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Citation: Sandhu, A.K.; Islam, M.;
Edirisinghe, I.; Burton-Freeman, B.
Phytochemical Composition and
Health Benefits of Figs (Fresh and
Dried): A Review of Literature from
2000 to 2022. Nutrients 2023,15, 2623.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15112623
Academic Editor: Giovanna
Giovinazzo
Received: 28 April 2023
Revised: 26 May 2023
Accepted: 31 May 2023
Published: 3 June 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
nutrients
Review
Phytochemical Composition and Health Benefits of Figs (Fresh
and Dried): A Review of Literature from 2000 to 2022
Amandeep K. Sandhu, Maria Islam , Indika Edirisinghe and Britt Burton-Freeman *
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Center for Nutrition Research, Institute for Food Safety and Health,
Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616, USA; asandhu2@iit.edu (A.K.S.); mislam17@hawk.iit.edu (M.I.);
iedirisi@iit.edu (I.E.)
*Correspondence: bburton@iit.edu; Tel.: +1-708-341-7078
Abstract:
With their rich history dating back 6000 years, figs are one of the oldest known plants to
mankind and are a classical fruit in the Mediterranean diet. They possess a diverse array of bioactive
components, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, and tocopherols, which have been
used for centuries in traditional medicine for their health-promoting effects addressing gastroin-
testinal, respiratory, inflammatory, metabolic, and cardiovascular issues. This review summarizes
the updated information on the phenolic composition, antioxidant capacity and other functional
properties of fresh and dried figs cultivated in various parts of the world, highlighting variation in
phenolic composition based on cultivar, harvesting time, maturity stage, processing, and fig parts.
Additionally, the review delves into the bio-accessibility and bio-availability of bioactive components
from figs and their potential influence on cardiovascular health, diabetes, obesity, and gut/digestive
health. Data suggest that the intake of figs regularly in the diet, alone or with other dried fruits,
increases select micronutrient intake and is associated with higher diet quality, respectively. Research
in animal and human models of health and disease risk provide preliminary health benefits data on
figs and their extracts from fig parts; however, additional well-controlled human studies, particularly
using fig fruit, will be required to uncover and verify the potential impact of dietary intake of figs on
modern day health issues.
Keywords:
figs; phytochemicals; anthocyanins; health benefits; processing; extraction; bio-accessibility;
diabetes; obesity
1. Introduction
Figs (Ficus carica, L.) belong to the Moraceae (mulberry) family, a type of deciduous
tree or shrub native to the Middle East and Southwest Asia [
1
]. The history of figs dates back
to the Roman Empire and their significance is also noted in holy books such as the Bible
and the Quran [
2
]. They are believed to be one of the oldest cultivated plants [
3
] associated
with the origin of Mediterranean horticulture. Today, figs are cultivated throughout the
world in countries with warm and dry climates.
Figs are commonly known as a fruit, but are actually a type of flower. The fig fruit
develops from a closed inflorescence, which encloses hundreds of tiny unisexual flowers.
These flowers bloom inside the fig, and the small fruits inside the flowers are what people
consume. As a result, figs are considered to be an aggregate fruit, made up of several
hundred individual drupelets that form from the ovaries. Fig trees produce two crops per
year: the first crop on the previous season’s growth (breba crop) and a second crop on
current growth (main crop) [
2
]. There are four types of fig fruits, i.e., Caprifigs, Smyrna,
San Pedro, and Common [
4
], with over 800 different fig varieties cultivated in almost
50 countries around the world [
5
]. Turkey was the leading producer of figs (320,000 tons)
in 2021, followed by Egypt (298,498 tons) and Morocco (144,153 tons) ranking second and
third, respectively. The other fig producing countries that made the top 10 list in 2021
include Algeria, Iran, Spain, Syria, Uzbekistan, USA, and Albania [6].
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15112623 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 2 of 27
Figs are a harvest crop for both fresh and dried consumption by humans and a
valuable food source for wildlife. Mature edible figs have a thick skin with a sweet pulp
consisting of tiny seeds, which are typically unnoticeable but may provide a subtle crunch
upon chewing [
7
]. The skin color in different fig varieties varies from green to black-
violet depending upon the pigment compounds present [
8
]. They are consumed fresh
(peeled or unpeeled) and dried, and as part of various foods such as cakes, pies, puddings,
bakery products, jams, marmalades, and pastes [
3
]. More recently, figs are used in sauces
complimenting savory meat dishes, mixology creations, and sliced on Mediterranean-
inspired pizza, flatbreads and salads. In addition to their culinary versatility, figs have a
long history of use in traditional medical practices such as Chinese and Indian (Siddha and
Ayurvedic) medicine systems [
9
]. They have been valued for centuries for their beneficial
effects on various health conditions, including gastrointestinal, respiratory, inflammatory,
metabolic, and cardiovascular disorders [
1
]. Figs are an excellent source of bioactive
components including vitamins, minerals, organic acids, amino acids, dietary fibers, and an
array of phytochemical components, including carotenoids and polyphenolic compounds.
However, figs are under appreciated in terms of health benefits compared to other fruits.
The phytochemical composition of fruits is a discriminating factor in understanding the
health benefits of fruits in the diet.
The goal of the present paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the available
literature assessing the phytochemical composition and health benefits associated with
the consumption of fresh or dried figs, specifically cardio-vascular diseases, diabetes,
gut/digestive health, cognitive function, obesity, satiety, and dietary patterns (Figure 1).
The purpose of this review is to evaluate the scientific evidence relevant to the chemistry of
figs and their potential health-promoting role in the diet, to identify gaps in the current
research on figs, and to suggest potential opportunities for future research and development.
Research between 2000 and 2022 was identified in Medline with PubMed searches using
the keywords provided in Table 1. Searches were also conducted in Web of Science, Google,
and by cross-referencing published papers.
Nutrients 2023, 15, 2623 2 of 28
Nutrients 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx
third, respectively. The other g producing countries that made the top 10 list in 2021
include Algeria, Iran, Spain, Syria, Uzbekistan, USA, and Albania [6].
Figs are a harvest crop for both fresh and dried consumption by humans and a valu-
able food source for wildlife. Mature edible gs have a thick skin with a sweet pulp con-
sisting of tiny seeds, which are typically unnoticeable but may provide a subtle crunch
upon chewing [7]. The skin color in dierent g varieties varies from green to black-violet
depending upon the pigment compounds present [8]. They are consumed fresh (peeled
or unpeeled) and dried, and as part of various foods such as cakes, pies, puddings, bakery
products, jams, marmalades, and pastes [3]. More recently, gs are used in sauces com-
plimenting savory meat dishes, mixology creations, and sliced on Mediterranean-inspired
pizza, atbreads and salads. In addition to their culinary versatility, gs have a long his-
tory of use in traditional medical practices such as Chinese and Indian (Siddha and Ayur-
vedic) medicine systems [9]. They have been valued for centuries for their benecial eects
on various health conditions, including gastrointestinal, respiratory, inammatory, meta-
bolic, and cardiovascular disorders [1]. Figs are an excellent source of bioactive compo-
nents including vitamins, minerals, organic acids, amino acids, dietary bers, and an array
of phytochemical components, including carotenoids and polyphenolic compounds.
However, gs are under appreciated in terms of health benets compared to other fruits.
The phytochemical composition of fruits is a discriminating factor in understanding the
health benets of fruits in the diet.
The goal of the present paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the available
literature assessing the phytochemical composition and health benets associated with
the consumption of fresh or dried gs, specically cardio-vascular diseases, diabetes,
gut/digestive health, cognitive function, obesity, satiety, and dietary paerns (Figure 1).
The purpose of this review is to evaluate the scientic evidence relevant to the chemistry
of gs and their potential health-promoting role in the diet, to identify gaps in the current
research on gs, and to suggest potential opportunities for future research and develop-
ment. Research between 2000 and 2022 was identied in Medline with PubMed searches
using the keywords provided in Table 1. Searches were also conducted in Web of Science,
Google, and by cross-referencing published papers.
Figure 1. Factors aecting gs’ bioactive compounds and their potential health benets. Fig image
source: Rasool et al., [10] doi: 10.3390/molecules28030960. Health benets images: stock google pho-
tos.
Figure 1.
Factors affecting figs’ bioactive compounds and their potential health benefits. Fig image
source: Rasool et al. [10]. Health benefits images: stock google photos.
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 3 of 27
Table 1. Keywords used to search fig literature in Medline with PubMed.
Figs 1Dried Figs 1Fresh Figs 1
Appetite Alzheimer’s disease Absorption
Blood pressure Body weight Bioavailability
Cardiovascular disease Chemistry Cholesterol
Cognition Diabetes Food intake
Glucose Gut health Heart disease
Insulin Insulin resistance Lipids
LDL cholesterol Microbiome Metabolism
Nutrients Obesity Phytochemicals
Polyphenols Type 2 diabetes
1Searched alone and in combination with other keywords, such as “dried figs and appetite”.
2. Fig Chemistry
2.1. Phytochemical Content of Figs
Polyphenols and carotenoids are the two major categories of phytochemicals found in
figs. The major classes of polyphenols in figs include phenolic acids, flavones, flavonones,
flavonols, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins (Figure 2). The phenolic content of figs is
higher than red wine and tea, the two prominent and well-published sources of various
phenolic compounds [
11
]. In addition, the anthocyanin content of some fig cultivars is
comparable to blackberries and blueberries [
12
]. The phytochemical content of figs has
been reviewed by other authors [
5
,
13
,
14
]. In this section, we discuss the phytochemical
content of figs based on the type of analysis, the extraction of fig polyphenols using various
solvents, and the effect of harvesting time and processing on phytochemical composition
(Supplementary Table S1).
Nutrients 2023, 15, 2623 3 of 28
Nutrients 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx
Table 1. Keywords used to search g literature in Medline with PubMed.
Figs 1
Dried Figs 1
Fresh Figs 1
Appetite
Alzheimer’s disease
Absorption
Blood pressure
Body weight
Bioavailability
Cardiovascular disease
Chemistry
Cholesterol
Cognition
Diabetes
Food intake
Glucose
Gut health
Heart disease
Insulin
Insulin resistance
Lipids
LDL cholesterol
Microbiome
Metabolism
Nutrients
Obesity
Phytochemicals
Polyphenols
Type 2 diabetes
1 Searched alone and in combination with other keywords, such as “dried gs and appetite”.
2. Fig Chemistry
2.1. Phytochemical Content of Figs
Polyphenols and carotenoids are the two major categories of phytochemicals found
in gs. The major classes of polyphenols in gs include phenolic acids, avones, avo-
nones, avonols, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins (Figure 2). The phenolic content
of gs is higher than red wine and tea, the two prominent and well-published sources of
various phenolic compounds [11]. In addition, the anthocyanin content of some g culti-
vars is comparable to blackberries and blueberries [12]. The phytochemical content of gs
has been reviewed by other authors [5,13,14]. In this section, we discuss the phytochemical
content of gs based on type of analysis, the extraction of g polyphenols using various
solvents, and the eect of harvesting time and processing on phytochemical composition
(Supplementary Table S1).
Figure 2. Chemical structures of major phytochemicals in gs.
2.1.1. Types of Analyses and Reported Phytochemical Features
Spectrophotometric analysis: Dierent g varieties (dark and light skin colored) as
whole or parts (peel, pulp, and leaves) have been compared for their polyphenol content
and antioxidant capacity in various geographical locations. The phytochemical content
using spectrophotometric assays have measured and reported total phenolic content
Figure 2. Chemical structures of major phytochemicals in figs.
2.1.1. Types of Analyses and Reported Phytochemical Features
Spectrophotometric analysis:
Different fig varieties (dark and light skin colored) as
whole or parts (peel, pulp, and leaves) have been compared for their polyphenol content
and antioxidant capacity in various geographical locations. The phytochemical content
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 4 of 27
using spectrophotometric assays have measured and reported total phenolic content (TPC),
total anthocyanin content (TAC), total flavonoid content (TFC), total proanthocyanidin
content (TPAC), total carotenoids, total chlorophylls, total tannins, and ortho-diphenols,
as discussed below. Some assays, such as the pH differential method, provide data on
specific flavonoid compounds. Totals often predict antioxidant capacity, as many polyphe-
nols and carotenoids possess antioxidant properties. Antioxidant capacities are assessed
using various assays such as ORAC (oxygen radical absorbance capacity), DPPH (1,1-
diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl), FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power assay), and ABTS
(2,2
0
-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid). Other assays mentioned include
measuring reducing power against hydroxyl, nitrite and superoxide radicals, hydrogen
peroxide scavenging activity, cupric ion reducing antioxidant assay (CUPRAC), lipid perox-
idation inhibition capacity (LPIC) assay, the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs),
the oxidative hemolysis inhibition assay and metal chelating activity, phosphomolybde-
num, rancimat, and
β
-carotene blanching assays. The results from various studies suggest
varietal differences in polyphenolic content and antioxidant capacity [15,16].
Dark varieties have higher polyphenol content (TPC, TAC, and TFC) and antioxidant
capacity compared to lighter varieties [
3
,
17
–
35
]. A comparison of different parts of figs
(leaves, peel, and pulp) revealed that leaves possess high TPC and antioxidant capacity
followed by peel and pulp [
36
,
37
]. Moreover, Oliveira et al. (2009) reported that only leaves
were able to scavenge superoxide radicals compared to peel and pulp [
38
]. Contrary to this,
Mopuri et al. (2018) reported that fig fruits have high antioxidant capacity and phenolic
content compared to stembark and leaves [
39
]. However, parts of the figs were from differ-
ent regions, possibly explaining the discrepancy in results (e.g., stembark and leaves were
collected from India while fruits were purchased from S. Africa). Studies comparing peels
and pulps of figs reported that peels have higher concentrations of phenolic compounds
and antioxidant capacity compared to pulp, regardless of fig color [18,22,30,40–42].
The total anthocyanins by pH differential ranged from 0.41 to 57.47 mg cyanidin-3-O-
rutinoside/100 g dry weight (DW) in 135 Moroccan fig varieties [
35
]. In another study on
five fig varieties, the total polyphenols content varied from 45.24 to 160.42 GAE mg/100 g
DW of the sample, while the anthocyanin content varied less, from 0.0 to 5.32 mg cyanidin-
3-O-glucoside/100 g DW, and flavonoids from 18.31 to 36.95 mg (+) catechin/100 g DW of
the sample. The antioxidant capacity was significantly different between light and dark
cultivars [
22
], which corresponded to the total polyphenols and total anthocyanins [
30
].
Another study reported that black cultivars had a 2-fold greater total antioxidant capacity,
15-fold greater TAC, and 2.5-fold greater TPC than green and yellow fig cultivars [
25
].
In comparison to other dried fruits consumed in Algeria, such as apricots, prunes, and
raisins, figs had the highest concentration of flavonoids (105.6 mg QE/100 g; QE-quercetin
equivalents) and anthocyanins (5.9 mg/100 g) while apricots along with figs had the highest
concentrations of carotenoids (10.7 and 10.8 mg
β
CE/100 g, respectively;
β
CE-beta carotene
equivalents) [43].
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis:
Phytochemicals in figs
(leaves, fruits, peel, and pulp) have been identified and quantified more selectively and com-
prehensively using HPLC coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) and other detectors such
as diode array detector (DAD), Ultraviolet/Visible (UV/Vis), photodiode array (PDA), etc.
The polyphenolic compounds identified in most studies on figs are categorized as flavan-
3-ols, phenolic acids, flavonols, flavones, and anthocyanins [
12
,
44
]. Several studies have
reported that skin/peel had the highest concentration of phenolic compounds compared to
pulp [
12
,
26
,
27
,
45
], and that the color of the figs influences their composition and could affect
the concentration of phenolic compounds [
26
,
27
,
29
]. In addition, processing could influence
the concentrations of phenolic compounds [
46
]. The major phenolic compounds identified
and quantified in figs/parts include quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin), (
−
)-Epicatechin, (+)-
catechin, cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, bergapten, myricetin, and kaempferol, along with vari-
ous phenolic acids [
15
,
24
,
38
,
42
,
46
]. However, gallic (1.5–6.4 mg/100 g FW) and ellagic acids
(0.2–33.8 mg/100 g FW) as major phenolic acids were reported in four Georgia (USA) grown
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 5 of 27
fig cultivars [
47
]. Phenolic acids, such as 2,4-dihydroxybenzoic, 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic and
sinapic acid, were identified for the first time in fig cultivars from Greece [
48
]. In addition
to previous reports on phenolic compounds, Vallejo et al. (2012) reported the c-glycosides
of flavones (luteolin 6C-hexose-8C-pentose) for the first time in a study conducted on 18 fig
varieties from Spain [12].
Several studies have focused on the pigment chemistry of figs. Anthocyanins, flavonols,
and carotenoids are the main pigment compounds in figs as measured by HPLC methods.
A recent study conducted by Hssaini and co-workers (2021) investigated polyphenols in
25 fig varieties grown in Morocco and quantified 12 phenolic compounds in peel and 8 in
pulp [
42
]. Anthocyanins, mainly cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside, and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside,
were the predominant compounds in peels, with mean concentrations of 75.90
±
18.76 and
77.97
±
18.95
µ
g/g dry weight (DW), respectively. In addition, pelargonidin-3-O-rutinoside
was detected in the peels. (
−
)-Epicatechin (a flavanol) and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside were
the major compounds in the pulp extracts, where the mean values were 5.23
±
4.03 and
9.01
±
5.67
µ
g/g DW, respectively. Similarly, a study conducted on one fig variety from
Portugal quantified 15 phenolic compounds in peel with rutin (flavonol: quercetin-3-O-
rutinoside and sophorin) as the major constituent and 12 in the pulp with caffeic acid
derivatives as major constituents [
40
]. A study conducted by Ammar et al. (2015) charac-
terized 116 phenolic compounds in the leaves, fruit, skins, and pulps of two fig cultivars
(green and black) from Tunisia, and reported that the leaves and the skin of black cultivars
had a rich qualitative polyphenolic profile, and that rutin was the main component in
fruits, skins, and leaves, while prenylhydroxygenistein was the major component in pulp.
A total of 9 anthocyanins were characterized, with cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside and cyanidin
3,5-diglucoside as the major ones, two of which were detected in green cultivars [
49
].
Rutin has been identified as a major compound in various fig varieties from different
geographical regions [
49
–
52
]. Research also suggests that the amount of rutin in figs is
comparable to apples, with the highest concentration of rutin up to 28.7 mg per 100 g of
fresh weight as reported in three fig cultivars [
29
]. Comparison of 19 fig varieties from
three different geographical regions (Italy, Turkey, and Greece) in fresh and dried forms
showed significant quantitative and qualitative differences in phenolic compounds [
45
].
Dueñas et al. (2008) studied the anthocyanin composition in five fig varieties (green and
dark purple) from Spain and identified 15 anthocyanin pigments with cyanidin as the major
aglycone, and some pelargonidin derivatives were also detected [
53
]. They also found
rutinose and glucose as the major sugars attached to aglycones, and observed acylation
with malonic acid. In addition, they also reported anthocyanin-derived pigments such as
5-carboxypyranocyanidin-3-rutinoside, a cyanidin 3-rutinose dimer, and five condensed
pigments containing C–C linked anthocyanins (cyanidin and pelargonidin) and flavanol
(catechin and epicatechin) residues. The peel had higher concentrations of anthocyanins
than the pulp, with cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside and malonyl derivatives present in higher
amounts in the peel. Total anthocyanin content in the peel ranged between 32 and 97
µ
g/g
and between 1.5 and 15
µ
g/g in the pulp [
53
]. Other studies have also found cyanidin-3-O-
rutinoside as the major anthocyanin in different fig varieties [
27
,
30
,
48
,
49
,
52
,
54
,
55
]. How-
ever, a study conducted on six fig cultivars in China reported cyanidin-3-O-glucoside as the
major anthocyanin, followed by cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside and cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside [
56
].
A study from Greece also found delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, petunidin-3-O-glucoside in
the pulp, and malvidin-O-glucoside in both the pulp and peel for the first time in fig
varieties [48].
Carotenoids found in figs include lutein, zeaxanthin,
β
-cryptoxanthin, and
β
-carotene.
Yemis et al. (2012) identified these pigments in yellow fig varieties and found that the
surface color of fig fruits changes with the ripening stage [
54
]. In a study conducted
to evaluate the carotenoid composition in selected foods of the Mediterranean diet, figs
were reported to contain all the major carotenoids including lutein,
β
-carotene,
α
-carotene,
cryptoxanthin, and lycopene [
57
]. Tocopherols were also detected in fig cultivars [
40
,
47
].
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 6 of 27
Palmeira et al. detected all four forms (
α
,
β
,
δ
and
γ
) of tocopherols in one Portuguese fig
variety with αtocopherol abundant in peel and γtocopherol abundant in pulp [40].
Overall, both green and dark varieties contain anthocyanin pigment compounds, with
cyanidins reported most consistently with rutinoside and glucoside sugar attachments.
Additional anthocyanin structures, particularly those imparting reds and dark blue and
purple hues, have also been reported. Rutin and carotenoids are other important pigment
compounds in figs. An array of phenolic acids as well as other flavonoid compounds,
such as catechin and epicatechin have been reported, which collectively, and uniquely,
characterize the polar fraction of figs.
Extraction of polyphenols from figs:
Different methods and solvents have been com-
pared for extracting polyphenols from figs. These methods include using various solvents
(water, acetone, ethanol, methanol with or without acids), altering time–temperature com-
binations, and using ultrasound-assisted extraction and high-pressure processing [
58
–
66
].
Studies have optimized the extraction conditions for the maximum recovery of phenolic
compounds from figs, with some reporting that double extraction with 60% acetone without
acidification at 40
◦
C for 120 min with a 1/75 solid to solvent ratio was optimal [
64
]. The
same research group used response surface methodology to further optimize the condi-
tions [
67
]. Similarly, Mezziant et al. optimized the extraction of anthocyanins from fig
peels and observed that double extraction with 90% methanol acidified to a ratio of 10/90,
with 5% citric acid using a solid-to-solvent ratio of 1/100 extraction time, for 180 min
yields the maximum concentration of anthocyanins from dried fig peels [
62
]. Additionally,
some studies have compared the use of different solvents (acetone, ethanol, methanol, and
water) for the extraction of phenolic compounds from figs [
51
,
59
,
60
,
65
]. A recent study
conducted by Tewari et al. comparing the extraction of phenolic compounds from wild
Himalayan fig varieties using various solvents (methanol, boiling water, and Soxhlet with
methanol), showed significant variability among the extraction solvents. Water extracts of
figs had the highest antioxidant capacity, while methanol extracts had a better ability to
inhibit enzymes and more compounds were identified in the methanol extract [60]. Other
studies have used ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) alone or in comparison to other
extraction methods, such as solid-liquid extraction (SLE), heat, and microwave extraction
in different fig varieties and parts, and found that phenolic compounds were highest in
UAE [
61
,
63
,
66
]. The purification of phenolic compounds from figs has also been conducted
using an aqueous two-phase system, resulting in higher antioxidant capacity and a higher
concentration of specific compounds (chlorogenic acid, rutin, catechin, and epicatechin)
compared to crude extracts [58].
2.1.2. Factors Influencing Phytochemical Composition of Figs
Effect of harvesting time on polyphenol content of figs:
The effect of crop harvesting
time on polyphenol content has also been reported for different fig varieties. For example,
some studies have reported fruits from the first crop (breba) as being richer in phenolic
compounds than the second crop (main crop) [
12
,
45
]. However, a study conducted by
Hoxha et al. on two Albanian fig varieties reported that the main crop of both varieties
had higher total phenolic content than the breba [
31
]. Another study reported neutral
effects of crop harvesting time on polyphenols [
28
]. A study conducted by Günde¸sli et al.
(2021) compared phenolic compounds in one Turkish fig variety at four different harvesting
periods and observed phenolic content to be highest at the first harvest and lowest at the
fourth harvest [
24
]. A similar decrease in total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity
with fruit development was observed in a recent study conducted on two Albanian fig
varieties [
68
]. However, Marrelli et al. reported an increase in the amounts of polyphenols
with the ripeness of figs [
69
]. Another study investigated physio-chemical changes in the
fig and in the dry fruit during four developmental stages including, three weeks after
full bloom; three days after caprification; ripening; and the onset of fruit drying on the
tree. The total phenolic compounds decreased until the ripening stage and then increased
until senescence, while some phenolic compounds ((+) catechin, chlorogenic acid, (
−
)
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 7 of 27
epicatechin, and quercetin-3-O-glucoside) were highest when fruits dried on the trees [
70
].
Zhang et al. reported no change in the accumulation pattern of anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-
O-glucoside and cyandin-3-O-rutinoside) at different ripening stages [
56
]. Likewise, during
ripening, no changes were observed in the phenolic compounds, total carotenoid content,
and antioxidant capacity of fig pulp from three different varieties; however, anthocyanins
increased in the pulp of all cultivars with ripening [
48
]. A comprehensive study on
changes in fig color at different maturity stages using metabolomic and transcriptomic
analyses showed significant variation in the accumulation of various flavonoids, including
anthocyanins, at young and mature stages due to the upregulation/downregulation of
genes involved in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway [
71
]. Overall, harvest time and
ripening stage influence phytochemical content. With the goal of harvesting figs with the
densest phytochemical profile and content, systematic research to identify target periods in
different growing regions for different varieties will be required.
Effect of processing on polyphenol content of figs:
Fresh figs are extremely perishable
and, as a result, are typically processed into various forms such as dried, jams, jellies,
nectar, etc. The most common preservation method of fresh figs is drying them. Various
studies have investigated the effects of different drying modes (sun, oven, microwave,
greenhouse, etc.) on the phytochemical composition of figs. Two studies reported no
differences in drying method (sun or oven) on fig polyphenols [
20
,
72
], while two other
studies reported that sun drying impacts fig polyphenol content, including decreased
phenolic acid content by ~29% and flavonoid content by about 86% [
73
], and reduced total
phenolics, total anthocyanins, and antioxidant activity [
52
]. A comparison of sun, hot-air
oven, and microwave drying methods in one fig variety revealed microwave drying to be
the best drying method for preserving the polyphenol content [
74
]. Similarly, the quality of
two fig varieties from Tunisia was compared after open air and greenhouse drying. The
greenhouse dried figs had twice the amount of total phenolic content compared to open
air-dried figs. However, levels of trace elements (Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn) decreased after the
greenhouse drying of the figs [75].
Figs may also be frozen or prepared into jams and nectars. Keeping figs in the freezer
too long may cause some bioactives’ degradation. The processing of figs into jam could
help to preserve some of the phenolic compounds and carotenoids as indicated by research
on fresh, frozen, and processed figs [
76
]; however, other researchers have reported opposite
results [
77
]. Overall, processing technologies are necessary to extend the culinary and
nutritional contributions of figs globally. Innovations in processing technologies relative to
variety and regions have grown to preserve and optimize nutrient and polyphenol content,
including the bioavailability of their compounds, which is an area for future research.
The timing of harvest and processing of figs influences their phytochemical content.
Other important factors include variety, growing regions, and agronomic practices. Recent
advances in analytical chemistry and nutritional sciences have revealed bioactive features
of fruits that describe their dietary value. The fig may be a forgotten fruit in some cultural
cuisines; however, evidence-based, consumer-driven health trends may find an old fruit
resurrected, delivering nutritional and phytochemical content promoting human health.
2.2. Nutrients in Figs
Figs are a rich source of various micro and macronutrients including carbohydrates,
vitamins, organic acids, dietary fiber, and minerals [
78
]. Proximate composition analy-
sis shows that figs are high in protein (6.31 g/100 g (dry weight basis, DW)) and fiber
(17.81 g/100 g, DW), with fat content varying from 1.02 to 2.71 g/100 g DW in edible
wild fig fruits [
36
,
79
]. Different fatty acids have been characterized in various fig vari-
eties with linolenic reported as the most abundant followed by linoleic acid, palmitic, and
oleic [
17
,
40
,
69
,
78
]. Figs also contain high amounts of carbohydrates (26.02
±
0.63 g/100 g
fresh weight) [
41
,
80
] and amino acids, such as leucine, lysine, valine, and arginine [
80
].
Additionally, figs contain organic acids, sugar, and minerals which are discussed in de-
tail below.
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 8 of 27
Organic acids and sugars: Organic acids and sugars in different varieties of figs have
been analyzed in various studies using HPLC [
25
,
29
,
72
,
81
–
83
]. Organic acids and sugars
are high in dried figs compared to fresh figs [
72
]. Palmiera et al. reported four free sugars
(glucose, fructose, trehalose, and sucrose) and five organic acids (oxalic, quinic, malic,
citric, and succinic acids) in the peel and pulp of one Portuguese fig variety [
40
]. In a
study conducted on 9 fig varieties from Spain, the concentrations of sugars were highest
in the pulp, followed by the skin/peel, with no differences observed in organic acids
between varieties and ripening stages [
82
]. A comparison of 27 Tunisian fig varieties
showed significant differences in glucose and fructose content [
32
]. The major organic acids
studied in fig fruits or their parts include malic, citric, oxalic, quinic, ascorbic, shikimic,
and fumaric acids [
16
,
38
,
40
,
47
,
70
]. It has also been reported that the accumulation pattern
of organic acids changes at various ripening stages [
56
]. The taste and flavor profile of
fruits is determined by the ratio of organic acids to sugars. Organic acids are essential for
preserving the nutritional value and enhancing the sensory qualities of foods. They also
provide various health benefits, including reducing inflammation, regulating the immune
system, promoting calcium absorption, and preventing blood clots [84].
Minerals:
Figs have the highest mineral content compared to other common fruits [
11
].
Figs are an important source of potassium, calcium, sodium, magnesium, phosphor-
ous [
41
,
79
,
80
,
85
,
86
], and trace elements such as iron, manganese, zinc, copper, nickel,
and strontium [70,79,86].
2.3. Bio-Accessibility and Bioavailability of Phytochemicals from Figs
Bio-accessibility refers to the proportion of a nutrient in a food that becomes available
for direct absorption or biotransformation by gut microbiota during the process of digestion.
Bioavailability, on the other hand, describes the proportion of an ingested nutrient that is
absorbed and reaches systemic circulation or specific tissues and organs in the body, in its
intact or metabolized form. These absorbed nutrients or phytochemicals can then exert a
biological action or be stored for future use [
87
]. The phenolic compounds from figs are
not readily bio-accessible, as reported by various studies using
in vitro
gastrointestinal
digestion models [
52
,
88
,
89
]. For example, a study conducted by Kehal and colleagues,
using three fig cultivars in fresh and dried forms, showed that phenolic compounds and
antioxidant capacity decreased during different digestion phases (oral phase > gastric
phase > intestinal phase). The study also found that sun-drying and cultivar had no impact
on the
in vitro
digestion of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity from figs [
88
].
Alternatively, Kamiloglu and colleagues (2013) reported that the sun-drying of figs results
in an increased bio-accessibility of total proanthocyanidin and chlorogenic acid content,
as well as total antioxidant activity, compared to fresh figs; however, the bio-accessibility
of anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-Oglucoside and cyanidin-3-Orutinoside) was very low for
fresh figs and anthocyanins were not detected in the dialyzed fraction of sun-dried figs [
89
].
A similar study by Kamiloglu et al. (2015) reported a reduced bio-accessibility of phenolic
compounds from figs with a higher value of phenolic compounds in the dialyzed fraction
obtained from the skin compared to the pulp of all the studied varieties [
52
]. The variations
in bio-accessibility of different components can be attributed to several factors. One possible
reason is the susceptibility of these phenolic compounds to enzymes and changes in pH
during the process of digestion. For example, anthocyanins could be transformed to
colorless chalcones at pH 7, which might not be detectable by the methods employed [
90
].
The increased bio-accessibility of some components from dried figs could be explained by
the higher concentrations of phenolic components per unit weight of dried figs compared
to fresh figs which have more water. Overall, the bio-accessibility and bioavailability of
nutrients can vary depending upon various factors such as cultivar, processing, interaction
with other dietary components and inter-individual variations influenced by host genes,
and those from the composition of the gut microbiome [
91
]. There are no studies on the
absorption, metabolism, and bioavailability of fig polyphenols in humans. Only one human
study [
92
] conducted in the United States reported plasma antioxidant activity in normal
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 9 of 27
free-living participants (n= 10) after the consumption of 40 g of figs with or without a
carbonated beverage. The plasma antioxidant capacity was measured for six hours using
the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) assay. The authors reported increased
plasma antioxidant capacity for 4 h after consumption of figs and reduced oxidative stress
generated by consuming high fructose corn syrup in a carbonated soft drink.
Figs are a diverse fruit that can vary in phytochemical and nutrient composition based
on factors such as location, variety, harvesting time, and ripeness. Different analytical
methods reveal different features of the content of fruits, including figs. Consistently, figs
are reported to contain phenolic compounds, such as anthocyanins, (
−
)-epicatechin, rutin,
and chlorogenic acid, among others, which, over the last two decades, have accumulated
evidence suggesting they impart biological activity when consumed by humans. How-
ever, there is currently a lack of research on the bioavailability and absorption of these
compounds when figs are consumed as part of a regular diet. Further studies on the
pharmacokinetics of phenolic compounds from figs in conjunction with their potential
health benefits, would be valuable for dietary guidance.
2.4. Figs Health Benefits
In the previous section, we provided an in-depth discussion on the phytochemicals
and nutrients present in figs, as well as their bio-accessibility and bioavailability. It is
worth noting that the literature extensively covers the phytochemistry of figs grown in
regions outside of the USA. There also is a lack of comprehensive information regarding
the consumption of figs as a source of dietary phytochemicals for human beings. Taken
together, there is a need for future research to investigate figs grown in the USA, including
the bioavailability of key phytochemicals in figs following their ingestion.
Epidemiological and clinical studies provide evidence suggesting that phytochemi-
cals/bioactives from fruits and vegetables exert beneficial effects on human health post-
consumption. Building upon this knowledge, this section on figs’ health benefits will
review the available research conducted on both animals and humans. We will explore the
effects of different fig components, including the flesh/pulp, juice, peel, extract, dried, and
fresh forms, on various health risk conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes,
obesity, cognitive function, and gut/digestive health, as well as the impact of figs on satiety
and dietary patterns (Tables 2–6and Figure 3).
Nutrients 2023, 15, 2623 10 of 28
Nutrients 2023, 15, x. https://doi.org/10.3390/xxxxx
Figure 3. Summary of health benets of gs from animal and human studies. Abbreviations: BP,
blood pressure; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; IBS, irritable bowel syndrome; TG, triglycerides.
Arrows: ↑ (increase), ↓ (decrease). Fig image source: California Fig Advisory Board (hps://califor-
niags.com/, accessed on 25 May 2023).
2.4.1. Cardiovascular Risk Benets
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a group of metabolic disorders of the heart and
the blood vessels. The most important behavioral risk factors of cardiovascular diseases
are modiable, including unhealthy diet and physical inactivity. The eects of behavioral
risk factors may show up in individuals as increased blood pressure, blood glucose, blood
lipids, and overweight/obesity. Limited data are available assessing the relationship be-
tween gs and CVD risk and the majority of them are in animal research (Table 2). In
humans, g intake on CVD risk factors was assessed in individuals who were overweight
and had one CVD risk factor or individuals with elevated cholesterol [93] or who had
rheumatoid arthritis [94] (Table 2). Fig intake may be consumed as part of a dried fruit
mix, as was the case in one study incorporating ¾ cup per day dried fruit vs. a carbohy-
drate-rich snack for 4 weeks [95]. An earlier study by Peterson et al. (2011) fed individuals
120 g/d California Mission gs for 5 weeks [93]. Research from both groups indicated no
changes in body weight throughout the study and changes in lipids (HDL; high density
lipoproteins and TG; triglycerides) were mostly unaected. However, a sequence eect
suggested that cholesterol levels increased if g intake was initiated rst in the crossover
study [93]. Low density lipoprotein (LDL) and fasting glucose were increased in the dried
fruit mix study [95]. No eect on lipids or glucose was found in patients with rheumatoid
arthritis medication regimens containing methotrexate [94].
In the animal literature, fruit extract [96–98], leaf extract [98,99], and seed oil [100]
were tested. The fruit extract decreased blood pressure in normotensive and glucose-in-
duced hypertensive rodents after 3 weeks. Furthermore, researchers found blood pressure
reduced during the rst 1–3 h after dosing (1000 mg/kg), returning to baseline by 6 h [96].
Anti-inammatory and anti-oxidative activity were demonstrated in an intestinal ische-
mia-perfusion injury model and in a high-fat-fed obesity model with seed oil and leaf
extracts [98–100]. The laer research also reported increased HDL, decreased TG, and
overall reduced atherogenic risk after 6 weeks of supplementation with g leaf extract
[99]. Overall, animal research reveals the important CVD-promoting eects of gs; how-
ever, to date, these eects have not been observed in human research, and there is ex-
tremely limited data from which to draw conclusions.
Figure 3.
Summary of health benefits of figs from animal and human studies. Abbreviations: BP, blood
pressure; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; IBS, irritable bowel syndrome; TG, triglycerides. Arrows:
↑
(increase),
↓
(decrease). Fig image source: California Fig Advisory Board (https://californiafigs.com/,
accessed on 25 May 2023).
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 10 of 27
2.4.1. Cardiovascular Risk Benefits
Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a group of metabolic disorders of the heart and the
blood vessels. The most important behavioral risk factors of cardiovascular diseases are
modifiable, including unhealthy diet and physical inactivity. The effects of behavioral risk
factors may show up in individuals as increased blood pressure, blood glucose, blood lipids,
and overweight/obesity. Limited data are available assessing the relationship between
figs and CVD risk and the majority of them are in animal research (Table 2). In humans,
fig intake on CVD risk factors was assessed in individuals who were overweight and had
one CVD risk factor or individuals with elevated cholesterol [
93
] or who had rheumatoid
arthritis [
94
] (Table 2). Fig intake may be consumed as part of a dried fruit mix, as was
the case in one study incorporating
3/4
cup per day dried fruit vs. a carbohydrate-rich
snack for 4 weeks [
95
]. An earlier study by Peterson et al. (2011) fed individuals 120 g/d
California Mission figs for 5 weeks [
93
]. Research from both groups indicated no changes in
body weight throughout the study and changes in lipids (HDL; high density lipoproteins
and TG; triglycerides) were mostly unaffected. However, a sequence effect suggested
that cholesterol levels increased if fig intake was initiated first in the crossover study [
93
].
Low density lipoprotein (LDL) and fasting glucose were increased in the dried fruit mix
study [
95
]. No effect on lipids or glucose was found in patients with rheumatoid arthritis
medication regimens containing methotrexate [94].
In the animal literature, fruit extract [
96
–
98
], leaf extract [
98
,
99
], and seed oil [
100
]
were tested. The fruit extract decreased blood pressure in normotensive and glucose-
induced hypertensive rodents after 3 weeks. Furthermore, researchers found blood pres-
sure reduced during the first 1–3 h after dosing (1000 mg/kg), returning to baseline by
6 h [
96
]. Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative activity were demonstrated in an intestinal
ischemia-perfusion injury model and in a high-fat-fed obesity model with seed oil and
leaf extracts [
98
–
100
]. The latter research also reported increased HDL, decreased TG, and
overall reduced atherogenic risk after 6 weeks of supplementation with fig leaf extract [
99
].
Overall, animal research reveals the important CVD-promoting effects of figs; however,
to date, these effects have not been observed in human research, and there is extremely
limited data from which to draw conclusions.
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 11 of 27
Table 2. Cardiovascular risk benefits.
Study Details Intervention Results
First Author
Year
Study Type
Design
Population
Model
Sample
Size Duration Fig
(Tx) Control (Tx) Blood
Pressure Lipids Other
Human Research
Sullivan, VK,
2020 [95]
RCT
crossover
Overweight
+
1 risk factor
55 4 weeks
Fig
as part of dried
fruit mix
3/4 c
snack
high carb snack ↔BP
↔lipids/
lipoproteins
btn Tx
↑LDL within
dried fruit arm
↑fasting glucose
↔insulin
↔vascular stiffness
↔CRP
Bahadori, S,
2016 [94]
RCT
Parallel
Arthritis
~51 y
56
29:27 16 weeks Fig
+ OO DMARDs
↔TC
↔TG
↔LDL
↔HDL
↔Glucose
Peterson, J,
2011 [93]
RCT
Cross over
30–75 y
TC
100–189 mg/dL
83
41:42/
seq
5 weeks
Fig
CA Mission
120 g/day
Usual diet w/o
Fig
↑TC
(seq effect)
↔LDL
↔HDL
↔TG
↔BW
↑fiber
↑sugar
Animal Research
Orak, C,
2021 [100]
Parallel
in vivo animal
Albino
ischemia-reperfusion
injury (IRI) rat model
50 10 days
Fig
seed oil
3 mL/kg/d
6 mL/kg/d
Neg control
Sham control
Anti-Inflammation
↓TNFα
↓IL-1β
Anti-Ox
↓MDA
↓MPO
↓histopathology of
intestinal tissue
Elghareeb,
MM,
2021 [97]
Parallel
in vivo animal
chemo-induced Ox
stress
rat model
40 30
Days
Fruit
extract Vehicle
blunted
chemo-induced
toxicity on
CVD markers
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 12 of 27
Table 2. Cont.
Study Details Intervention Results
First Author
Year
Study Type
Design
Population
Model
Sample
Size Duration Fig
(Tx) Control (Tx) Blood
Pressure Lipids Other
Sukowati, YK,
2019 [98]
Parallel
in vivo animal
high fat diet
(HFD)-induced obese
rat model
32
8/group 10 weeks
Fruit
Leaf
extract
400 mg/kg
Control diet ↓lipids (panel) ↓TNFα
↓MDA
Alamgeer, IS,
2017 [96]
Parallel
in vivo animal
normo-
and
glucose-induced
hyper-
tensive rat model
3/group 3 weeks
Fig
fruit extract
250, 500, 1000
mg/kg
Vehicle
↓BP
(1000 mg/kg)
normo- and
hyper- tensive
Phenolic analysis:
presence of quercetin,
gallic acid, caffeic
acid, vanillic acid,
syringic acid,
coumaric acid,
chromotropic acid.
Joerin, L,
2014 [99]
Parallel
in vivo animal
high fat diet
(HFD)-induced obese
rat model
10/group 6 weeks
Leaf extract (FLE)
50 mg/kg FLE
100 mg/kg FLE
30 mg/kg
Pioglitazone
Chow
and
HFD
↑HDL
↓TG
↓IL-6
FLE >
Pioglitazone
↓AI
↓CRI
↔adiponectin
↔leptin
↔insulin
↔glucose
Arrows:
↑
(increase)
↓
(decrease)
↔
(no effect). AI: atherogenic index, BP: blood pressure, BW: body weight CRP: C reactive protein, CVD: cardiovascular disease, CA: California, CRI:
coronary risk index, DMARDS: disease modifying anti rheumatic drugs, FLE: fig leaf extract, HFD: high fat diet, HDL: high density lipoprotein, IR: ischemia-re perfusion injury, IL-6:
interlukin-6, IL-1
β
: interleukin-1- beta, LDL: low density lipoprotein, MDA: malondialdehyde, MPO: myeloperoxidase, Neg ctrl: negative control, OO: olive oil, Ox: oxidative, RCT:
randomized control trial, Sham: sham-operated, TC: total cholesterol, TG: triglyceride, TNFα: tumor necrosis factor alpha, w/o: without.
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 13 of 27
2.4.2. Diabetes Benefits
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is one of the most common chronic diseases in the world, with
a rapidly increasing incidence. Fig plants and their active compounds have been used to
treat diabetes and related chronic disorders since ancient times. However, there are only
five human clinical research studies and eleven
in vivo
animal research studies found in
the peer-reviewed literature over the last two decades evaluating their anti-diabetes effects
(Table 3). Animal studies are mostly focused on the mechanism of actions, and several of
those focus on extracts of the leaves vs. investigating the effect of the fruit.
An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants conducted by Barkaoui et al. (2017)
indicated that the fruits and leaves of figs are used by practitioners to treat diabetes com-
plications in Morocco [
101
]. Bio-efficacy testing in humans shows the decoction of leaves
effectively controlled postprandial glycemia in individuals with T1DM (type 1 diabetes
mellitus) [
102
]. Furthermore, a study by Mazhin et al. (2016) showed that the addition of a
fig leaf decoction, compared to oral hypoglycemic drugs, significantly decreased 2 h post-
prandial glycemia in patients with T2DM (type 2 diabetes mellitus) [
103
]. In another study,
the effect of fig was compared with the oral drug metformin in people with T2DM [
104
]
and this showed that metformin decreased blood sugar levels by 27.6% and figs decreased
blood sugar levels by 13.5% after 2 months of treatment. The study concluded that figs
decrease blood sugar/glucose levels significantly and, when compared to metformin, this
change is about half that of metformin [104].
Studies indicate that abscisic acid (ABA) can improve glucose homeostasis. Figs are an
intermediate source of ABA. Avocado have ~2.0 mg/kg ABA, whereas many fruits contain
only ~0.3 mg/kg ABA while figs contain ~0.72 mg/kg ABA [
105
]. A study conducted
by Atkinso et al. (2019) showed that two fig fruit extracts (FFEs), each administered at
two different ABA doses to healthy human adults, significantly reduced postprandial
glycemia at the higher dosages tested [
106
]. Furthermore, they showed that peak insulin
concentrations were significantly reduced by FFE-containing test drinks compared to
reference drinks [
106
]. Zangara and colleagues reported similar findings with a fig fruit
extract standardized on ABA in healthy subjects [
107
]. The glucose- and insulin-lowering
action demonstrated in healthy individuals may be clinically important for people with
hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance to lower their risk of T2DM. To test this idea,
Leber et al. (2020)
studied fig fruit extract of ABA in diet-induced obesity (DIO) and db/db
diabetes mouse models, and found improved glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and
fasting blood glucose [
108
]. Furthermore, they showed a decrease in systemic inflammation
in response to fig fruit extracts of ABA.
An
in vivo
rat study, conducted by Irudayaraj et al. in 2016, demonstrated that ficusin,
isolated from the leaves of F. carica, significantly decreased blood glucose concentrations
and improved the lipid profile, plasma insulin, nephrotic markers, liver glycogen, liver
enzymes, and protected
β
-cells. By exploring the mechanism of action, the authors demon-
strated that ficusin effectively upregulated PPAR
γ
, and activated glucose transport through
translocation and GLUT4 activation in adipose tissue [
109
]. In a follow-up publication,
Irudayaraj et al. (2017) showed that ethyl acetate extract of fig leaves significantly promoted
hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activities in a rat model of T2DM. They demonstrated the
altered activities of key carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes such as glucose-6-phosphatase,
fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and hexokinase in the liver tissue of DM rats that were im-
proved with fig leaves extract supplementation and comparable to normal levels [
110
].
Kawther et al. (2009) investigated the hypoglycemic effect of the orally administered aque-
ous extract of fig leaves in alloxan-induced diabetes in rabbits. Data obtained from the first
experiment showed that 0.3 gm/kg body weight of aqueous extract of fig leaf extract given
alone or in combination with insulin improved blood glucose levels in diabetic rabbits com-
pared to untreated diabetic rabbits. The results from their second experiment showed there
were no significant differences between 8 U/kg insulin and 0.3 g/kg fig leaf aqueous extract
group compared to 10 U/kg insulin; furthermore, they showed that the reduction in insulin
dose was almost 20% produced by fig leaves aqueous extract [
111
].
Perez et al. (2000)
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 14 of 27
demonstrated the antidiabetic activity of aqueous extracts from the leaves of F. carica in
streptozotocin (STZ-induced diabetic rats) [
112
]. Arafa (2020) showed that fresh seeds and
fruit extract from figs reduced serum glucose in high-fat-fed and STZ-induced diabetes
rat models [
113
]. El-Shobaki et al. (2010) reported that raw fig fruits and leaves have
antidiabetic activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rats by increasing antioxidant levels [
114
].
Kurniawan and colleagues recently reported similar findings with leaf extract in the alloxan-
induced DM model [
115
]. In addition, methanol and ethanol extracts from the fig leaves
have been shown to reduce blood glucose concentrations significantly in alloxan-induced
diabetic rats [
116
]. Ajman M et al. (2016) also demonstrated that the leaf extract of figs was
effective in reducing the blood glucose level in Sprague Dawley rats [36].
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 15 of 27
Table 3. Diabetes benefits.
Study Details Intervention Results
First Author
Year
Study Type
Design Subject Detail Sample
Size Duration Fig
(Tx) Control (Tx) Insulin Glucose Other
Human Research
Atkinson, FS,
2019 [106]
RCT
Parallel Healthy 10 Acute
Fig
fruit extract (FFE) in
glucose drink
standardized to ABA
100 mg
200 mg
600 mg
1200 mg
Glucose
Drink
↓Insulin
dose-
dependent
↓Glucose
at highest doses
Shah, M,
2019 [104]
RCT
Parallel T2DM 50
25/group 2 months
Fig
10 g
3.3 g thrice/d
Metformin ↓Glucose
Zangara, A,
2018 [107]
Cross Over
dose
response
Healthy 10 Acute
Extract
Glucose solution +
40 or 80 µg ABA
in 250 mL water
100 mg ABAlife
= 40 µg ABA
Glucose
solution
(50 g)
↓Insulin
index ↓
Glycemic index
Mazhin, SA,
2016 [103]RCT T2DM 28 21 Days Fig
13 g of leaf powder green tea ↓Glucose
OGTT response
Serraclara, A,
1998 [102]RCT T1DM
subjects
10
5/group
1 month and
post prandial
(PP)
and fasting
Leaf
extract
Non-
sweet tea
↓Insulin
exog need
PP
↓Glucose
PP
↔Fasting
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 16 of 27
Table 3. Cont.
Study Details Intervention Results
First Author
Year
Study Type
Design Subject Detail Sample
Size Duration Fig
(Tx) Control (Tx) Insulin Glucose Other
Animal Research
Leber, A,
2020 [108]
Parallel
in vivo animal
DIO
and
db/db mouse
model
10 12 weeks FIG
0.125
µ
g ABA/kg BW
Vehicle
(water)
↑Insulin
Sensitivity
↓Glucose
fasting
↑Gluc Tol
↓TNFα
↓MCP
↓IL-6
↑metabolic capacity
of muscle cells
Kawther, M,
2009 [111]
Parallel
in vivo animal
Alloxan—
induced DM
+
High fat diet
(HFD)
rabbit model
48 6 weeks
Leaf
extract
0.3 gm/kg
extract
+/−insulin
Insulin
↓Insulin
exogenous
need
↓Glucose
Kurniawan,
MF,
2021 [115]
Parallel
in vivo
Animal
Alloxan-
induced DM
rat model
8/groups 14 days
Leaf
extract
40, 60, 80 mg
tablet formula
Placebo
Metformin as
+ control
↓Glucose
Arafa, et al.,
2020 [113]
Parallel
in vivo animal
diabetes
via
STZ
+
High fat diet
(HFD)
rat model
6/group
8 weeks
HFD 3 week
before start treat
for 5 weeks
Seeds
and Fruit
extract
250 mg/kg/d
500 mg/kg/d
Control
no extract ↓Glucose
↓BW
↓TC
↓TG
↓LDL
↓VLDL
↑HDL
Anti-Ox
↑SOD
↓MDA
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 17 of 27
Table 3. Cont.
Study Details Intervention Results
First Author
Year
Study Type
Design Subject Detail Sample
Size Duration Fig
(Tx) Control (Tx) Insulin Glucose Other
Irudayaraj, SS,
2017 [110]
Parallel
in vivo
Animal
diabetes
via
STZ
+
High fat diet
(HFD)
rat model
6/group
28 days
+ OGTT
+ ITT on 15th
and 25th days
Leaf
extract
250 mg/kg
500 mg/kg
Vehicle
Normal rat
and DB rats
↓Insulin
ITT response
↓Glucose
fasting
↓
OGTT response
↓TC
↓TG
↓BW
↓Glycogen
Liver carbohydrate
enzymes normalized
in DM rats
Ajmal,
2016 [36]
Parallel
in vivo
animal
normal/wild
type
rat model
80
10/group 56 days
Fig
fruit peel, pulp
and leaves
Control diet ↑Insulin ↓Glucose
Leaf extract
Fig
peel, pulp, leaf
↑fiber
↑protein
↑minerals
↑phenolics
↑flavonoids
↑Antioxidant
properties
Irudayaraj, SS,
2016 [109]
Parallel
In vivo
Animal
diabetes
via
STZ
+
High fat diet
(HFD)
rat model
6/group 28 days
Leaf
extract of
Ficusin
20 mg/kg
40 mg/kg
Vehicle
Normal rat
and DB rats
↓Insulin
↓Glucose
fasting
↓
OGTT response
↓TC
↓TG
↓FFA
↓BW
↓SOD
↓Cat
↑GLUT 4
↑PPARγ
adipose tissue
Stalin, C,
2012 [116]
Parallel
in vivo
Animal
Alloxan—
induced DM
rat model
5/groups 21
Fig
fruit extract
100 and
200 mg/kg p.o.
Metformin
500 mg/kg p.o
↓Glucose
fasting
↓TG
fasting
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 18 of 27
Table 3. Cont.
Study Details Intervention Results
First Author
Year
Study Type
Design Subject Detail Sample
Size Duration Fig
(Tx) Control (Tx) Insulin Glucose Other
El-Shobaki,
FA,
2010 [114]
Parallel
in vivo
Animal
Alloxan-
induced DM
rat model
48
6/group 4 weeks
Fig
Fruit and Leaf
extract
5, 10 and 20% fruit
4, 6, 8% leaf extract
Control diet ↓Glucose
fasting in DM
↓lipids
Liver and
Kidney Fxn
improved
Perez, C,
2000 [112]
Parallel
in vivo
Animal
non-DM
and
DM
STZ-induced
DM
rat model
52
13/group 3 weeks
Leaf
extract
2.5 g/10 mL
Water
↓Insulin
non-DM
↔DM
↓Glucose
fasting in DM
↔Non-DM
Arrows:
↓
(decrease),
↑
(increase),
↔
(no effect). Alloxan induced DM: chemically induced, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, ABA: abscisic acid, BW: body weight, BAT: brown
adipose tissue, CAT: catalase, DM: diabetes mellitus, T2DM: type 2 diabetes mellitus, T1DM: type 1 diabetes mellitus, FFE: figs fruit extract, GLUT4: insulin regulated glucose
transporter, FFA: free fatty acid, HDL: high density lipoprotein, HFD: high fat diet, ITT: insulin tolerance tests, Kidney Fxn: kidney function test, LDL: low density lipoprotein, MDA:
malondialdehyde, OGTT: oral glucose tolerance, PPAR
γ
: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, STZ: streptozotocin, SOD: superoxide dismutase, TC: total cholesterol, TG:
triglyceride, TNFα: tumor necrosis factor alpha, VLDL: very low density lipoprotein, WAT: white adipose tissue.
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 19 of 27
2.4.3. Obesity, Satiety, and Dietary Patterns
Two articles were identified investigating the effect of fig fruit and fig leaf extract
on body weight endpoints in rats (Table 4). The data indicates the anti-obesity activity
of fig fruit when tested in a dose-response study design (100, 150, 200 mg/kg) including
drug control ayurslim [
117
]. The leaf extract also induced weight loss in rodents [
118
]. In
humans, however, no data examining body weight or satiety as a primary outcome variable
was identified in the peer-reviewed literature. Bodyweight monitored as secondary or
tertiary endpoints in other fig research revealed neutral results in humans [
93
] or decreased
body weight in animal models of T2DM [
109
,
110
,
113
]. An assessment of changes in
dietary patterns suggests fig intake (120 g/d, CA Mission) displaces other foods such as
desserts, grains, dairy, and beverages when included in the diet for 5 weeks [
119
] (Table 5).
NHANES data suggest the intake of dried fruits is associated with a lower body mass
index and smaller waist circumference [
120
,
121
]. Overall, the benefits associated with fig
consumption by humans, albeit limited, support further research into the satiety, body
weight, and glycemic control of figs when included in the diet regularly.
Table 4. Obesity.
Study Details Intervention Results
First Author
Year Study Design Animals Used Sample
Size Duration Fig
(Tx) Control (Tx) Endpoints
Animal Research
Surendran, S,
2020 [117]Parallel in vivo Animal Male Swiss
albino mice
25–30 g 3 groups 40 days Fruit
100, 150,
200 mg/kg
Normal diet
Cafeteria Diet
Atherogenic diet
↓BW
Noordam, E,
2019 [118]Parallel in vivo Animal high fat diet
(HFD)-induced
obese rat model
30
5/group 40 days Leaf extract
100, 200,
400 mg/kg Control ↓BW
@400 mg/kg
↓(decrease). BW: body weight.
Table 5. Dietary Patterns.
Study Detail Results
First Author
Year Study Type Design Subject Detail Epi Type Sample Size Key Results
Human Research
Sullivan, VK,
2021 [121]
Epi
Cross Sec
NHANES
2007–2016
US adults
≥20 y Cross-sec
n= 25,590
1 diet record
n= 22,311
2 diet record
Dried fruit consumers, n= 1233
dried fruit intake was 0.04 ±0.001 cup-equivalents and
represented 3.7% of total fruit consumed
Consumers of dried fruit (7.2% of adults) had higher
quality diets than non-consumers (mean ±standard
error Healthy Eating Index 2015 score = 60.6 ±0.5 vs.
52.6 ±0.3; p< 0.001) and
lower mean BMI, waist circumference, and systolic blood
pressure (p< 0.01)
Alshaeri, HK,
2015 [119]Human RCT
crossover 56 y n/A 88
Fig supplementation (120 g/d) on dietary patterns (vs.
standard diet):
↑Ca, ↑K, ↑Mg
Figs displaced in diet:
desserts ~4%, vegetables ~5%,
dairy 10%, grain 23%, beverages 168%
↔blood mineral status
Keast, D,
2011 [120]
Epi
Cross Sec
NHANES
1999–2004
US adults
≥19 years Cross Sec n= 13,292
1 diet record
~7% were dried fruit consumers
Healthy Eating Index 2005 score 59.3 ±0.5 vs. 49.4 ±0.3
in consumers and non-consumers, respectively p< 0.05.
Lower BMI, waist circumference, fewer short fall
nutrients in consumers vs. non-consumers
Arrows:
↑
(increase),
↔
(no effect). BMI: body mass index, Ca: calcium, Epi-cross-sec: epidemiological cross
section. RCT: randomized controlled trial, K: potassium, Mg: magnesium, NHANES: national health and nutrition
examination surveys.
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 20 of 27
2.4.4. Emerging Areas of Figs Health Benefits (Cognitive Function and
Digestive/Gut Health)
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is one of the most common forms of dementia in the elderly
and is one of the most widely researched areas today. Excessive oxidants, such as reactive
oxygen species (ROS) and inflammatory entities, are considered to be at the root of AD
development. Figs are rich in fiber, a number of micronutrients including copper, iron,
manganese, magnesium, potassium, calcium, and vitamin K, and an array of polyphenol
compounds with demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Selected
polyphenol metabolites cross the blood–brain barrier and may influence oxidative stress,
inflammation and other signaling pathways important for disease prevention. During the
last couple of decades, fruits, particularly berries, have been investigated for their effects
on cognitive function. Figs, mainly dark figs, share some of the same types of anthocyanins
as berries that may have effects on the brain. Subash et al. (2016) published on fig fruits
grown in Oman, showing that dietary supplementation with 4% figs protected against
memory decline, increased anxiety-related behavior, and reduced severe impairment in
spatial, position discrimination learning ability, and motor coordination in APPsw/Tg2576
(Tg mice) mice, a standard rodent model for AD. The authors concluded that dietary
supplementation of figs may be useful for improvement in cognitive and behavioral deficits
in AD [122] (Table 6).
Figs have been traditionally used for improving digestive health. Only two studies
have been conducted so far to examine the impact of figs on digestive/gut health, one
involving humans and the other animals. In a randomized control trial conducted in
humans with irritable bowel syndrome with predominant-constipation (IBS-C), dried figs
(45 g) or dried flixweed (30 g) were given to patients. The results showed a substantial
improvement in IBS-symptoms including a reduction in the frequency of pain, defecation,
and hard stool after intake of figs or flixweed compared to the control [
123
]. In an animal
study, the ameliorative effect of Ficus carica L. aqueous extracts (FCAE) was studied in
DSS-induced colitis rats. The FCAE was administered orally to the rats at a dose of
150–300 mg/kg once a day for 7 days. The oral intake of FCAE significantly increased
gastrointestinal transit-ratio and gastric-emptying by hastening their times, and reduced
the constipation severity which was induced by the colitis [
124
] (Table 6). These findings
provide a foundation for future research on the therapeutic properties of figs in improving
digestive health.
Table 6. Cognitive function and gut/digestive health.
Study Details Intervention Results
First Author
Year Study Design Humans/Animals Sample Size Duration Fig Control Various End Points
Cognitive Function
Animal Research
Subash, S,
2016 [122]
in vivo animal
parallel
AD model
of disease
APPsw/Tg2576
(Tg mice) mice
model for AD
vs
wild type
12 Tg mice
6 wild mice
(control, non-Tg) 15 months 4% of diet w/o Fig
Fig prevented memory decline in
Tg mice
Fig prevented declines in spatial,
position discrimination learning
ability, and motor coordination
↓anxiety
Gut/digestive health
Human Research
Pourmasoumi,
M, 2019 [123]RCT Adults with IBS 150 4 months Fig
vs.
Flixweed Control
Flixweed or FIG vs. control:
↓IBS symptoms
↓frequency of pain,
↓distention
↓frequency of defecation
↓hard stool.
↑QOL
↑satisfaction w/bowel habits.
↔abdominal pain severity ↔
C-reactive protein
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 21 of 27
Table 6. Cont.
Study Details Intervention Results
First Author
Year Study Design Humans/Animals Sample Size Duration Fig Control Various End Points
Animal Research
Rtibi, K,
2018 [124]Parallel
in vivo animal
Colitis model
DSS-induced UC
rat model
Not mentioned
in paper 7 days Fig extract
150–300 mg/kg Control
Improved management of several
colitis induced endpoints:
AOX
fecal water content
lipid metabolism
gastric emptying and GI motility
Arrows:
↑
(increase),
↓
(decrease),
↔
(no effect). AD: Alzheimer ’s disease, AOX: antioxidant activity, APPsw:
microinjected mice express a mutated form of human gene for amyloid precursor protein (APP) known as
Swedish mutation, BMI: body mass index, DSS induced UC: dextran-sulfate-sodium-induced ulcerative colitis,
GI: gastrointestinal, IBS: irritable bowel syndrome, QOL: quality of life, RCT: randomized controlled trial,
Tg, transgenic.
3. Potential Mechanisms Involved in Health Benefits of Figs
Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) are continuously formed during
normal metabolic reactions. However, under normal physiological conditions, their levels
are regulated by antioxidant defense systems by both enzymatic and non-enzymatic path-
ways, operating in intracellular and extracellular spaces, preventing or delaying oxidative
damage of cellular compounds [
125
]. In chronic disease conditions such as obesity, diabetes,
and cardiovascular diseases, ROS/RNS are produced excessively, making the redox state
of cells shift towards oxidizing conditions and cause inflammation [
126
]. Figs contain
polyphenolic compounds that have been shown to exert antioxidant activity in
in vitro
sys-
tems [
5
]. However, clinical studies are not available to show the direct antioxidant activity
of the figs in biological systems, but their downstream effects may be apparent in clinical
outcomes. The cardiometabolic benefits of plant polyphenolic compounds are proposed
to be mediated, at least in part, through redox-sensitive cellular signaling pathways that
reduce oxidative stress and inflammation.
4. Summary/Conclusions/Future Research
The phytochemistry of figs grown in different parts of the world other than the USA
is well represented; however, limited information is available about phytochemical com-
position of fig varieties (dried and fresh) grown in the USA. From the available literature
on figs, anthocyanins, rutin, and carotenoids are the primary phytochemical classes repre-
sented in figs, though other flavonoids and phenolic compounds are also present. Darker
varieties and fresh/unprocessed figs tend to have higher densities of select phytochemicals;
however, growing region, variety, harvest time, and agronomic practices all play a role
in phytochemical composition and content. An evaluation of the literature characteriz-
ing the bioavailability of fig nutrients and phytochemicals revealed limited data. Future
studies focused on understanding the bioavailability of phytochemicals in figs after they
are consumed by humans, both in terms of short-term (one-time intake) and long-term
(regular intake for a month or more) interventions will reveal new information about figs
and how they can be applied in the diet to promote specific health objectives. The gut
microbiome is also an area of interest, as changes in the composition and function of the
gut microbiota may affect the bioavailability of the phytochemicals in figs. Research in
animal and human models of health and disease have tested the biological activity of the
fruit/pulp, peels, and leaf extracts consumed over days to weeks. Despite the promising
preliminary research of figs and extracts from fig parts, additional well-controlled human
studies, particularly using fig fruit, will be required to uncover and verify the potential
impact of dietary intake of figs or nutraceutical applications on critical health issues such
as managing cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and supporting gut health. Other areas such
as satiety and cognitive function may also be worthy of exploration as evidence develops.
Nutrients 2023,15, 2623 22 of 27
Supplementary Materials:
The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10
.3390/nu15112623/s1, Table S1: Phytochemicals in Figs.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, methodology and database collection, A.K.S., I.E. and
B.B.-F.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K.S., I.E. and B.B.-F.; writing—review and editing,
A.K.S., M.I., I.E. and B.B.-F.; supervision, project administration and funding acquisition, A.K.S., I.E.
and B.B.-F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by California Fig Advisory Board.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.
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