has become a fertile topic of scientific and historical exploration and has given rise to a number of conferences and books. The current volume stems from the international Terrain in Military History conference held in association with the Imperial War Museum, London and the Royal Engineers Museum, Chatham, at the University of Greenwich in January 2000. This conference brought together historians, geologists, military enthusiasts and terrain analysts from military, academic and amateur backgrounds with the aim of exploring the application of modem tools of landscape visualisation to understanding historical battlefields. This theme was the subject of a Leverhulme Trust grant (F/345/E) awarded to the University of Greenwich and administered by us in 1998, which aimed to use the tools of modem landscape visualisation in understanding the influence of terrain in the First World War. This volume forms part of the output from this grant and is part of our wider exploration of the role of terrain in military history. Many individuals contributed to the organisation of the original conference and to the production of this volume.
There is no empirical research on solvability factors in murder investigations. This paper analyzes data collected in the first study to provide such, focusing specifically on the extent to which information on time and distance among locations of a murder incident are related to solvability. The results show that the more information on the times and distances separating where the victim was last seen, the location of the original contact between the victim and the killer, where the initial assault occurred, the murder site, and the body recovery site the more likely a murder case will be solved. These findings have profound implications for the management and conduction of murder investigations.
Forensic soil science, as a developing discipline of soil science, has matured to the extent that well-defined questions and crime scene investigations are being addressed in increasingly refined ways to assist both law enforcement and environmental agencies. Natural soil and human-made soil materials (e.g., bricks) are being used in forensic investigations to associate a soil sample taken from an item, such as clothing with a specific location. Soil forensic investigation usually involves collection of one or more soil samples followed by soil characterization. Collected samples are categorized as (1) questioned soil samples whose origin is unknown or disputed (suspect or victim), (2) control samples whose origin is known (crime scene), and (3) alibi samples whose origin is known and that provide a measure of the uniqueness of the questioned and control samples. Soil characterization often requires the following four-stage approach, which combines descriptive, analytical, and spatial information: (1) Initial characterization for screening of samples involving morphological descriptions. (2) Semi-detailed characterization involving semi-quantification of minerals and organic matter following sample selection and size fractionation (<50 μm). (3) Detailed characterization and quantification of minerals and organic matter using advanced analytical methods. (4) Integration and extrapolation of soil information from one scale to next, to build a coherent model of soil information from microscopic observations to the landscape scale, which often involves soil/geological maps and geophysics. Progression of a soil forensic examination through each of the four stages will depend on the amount of sample available and the results from the early stages of the examination. The significance and relevance of established concepts and standard terminologies used in soil science and geology with practical relevance to forensic science are emphasized.
Scale and spatial resolutionSampling for geological materials at urban and non-urban crime scenesTiming of the crimeSample sizeLateral variationUse and misuse of statistics in forensic studiesStatistical samplingNumber of samples required for robust statistical analysisComparing ‘like with like’Addressing the issue of comparing related materialSpatial and temporal variability in natureSpatial awareness and use of spatial statistics: application of geostatisticsGeostatistical techniquesGIS and geostatistics
Forensic investigations concern locating, identifying, collecting, and cataloging physical evidence for the purpose of presenting it in court. One aspect of forensic investigation concerns locating clandestine evidence which is often concealed in the subsurface. This task is typically guided by information provided by informants (pathological liars), witnesses, psychics, and sometimes suspects. Resultant searches may be time consuming and frustrating to understaffed departments. Often such searches lead to excavations that destroy evidence. Any nondestructive method used to reduce the time spent on searches and excavations and to increase the probability of locating physical evidence are of prime interest to the law enforcement community. Remote sensing methods, which are nondestructive, are currently being applied with promising results in forensic investigations. Some of the more promising methods, including infrared, magnetics, electromagnetics, and ground penetrating radar are discussed. Remote sensing methods when properly applied can provide the forensic investigator tremendous savings in time and cost in the search for physical evidence. The forensic investigator must be educated to understand that there is no remote sensing method that will consistently find a body or physical evidence. These methods locate anomalous areas, and the cause of these anomalies will only be fully understood upon examination by others.
During the American War of Independence (1775-83), the Hudson Highlands were a focus of military activity as both the Continental and British forces struggled to gain control of the Hudson River. Continental and British commanders alike recognized the strategic importance of the waterway as a major thoroughfare into the interior of the Colonies, as a vital link between New England and the Middle-Atlantic, and as the major connector between New York harbor and Canada. West Point was regarded as the most decisive locale throughout the entire Hudson Valley because of its commanding position along the banks of the river. This paper is an example of historical military geography that focuses on understanding how the physical geography of the region influenced military decisions and activities.
A multidisciplinary team that is comprised of professionals from industry, academia, and law enforcement who are studying methods to locate clandestine graves has been formed in Colorado. This article describes this team, research conducted, and preliminary results directed toward identifying the most effective means of locating buried bodies.
Radioactive fallout 137Cs (cesium-137) deposited across the landscape from atmospheric nuclear tests is strongly absorbed on soil particles limiting its movement by chemical and biological processes. Most 137Cs movement in the environment is by physical processes; therefor, 137Cs is a unique tracer for studying erosion and sedimentation. Cesium-137 loss from a watershed has been shown to correlate strongly with soil loss calcualted by the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) or measured from small runoff plates. By measuring spatial patterns of 137Cs in vertical and horizontal planes across the landscape, rates of soil loss or deposition can be measured for different parts of a watershed. Even within landscape units, redistribution of soil can be mapped and erosion or deposition rates for different parts of individual fields measured and mapped. Sediment accumulation rates can be measured by comparing the vertical distribution of 137Cs in sediments with the temporal deposition of fallout 137Cs from the atmosphere to locate sediment horizons. Using these dated sediment horizons, sediment accumultion rates can be measured. Interpretations about the location of these dated horizons must consider particle size of the sediments, reworking of deposited sediments, diffusional movement of 137Cs, and time rates of physical process in the sedimentation process. The 137Cs technique can be used to determine sediment accumulation rates in a wide variety of depositional environments including reservoirs, lakes, wetlands, coastal areas, and floodplains. The bibliography shows that 137Cs has been used widely for studying erosion and sedimentation in many different environments around the world.
Geoscience methods are increasingly being utilised in criminal, environmental and humanitarian forensic investigations, and the use of such methods is supported by a growing body of experimental and theoretical research. Geoscience search techniques can complement traditional methodologies in the search for buried objects, including clandestine graves, weapons, explosives, drugs, illegal weapons, hazardous waste and vehicles. This paper details recent advances in search and detection methods, with case studies and reviews. Relevant examples are given, together with a generalised workflow for search and suggested detection technique(s) table. Forensic geoscience techniques are continuing to rapidly evolve to assist search investigators to detect hitherto difficult to locate forensic targets.
Sediment fingerprinting is an approach for the quantitative determination of sediment provenance (both spatial sources and types of sediment supply) over a range of temporal and spatial scales. Though widely adopted, studies often vary in their attention to the underlying assumptions and in their treatment of modelling uncertainty. A Bayesian approach to the multivariate problem of 'unmixing' sediment sources is reported, showing the significance of source group variability and source group sampling density to the accuracy of model output. The model produces results as median source group contributory coefficients (and associated 95% quantiles). The model was applied to environmental data obtained from selected soil erosion studies reported within the peer-reviewed literature. Good correspondence (r2 -0.89) between reported mean source group contributory coefficients and median values were found when recalculated using the Bayesian analysis. However, confidence levels are highly variable, ranging from 2% to 97%. The robustness of any unmixing solution depends on factors such as the number of samples, the number of source groups and the variance of source group properties. It is concluded that 'forensic-style' investigations must recognize these uncertainties and be appropriately resourced to achieve tolerable accuracy and precision. The discussion considers additional confounding factors such as non-conservative tracer behaviour and enrichment/depletion during the sediment delivery process.
This is the second part of a two-part discussion, in which we will provide an overview of the use of GIS and GPS in environmental analysis and enforcement. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) describes a system which manages, analyses and displays geographic information. Environmental applications include analysis of source, extent and transport of contaminants, nonpoint runoff modeling, flood control, and emergency response support. The ability to examine spatial relationships between environmental observations and other mapped and historical information, and to communicate these relationships to others, makes GIS valuable in environmental forensics. The US Environmental Protection Agency currently requires the inclusion of locational information with all other environmental data that is collected. Geographic Information Systems is a complex tool that requires careful planning and design to be successfully implemented. Choices in hardware, software and data development must be based on evaluation of project objectives, analytical requirements, data availability and data development considerations. Data sets must be evaluated and documented with metadata. The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based system which provides highly accurate, three-dimensional position information anywhere on the earth's surface. Using portable radio receivers, field analysts can easily record the positions of spill sites, sampling locations and other environmental features. Spatial accuracy of GPS ranges from 20-30 m (single receiver) to 1-5 m (differential GPS) for navigation-grade instruments, and down to millimeter level accuracy for geodetic units. Global Position Systems can be used not only to capture spatial information into a GIS system, but also to evaluate and quantify the spatial accuracy of existing digital map data, and to provide control points for existing aerial photographs and other remotely-sensed data.
One of the most problematic aspects of predatory violent crime is the volume of tips and suspects generated through their investigation. Traditional police methods are not always sufficient and detectives need alternative tactics to assist them in these types of cases. Geographic profiling, a strategic information management system designed to support investigative efforts in cases of serial murder, rape and arson, is one such approach. Other topics discussed include: introduction; investigative difficulties; geographic profiling; and conclusion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Historically police searches for homicide victims' graves have been undertaken by the use of large numbers of police, military
and public volunteers, conducting visual or manual probe line searches covering formalised gridded sectored areas. Speculative
digging of large areas of ground has also been employed with variable success. Mineral exploration geologists, engineering
geologists and geohazards specialists traditionally investigate the ground using a range of methods and techniques. Before
such ground investigations are undertaken, a conceptual geological model of the ground is developed. This provides information
on, for example: tectonic setting, stratigraphy, lithology, structure, hydrogeology, hydrology, groundwater, hydrochemistry,
superficial deposits, principal soil types, depth to bedrock, nature of bedrock interface, engineering and physical properties
of the ground, geomorphological processes, mining, past land use, current land use, geological hazards and man's influences.
In a similar way, the properties of a buried or concealed body may also be determined and how in particular these have influenced
the geology. This provides estimates of the target's age, size, and geometry, expected depth of burial, time and duration
of burial, state of preservation or decomposition, physical, chemical, hydrogeological and geotechnical variations compared
to the surrounding ground. An understating of the undisturbed (pre-burial) and disturbed (post-burial) geology and the target
(body and associated objects) properties are crucial before the correct search strategy and choice of instrumentation may
be decided, and the optimum method of deployment identified. These may include geophysics, geochemistry, satellite imagery,
air photo interpretation and invasive methods (such as auguring, drilling, trial pitting and trenching). Geological investigative
techniques are applicable to law enforcement searches, since the underlying search philosophy, concepts and principles are
similar. That is, there is a buried/ concealed ‘object’ or ‘target’ desirable to be found. The most important services a geologist
can give the police and a law enforcement search strategist are: the production of a geological model of a potential grave
site, an understanding of the geological and geomorphological processes, the characterisation and understanding of the origin,
source and properties of the soils, rocks and target (body), and a choice of detecting methods. For the geologist (and other
subject matter experts) to be effectively incorporated into a search team, he/she must be an effective communicator of complex
geological (scientific) terminology, recognise the limitations of his/ her skills and capabilities and be aware of the boundaries
and interface with other subject matter forensic experts. The principal objective of this chapter is to describe the effective
and efficient processes to locate concealed victims of homicide. It also seeks to show how the combined skills and expertise
of law enforcement and geoforensic search specialists enable the ground in the vicinity of homicide graves to be better understood
and more professionally searched.
We now have a confusing set of five commonly used terms for the application of Earth evidence in forensic science. This confusion is resulting in Earth scientists who use these methods mentioning different terms, sometimes for the same type of study. Likewise, forensic scientists, police/law enforcement officers and those employed by courts of law are becoming confused as to what each term means. A nomenclatural framework (based on the first use of each term) is proposed to encourage consistency in the use of terminology. Generally, the number of Earth science applications has grown through time, from soil and sediment analysis to remote sensing and GIS. The issue of where forensic biology and microbiology sits with these uses of Earth evidence is considered.
This is the second report on an ongoing study conducted to collect data on the decompositional rates of human cadavers and the first on buried cadavers. Six unembalmed human cadavers were buried separately in unlined trenches of various depths and allowed to naturally decompose for a time period ranging from a month to a year. During the period of burial, data were collected daily on the air, soil, and cadaver temperature at each burial site. At the end of each specified burial period the cadavers were exhumed and examined for the degree of decomposition which had taken place as well as changes in the soil pH, surface vegetation, and carrion insect activity. Analysis of the data shows that the decomposition rate of buried cadavers is highly dependent on the depth of burial and environmental temperatures. The depth at which the cadaver was buried also directly affected the degree of soil and vegetational changes as well as access by carrion insects. Application of this information can contribute to a more accurate estimation of time since death of a buried corpse and may aid in the location of such corpses.
The systematic exhumation of mass graves is becoming a frequent occurrence globally. Historically, it has been mostly anthropologists with their particular expertise in osteology that have been engaged by non-governmental organizations (NGO) to monitor mass grave exhumations and postmortem examinations, conducted by a host country or international forensic team, to ensure competence and a concern for justice. The excavation of graves and examination of their contents for the purposes of personal identification of victims and/or collection of evidence for prosecution require the creation of standards that meet international concerns for forensic investigation of the highest quality. However, many anthropologists are not experienced with large sites; do not have much, if any, expertise in archaeology; and are not equipped by training to assess the quality of a forensic pathologist's autopsy. This contribution is directed to both the NGO and the bio-archaeologist who are involved in the exhumation of mass graves. The experience and skills appropriate for the bio-archaeological monitor are outlined; similarly, the policies and standard operating procedures (SOP's) of the NGO that will enable the bio-archaeologist to perform their task are detailed. It is becoming increasingly clear that how a grave site was created, filled, and concealed, along with subsequent processes of site formation (e.g. slumping, robbing, animal scavenging and taphonomic alteration), require the expertise of a forensic archaeologist to discover and record site complexity along with associated forensic evidence. Similarly, the bodies themselves which are often skeletonized, fragmented and commingled pose challenges for the anthropologists and pathologists whose postmortem examinations must be critically evaluated. A model protocol for observations to make at the site as well as at the mortuary facility is provided to guide the monitor and to provide a structure for reports which are of standardized content suitable for international agencies concerned with mass grave investigation.
In situ gamma spectrometry was introduced as part of a national soil and herbage pollution survey of the United Kingdom (UK) in 2002, to evaluate its potential for complimenting or even replacing the conventional soil sampling approach in environmental monitoring. A total of 128 points were measured across the whole of the UK on a 50-km grid, including 11 calibration sites, encompassing a complete spectrum of soil types, geology and depositional environments. Good comparisons are demonstrated between in situ and soil sample derived estimates of environmental radioactivity from spatially matched sampling plans. Air kerma results and the contributions to air kerma rate are also presented and compared with calibrated conventional single parameter GM based instruments. The preliminary results are presented here and show that in situ gamma spectrometry provides a rapid and robust approach, providing spatially integrated estimates for environmental monitoring purposes.
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