Literature Review of Emotional Intelligence and Mental Health

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International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume V, Issue VII, July 2021|ISSN 2454-6186
www.rsisinternational.org Page 658
Literature Review of Emotional Intelligence and
Mental Health
Mary Rachelle Reyes-Wapano, PhD
Xavier Ateneo, Cagayan De Oro City, Philippines
Abstract: -The aim of this review paper is twofold: This paper
reviews the concept of emotional intelligence and related terms
such as emotion, intelligence, and emotional intelligence. A
distinction will also be made between the different models of
emotional intelligence, the one that emphasizes mental ability
from those that combine mental abilities with personality traits.
This paper maintains that the Mayer and Salovey definition of
emotional intelligence lends itself to be model that can explain
the adolescent emotional intelligence: that emotional intelligence
as an ability to understand and regulate one’s emotions is an
ability that can be learned and improved; that with age, an
individual’s level of emotional competency progresses.
The second aim of this review is to show and examine the existing
literature on the relationship of emotional intelligence and
mental health. Specifically, this paper reviews the literature on
the relationship between emotional intelligence and anxiety;
relationship between emotional intelligence and depression;
relationship between emotional intelligence and resilience; and
relationship between emotional intelligence and self-efficacy.
This paper contends that emotional intelligence is negatively
predicts anxiety and depression; and positively predicts self-
efficacy and resilience.
I. EMOTION INTELLIGENCE AND RELATED TERMS
ayer and Salovey (2004) describe emotion as one of
three or four sets of mental operations. Motivation,
identified as the first set of mental processes, is activated as a
response to physical drive such as hunger, thirst or sexual
needs, which directs organism to satisfy its survival needs.
They further proposed that emotions seemed to evolve among
mammalian species to point to actual or perceived changes in
the environment and to elicit responses to a changing
environment, whereas cognition allows the organism to solve
problems and learn from its environment and includes
learning, memory, and problem solving, information
processing that is conscious and flexible (Mayer & Salovey,
2004). The term emotional intelligence suggests the
converging of emotion and cognition.
Sternberg (1997) defines intelligence as a “necessity of mental
ability for adaptation in, or shaping or selection of any
environmental context, not just in any one particular
environmental context” (p. 1033). This is similar to the
definition proposed by Weschler in 1958 as the individual’s
“global capacity to act purposely, to think rationally, and to
deal effectively with his environment” (as cited in Mayer &
Ciarrochi, 2006, p. 262). The term “intelligence” generally
implies information gathering, processing the information
gathered, and reasoning using information. In 1921, Terman
(as cited in Sternberg, 2000) described an intelligent
individual as one who can perform abstract thinking.
Traditionally, abstract thinking has been considered as a
significant indicator of intelligence. Typically, intelligence is
regarded as intellectual capacity for problem-solving, analysis,
and abstract reasoning.
Emotional Intelligence
Drawing from this cooperative combination of intelligence
and emotion, emotional intelligence may be defined as a
generic ability in perceiving emotions in oneself and in others,
in managing emotions, and in coping effectively in emotional-
laden situations (Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2009).
The concept of emotional intelligence can be traced to John
Dewey’s conception of social intelligence in 1909: The
“ultimate moral motives and forces are nothing more or less
than social intelligence - the power of observing and
comprehending social situations – and social power-trained
capacities of control-at work in the service of social interests
and aims” (Landy, 2006, p.84). Similarly, Thorndike in 1920
described social intelligence as “the ability to manage and
understand men and women, boys and girls, to act wisely in
human relations” (as cited in Zeidner et al., 2009, p. 6).
Thorndike’s 1937 social intelligence refers to one’s ability to
understand and deal with other people and to engage in
meaningful, adaptive interaction with them (Thorndike, 1920,
as cited in Zeidner et al., 2009). This is thought to be the
individual’s ability to process and utilize emotional
information related to key areas of effective functioning in
everyday life (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). It is a combination of
factors that is found to be related to motivation (Christie,
Jordan, Troth, Lawrence, 2007); impulse control (Tice,
Bratslavsky, & Baumeister, 2001); mood regulation (Gohm)
2003 and the ability to persist in the face of frustration (Yoo &
Salovey, 2008). Evidence reveals that emotional intelligence
is a predictor of academic (Downey, Mountstephen, Lloyd,
Hansen, & Stough, 2008) and professional (Abraham, 2005)
success.
II. MODELS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
This paper attempts to make distinction among different
models of emotional intelligence, the one that emphasizes
mental ability from those that combine mental abilities with
personality traits.
M

International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume V, Issue VII, July 2021|ISSN 2454-6186
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Currently, there are three major models of emotional
intelligence. The model proposed by Salovey and Mayer
(1997) conceives of EI as an ability to reason with emotions
and to utilize emotions to enhance thoughts. The second
model proposed by Bar-On (1997) perceives EI as a mix of
cognitive intelligence and aspects of personality and emphasis
is placed on how the combination of cognitive ability and
personality characteristics contribute to one’s wellbeing. The
model proposed by Goleman (1998) also conceptualizes EI as
a mixed ability, that is, involving cognitive skills and
personality aspects with emphasis on workplace success.
Mayer and Salovey four branch model
The Mayer and Salovey EI model (Salovey & Mayer, 1990)
integrates key concepts from the theories of intelligence and
emotion. The notion that intelligence involves the capacity to
carry out abstract reasoning comes from intelligence theory
while the notions that emotions are indicators that
communicate general and understandable meaning about
relationships and that certain emotions are basic as they are
universal come from emotion research (Mayer, Salovey, &
Caruso, 2002 ). The Mayer and Salovey model proposed that
there are individual differences in how people process
emotion-laden information and how they relate emotional
processing to general cognition.
They further conceive of this emotional ability to manifest
itself in certain adaptive behaviors.
Based on the model of intelligence, the Mayer and Salovey EI
model attempts to define emotional intelligence within the
context of the standard criteria for intelligence (Mayer,
Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003). This model proposes
that emotional intelligence is composed of two areas: (a)
experiential ability, which is the ability to perceive, respond
and, (b) regulate emotion without the necessity of
understanding; and strategic ability, which relates to the
ability to understand and manage emotions without the
necessity of adequate perception of feelings. In turn, each
area is segregated into two branches, hence, the term “four
branch model.” The four branch model of EI then refers to the
four areas of competencies that collectively illustrate the
divisions of emotional intelligence. This model describes EI
as divided into four areas: (a) emotional perception, (b)
emotional assimilation, (c) emotional understanding, and (d)
emotional management (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004).
This model is illustrated in Figure 1.
The first Branch, emotional perception, the initial and basic
area, and involves the capacity to identify emotion in others’
facial and postural expressions. This includes the nonverbal
perception and reception of emotions expressed via the face,
voice, and other related communication (Ekman & Friesen,
1975, as cited in Mayer et al., 2004).The accurate perception
of emotion is the basis of the processing of emotional
information. This first area of EI then, which relates to the
capacity to correctly perceive emotions through nonverbal
channels, provides an essential basis for more advanced
understanding of emotions. The abilities involved in this first
branch include: the ability to identify emotion in one’s bodily
states, feelings and thought; the ability to express emotions
accurately, and to express needs related to those feelings; and
the ability to distinguish between accurate and inaccurate,
honest or dishonest feeling expressions.
The second Branch, emotional assimilation, involves the
capacity of emotions to guide the cognitive system and
promote thinking. After emotion is perceived, emotion may
facilitate thinking at the basic levels of processing. This
branch, also referred to as “emotional integration” focuses on
the contribution of emotion to logic and reasoning (Mayer,
Salovey & Caruso, 2000). This model demonstrates how
emotions facilitate cognition in several ways: First, emotions
may present cues and prioritizations of problems directing
thinking toward matters that are considered as most critical.
Emotions act as an interrupt or cue when it allows the
individual to respond to the most pressing needs in real.
Branch1: Perception, Appraisal and Expression of Emotion
Ability to
identify
emotion in
one's physical
states,
feelings, and
thoughts.
Ability to identify
emotions in other
people, designs,
artwork, etc.
through language,
sound,
appearance, and
behaviour.
Ability to
express
emotions
accurately and
to express
needs related to
those feelings.
Ability to
discriminate
between
accurate and
inaccurate,
honest versus
dishonest
expressions of
feeling.
Branch 2: Emotional Facilitation of Thinking
Emotions
prioritize
thinking by
directing
attention to
important
information.
Emotions are
sufficiently vivid
and available that
they can be
generated as aids
to judgment and
memory
concerning
feelings.
Emotional
mood swings
change the
individual's
perspective
from optimistic
to pessimistic,
encouraging
consideration
of multiple
points of view.
Emotional
states
differentially
encourage
specific
problem-
solving
approaches
such as when
happiness
facilitates
inductive
reasoning and
creativity.
Branch 3: Understanding and Analyzing Emotions; Employing
Emotional Knowledge
Ability to
label
emotions and
recognize
relations
among the
words and the
emotions
themselves,
such as the
relation
between
liking and
loving
Ability to
interpret the
meanings that
emotions convey
regarding
relationships,
such as that
sadness often
accompanies a
loss.
Ability to
understand
complex
feelings:
simultaneous
feelings of love
and hate or
blends such as
awe as a
combination of
fear and
surprise.
Ability to
recognize
likely
transitions
among
emotions, such
as the
transition from
anger to
satisfaction or
from anger to
shame

International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume V, Issue VII, July 2021|ISSN 2454-6186
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Branch 4: Reflective Regulation of Emotion to Promote Emotional and
Intellectual Growth
Ability to stay
open to
feelings, both
those that are
pleasant and
those that are
unpleasant.
Ability to
reflectively
engage or detach
from an emotion
depending upon
its judged
informativeness
or utility.
Ability to
reflectively
monitor
emotions in
relation to
oneself and
others, such as
recognizing
how clear,
typical,
influential or
reasonable they
are.
Ability to
manage
emotion in
oneself and
others by
moderating
negative
emotions and
enhancing
pleasant ones,
without
repressing or
exaggerating
information
they may
convey.
Time (Maes, 1996). Emotions, too, can allow the perceiver to
prioritize cues such that the most effective cues are entered
into the problem-directed thinking (Matthews, 1997).
Secondly, emotions also aid cognition by functioning as a
second memory store about the emotion itself. Thirdly,
emotions aid intelligence through the act of mood changing or
cycling. Lastly, mood can facilitate thought by representing
implied information about past experiences.
The third Branch, emotional understanding, represents the
ability to analyze emotions, understand their probable patterns
over time, and recognize their outcomes. The development of
this branch corresponds with the development of language and
propositional thought (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). This
is the branch that most resembles conventional intelligence
(Mayer, 2000). As is conventional intelligence, this third
branch involves processing which specific functions include
understanding, abstracting, and reasoning about emotional
information. This mental processing involves naming feelings,
understanding the connections and combinations they reflect,
and the transitions that they undergo.
The fourth Branch, emotional regulation, represents emotional
management to promote emotional and intellectual growth.
Openness to emotions is the initial point of emotional
regulation (Mayer, 2001).Openness to emotional information
will allow one to understand one’s emotional world. When
one is open to feelings of anger, he is able to see personal
injustices done; or when one is open to sadness, he is able to
appreciate personal losses. Openness is not the end of
emotional management: An individual who is open to his or
her own feelings uses the information from the perception (the
first branch), integration (the second branch), and
understanding of emotion (the third branch) to best manage
his or her emotions.
The hierarchy of the Branches, from perception to
management, represents the extent to which the competency is
integrated within the individual’s personality. This model
proposes that Branch 1, perception and expression of emotion,
and Branch 2, the capacity of emotion to facilitate thought, are
considered to be distinct areas of information processing that
are expected to be organized within the emotion system.
Branch 3 involves the ability to understand and analyze
emotions, including those that are complex and simultaneous;
and Branch 4 involves openness to emotions, and the ability to
manage emotions reflectively. There is also a developmental
progression of emotional competencies within each branch,
from the basic to the more advanced (Mayer et al., 2004).
From within this model, emotional intelligence is defined as:
The capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to
enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately
perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to
assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional
knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to
promote emotional and intellectual growth (p. 197).
The mental ability model of Mayer and Salovey (2000)
conceives of emotional intelligence as similar to other
intelligences such as cognitive intelligence to the extent that it
meets three empirical requirements. Mayer, Salovey and
Caruso EI model (2000) enumerates these criteria: First,
mental problems have definite correct and incorrect answers
assessed by systematic scoring method; second, it correlates
with other measures of mental ability; and third, ability
increases with age.
The use of integrated definition of emotional intelligence
within the ability model has many scientific advantages:
First, the ability model definition excludes personality
attributes, such as initiative, as this is conceptually separable
from and is not directly associated to emotional intelligence.
The clarity of the EI definition within the ability model allows
scholars and practitioners to communicate clearly about the
subject matter that is measured or studied, to effectively
integrate EI with other variables being studied, to differentiate
EI from other personality variables, to use measures with
confidence that the measure will assess the EI (Mayer, et al.,
2000). The Mayer and Salovey EI model predicts that
individuals with high levels of emotional intelligence have
probably been raised with emotionally adaptive households;
are less likely to act defensively; are able to perceive
emotional issues effectively; choose healthy role models for
emotional health; are able to express their feelings openly, and
have knowledge in specific areas such as social problem-
solving, moral or spiritual feelings, and leadership (Mayer &
Salovey, 1995).
Furthermore, this EI model also predicts that individuals with
higher levels of emotional intelligence are likely to have better
social support and fewer problematic relations; are more
satisfied with their social interactions and appear to receive
more social support; and they seem to be more successful at
evading fights of a social nature, arguments or interpersonal
violence. In essence then, high EI involves increased success
at resolution of personal conflicts and decreased levels of
interpersonal conflict (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004).

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The succeeding part of this review is to show two other
models of emotional intelligence: the Bar-on Model of
emotional intelligence and the Goleman model of emotional
intelligence.
Bar-On model of Emotional-social intelligence.
\Another model of emotional intelligence was proposed by
Bar-On (1997) who was among the first to develop
assessment measures for emotional intelligence and who used
the term “emotional quotient.”
Bar-On (1997) describes emotional intelligence as
“emotional-social intelligence is a cross-section of
interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and
facilitators that determine how well we understand and
express ourselves, understand others and relate with them,
and cope with daily demands, challenges and pressures” (p.
14 ).
Emotional intelligence is conceived as a range of emotional
and social skills that affect intelligent behaviour. In this
model, Bar-On (1997) proposed five components of emotional
intelligence: (a) intrapersonal, the ability to understand and
express one’s feelings and self; (b) interpersonal, the ability to
be aware of, understand and relate to others; (c) stress
management, the ability to deal with demanding situations; (d)
adaptability, the ability to adapt to a changing environment;
and (e) general mood, which involves self-motivation.
In the Bar-On EI model (2006), within each component are
subcomponents of emotional competencies. The intrapersonal
component includes self-regard, emotional self–awareness,
assertiveness, independence and self-actualization. The
interpersonal component involves empathy, social
responsibility, and interpersonal relationship. Stress
management factor involves stress tolerance and impulse
control. Adaptability or change management includes reality
testing, flexibility and problem solving. The factor general
mood involves happiness and optimism.
The Bar-On EI (2006) model links emotional intelligence to
the probability of success rather than to actual performance or
actual success. This model predicts that individuals who
possess emotional competencies are better able in meeting
environmental demands than individuals with poor emotional
skills. Bar-On (2006) considers difficulty with coping to
environmental demands and pressures as deficiency in the
subcomponents of reality testing, problem solving, stress
tolerance and impulse control. Overall, the Bar-On EI model
considers emotional and cognitive intelligence as essential
components to an individual’s general intelligence, which in
turn gives an indication of his or her potential for success
(Bar-On, 2006).
The Bar-On EI model proposed to combine what are generally
considered as mental abilities with other qualities distinct
from mental ability as personal autonomy, self-esteem, and
affect. This attempt to combine mental ability and non-mental
ability characteristics makes the Bar-On model a mixed
model. In this perspective, EI is conceived as a personality
trait or set of traits that relate to emotional management and
functioning (Petrides & Furnham, 2003). Because in this
model, EI is not perceived as a cognitive ability in the
traditional sense, assessment with a questionnaire is
acceptable (Zeidner, Roberts, & Matthews, 2009).
EI scholars such as Zeidner et al., (2009) consider the Bar-On
model as systematic in its approach in its attempt to outline
the specific abilities that affect adjustment to real-world
environment.
The Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory is regarded as one
of the first systematic measures of EI. It is shown to have met
conventional psychometric criteria, and its scales show
acceptable internal validity as well as convergent validity
(Bar-On, 2004). This measure has also been shown to
correlate significantly with other assessment tools of well-
being and mental health.
The Bar-On EI model, although extensive, remains
conservative in its predictive claims (Mayer et al., 2000). For
example, while this model predicts success, Bar-On described
success as the outcome of personal striving.
Daniel Goleman theory of personal and social competencies
This review presents Goleman’s EI theory to examine how it
contrasts to other EI model. The Goleman emotional
intelligence model outlines four key emotional intelligence
constructs The first construct is self-awareness which is the
ability to accurately perceive one’s feelings and includes
emotional competencies; the second, self-management, relates
to the ability to regulate one’s emotions and impulses and the
ability to adjust to changing environmental conditions; the
third, social awareness involves the ability to understand and
respond to another’s emotions; and, the fourth construct,
relationship management .
Goleman (1995) suggests that emotional competencies are
learned and are thus not innate talents and further posits that
individuals possess a general emotional intelligence which
affects their ability to learn emotional competencies.
Goleman (1995, p. xii) describes “the abilities called here
emotional intelligence, which include self-control, zeal, and
persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself. Further,
Goleman asserts, “there is an old fashioned word for the body
of skills that emotional intelligence represents: character”
(Goleman, 1995, p.28).
Goleman’s EI theory has been criticized on many fronts.
Critics view Goleman’s EI theory as extending the limits of
the general intelligence theory (Zeidner, et al., 2009). For
example, Goleman (2001) includes qualities that reflect
personality components such as optimism, self-control, and
moral character as components of intelligence. Additionally,
Goleman (1995) suggested that EI is fluid, that is, it can be
learned and developed over time.

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This is in contrast to the view of cognitive intelligence as
relatively stable. Furthermore, Goleman (1995) argues that EI
is related to moral character; whereas, conventionally,
intelligence is considered as a set of capabilities and skills that
serve the motives of the well- and the ill-intent. Central to the
critique of the Goleman EI theory is its inclusion of every
positive characteristics, such as sensitivity and optimism, that
cannot be considered as cognitive intelligence (Zeidner et al.,
2009). Zeidner et al. (2009) also point to the circularity of the
EI definition: Goleman (1995) argues that the EI qualities
listed in his framework are emotional competencies, and
hence, learned based on emotional intelligence. In addition,
the Goleman EI definition emphasized that EI is learned and
developed over time. This is in contrast to what psychological
theories hold which conceives of mental ability as aptitude,
that is, there exists a natural disposition to learn certain mental
skills (Zeidner et a.l, 2009).
Synthesis
The Bar-On and the Goleman EI models are generally
considered as mixed models (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso,
2000) in that both initially conceived of EI as a mental ability
and that both expanded the conception of EI by including
“non ability traits” (Mayer et al., 2000, p. 402).
The strengths of both of these mixed models of EI are the
breadth of the models. Both include a wide range of traits with
face validity such as leadership, empathy, and teamwork.
Moreover, these traits resonate with practitioners in the human
resource arena and those that hold corporate leadership
positions. The claim of predictive validity to life outcomes is
considered one of the strengths of the mixed models (Salovey,
Brackett, & Mayer, 2004).
One of the limitations of the mixed models is that the traits
outlined in the mixed model are accounted for by the five-
factor model (Digman, 1990, as cited in Salovey, Brackett, &
Mayer, 2004) as well as traits in leadership studies.
Additionally, the mixed model of Goleman is ambiguous on
how the emotional competencies are organized and how they
conceptually differ from each other. Other researchers claim
that EI in the mixed model does not exist as a construct
distinct from other personality traits (Davis, Stankow &
Roberts, 1998).
In contrast, the Mayer and Salovey model (1990, 1997)
highlights emotion themselves and their relationship with
cognition, whereas the mixed models of Goleman (1995) and
BarOn (1997) focus on mental abilities and other qualities.
Goleman’s (1995) five-dimension model includes intra- and
inter-personal qualities and interaction between feeling and
thought. Bar-On’s (1997) five-dimension model is also
divided into intrapersonal traits and emotional states. Mayer
and Salovey’s (1997) four-branch model focused on
emotional-cognitive interactions.
The general concept of EI in the Mayer and Salovey model
(1990, 1993) had been shown to be consistent over time. This
suggests that the formulation of the EI concept remained,
which in turn implies that the concept of EI is distinct in
relation to other characteristics of an individual and thus, can
be reliably examined.
Mayer (2004) also offered the psychoeducational advantages
of their EI model, those that relate to testing and teaching
another person about emotional intelligence: He argued that
their EI model is sufficiently logical, that it is comprehensible
to the general population, and that it allows additional
understanding of that part of personality not known before.
In addition, Mayer (2004) argued for the expansive
advantages of their EI model. These expansive advantages
pertain to the ability of the model to allow a person to explore
and understand himself or herself in the context of a coherent
EI concept with defined sub areas that is the four-branches of
the model. The focused definition of EI allows individuals to
differentiate and distinguish it as an essential psychological
aspect of the person.
This paper then argues that the Mayer and Salovey definition
of emotional intelligence lends itself to be model that can
explain the adolescent emotional intelligence: that emotional
intelligence as an ability to understand and regulate one’s
emotions is an ability that can be learned and improved; that
with age, an individual’s level of emotional competency
progresses.
III. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ADOLESCENT
MENTAL HEALTH
The second aim of this review paper to show and examine the
existing literature on the relationship between emotional
intelligence and mental health: Specifically, the literature on
the relationship between emotional intelligence and anxiety;
emotional intelligence and depression; emotional intelligence
and resilience; and emotional intelligence and self-efficacy.
Literature suggests that among adolescents, emotional
intelligence is found to help reduce stress by decreasing
conflict, improving relationships and understanding one’s own
emotions. This kind of emotional health is fundamental to
effective learning and education (Serrat, 2009). Understanding
the process and elements of learning, which necessarily
involves self-efficacy, self-regulation, and ability to
communicate and cooperate, in themselves essential aspects of
emotional intelligence, are also critical to student success
(Zimmerman, Bandura, & Pons, 1992).
Stressful events, such as starting college life, moving to a new
city, separation from friends, or loss of a parent, can prompt
the onset of anxiety symptoms among adolescents. Among
adolescents, anxiety disorder can be difficult to diagnose as an
adolescent’s behavior is often attributed to being “just a
phase.” When not addressed or left untreated, anxiety
disorders can persist and interfere severely with an
adolescent’s life and can lead to missed school days, strained
peer relations, low self-esteem, alcohol or substance abuse
(Stein & Hollander, 2001).

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Moreover, anxiety is the most common emotional and mental
health problems that occur during adolescence. As many as 1
in 10 adolescents suffer from anxiety disorder, with more
females than males affected (Bell, Foster, & Mash, 2005).
This is consistent with the study of Lewinsohn, Lewinsohn,
and Allen (1998) which showed prevalence of anxiety
disorders among females, and that this prevalence appears
early in life, at age six, and that females are shown to be
twice as likely to experience anxiety disorder than are males.
About half of adolescents with anxiety disorders are co
morbid with other mental or behavioral disorders, or with a
second anxiety disorder, depression (Aina & Susman, 2006).
Among adolescents, depression can be a temporary response
to stressors (Chua, 2002). A depressed mood is not
uncommon due to maturation, the stresses connected with it,
the impact of hormonal changes, and independence issues
with parents. The study of Dulcan and Wiener (2006) showed
that depression, as is anxiety, is difficult to diagnose in
adolescence as normal adolescent behavior is marked by
fluctuations of moods.
Depression is also manifested differently among adolescents.
Prolonged emotional pain may also lead to serious physical
problems as in erratic eating and sleeping habits (Foa &
Andrews, 2006). When left unrecognized, unaddressed or
untreated, depression and anxiety impact every aspect of an
adolescent’s life (Saluja, Iachan, Scheidt, Overpeck, Sun, &
Giedd, 2004).
The negative effects of teenage depression go far beyond
feelings of melancholy: those who are seriously depressed
think of and speak of attempts at suicide (Wolf, 1998).
On the other hand, studies have shown that emotional
intelligence has a protective effect against suicidal ideation
and attempts (Cha & Nock, 2009); against stress
(Mikolajczak, Menil, & Luminet, 2007); and against
depression (McDougall, 2006). Moreover, studies reveal
that emotional intelligence has a facilitative effect on overall
health and life satisfaction (Landa, Zafra, Martos, & Aguilar-
Luzón, 2006).
This part of the review paper presents and evaluates the
literature that shows that emotional intelligence predicts
mental health of adolescents: Specifically, this paper
maintains that emotional intelligence negatively predicts
anxiety and depression; and emotional intelligence positively
predicts resilience and self-efficacy.
Mental Health
Mental health may be defined from a deficit model and a
positive model. In the context of deficit model, mental health
may be described as the absence of or lack of diagnosable
disease. On the other hand, from the positive model, mental
health is defined as a state of physical, social, and mental
well-being (Creek & Lougher, 2008). The definition from the
World Health Organization (2005) corresponds closely to the
positive conception of mental health: that it is as a state of
“well-being in which the individual realizes his or her
abilities, can cope with normal stresses of life, can work
productively and fruitfully” (p.18).
The Health Education Authority (1997, as cited in Creek,
Lougher, & Van Bruggen, 2008) described mental health as
the form of emotional and spiritual resilience, the ability to
withstand taxing demands and daily challenges. The Scottish
Public Mental Health Alliance (2002, as cited in Creek and
Lougher, 2008) proposed that mental health as a positive
resource that enables one to cope with life’s demanding
conditions and identified sense of self-worth and esteem,
empathy, the ability to express emotions, to form and maintain
healthy relationships, to effectively communicate as core
attributes of an individual with positive mental health.
Mental health is also conceived as a continuum in which
individuals vary on a progression of values (Keyes, 2009).
This notion of mental health as a continuum conceives of
mental health as positive and adaptive functioning on one end,
and negative and impaired functioning on the other end (Tsai,
2005). The positive and adaptive end of mental health
continuum involves the ability to adapt to change and cope
with adversity and to effectively produce positive change.
The other end of the continuum involves conditions
characterized by changes or abnormalities of mood, thinking
or behavior (Alexander, Larosa, & Alexander, 2009).
Studies have shown evidence for the relationship between
emotional intelligence and mental health. The study of Gupta
and Shusil (2010) revealed the positive correlation between
emotional intelligence and mental health among college
students. Other related studies such as that of Velasco,
Fernandez, Paez, and Campos (2006) found evidence of the
relationship of emotional intelligence to life adjustment of
university students. Fernandez-Berrocal, Alcaide, Extremera,
and Pizarro (2006) found evidence that the ability to regulate
mood among adolescents was positively related to self-
esteem; that self-reported emotional intelligence was
negatively related to depression and anxiety; and that the
ability to discriminate among feelings and the ability to
regulate emotional states are linked to better mental health.
Some studies have provided support for the predictive nature
of emotional intelligence in adolescent adjustment: For
example, Rubin (1999) showed that among adolescents,
emotional intelligence was inversely related to aggression;
Trinidad and Johnson (2002) revealed that higher emotional
intelligence scores were related to lower smoking and alcohol
use among high school students. Likewise, Mayer et al. (2001)
suggested that emotional intelligence appears to be related to
adolescents’ ability to organize emotions that affect their peer
relationships. Evidence also showed that adolescents with
high perception of their emotional abilities, specified as high
emotional clarity and repair, generally reported better life
adjustment, defined in terms of lower perceived stress and
higher life satisfaction (Extremera, Duran, & Ray, 2006).

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Moreover, Wong and Ang (2007) explored the relationship
between emotional competencies (i.e., intrapersonal skills,
interpersonal skills, adaptability skills, and stress
management) with four factors of maladjustment (i.e.,
antisocial behavior, anger control problems, emotional
distress, and negative self-problems) in an Asian sample.
Their results indicate that stress management skills
significantly predict overall maladjustment, antisocial
behavior, anger control problems, emotional distress and
negative self-problems among adolescents. Interpersonal skills
significantly predicted negative self-problems whereas
intrapersonal skills and adaptability did not significantly
predict maladjustment factors. There is, then, growing
support that emotional intelligence among adolescents is
related to positive behavioral and social outcomes.
The studies mentioned above show that emotional abilities are
an important and unique contributor to mental health, but
there is still a need for more research aimed at validation of
these claims among adolescent samples. To date, there exists
a knowledge gap on causal associations of some of EI
predictors, EI, and mental health.
Relationship of EI to Resilience and Self-efficacy
This part of the paper presents the extant literature showing
that EI predicts adolescent resilience and self-efficacy.
Specifically, this paper argues that certain dimensions of the
EI branch, employing emotional knowledge, labeled as
flexible thinking, creative thinking, redirected attention and
motivation (Mayer & Salovey, 1990) are linked to resilience
and self-efficacy.
In this paper, self-efficacy is conceptualized as a person’s
beliefs about his capabilities to produce a certain level of
performance that exercises influence over events that affect
his life (Bandura, 1998); and resilience is conceptualized as
the individual’s capacity to withstand stressors, to thrive and
fulfill one’s potential despite of stressors; to see problems as
opportunity for learning; to adapt positively and responsibly in
the face of adversity, trauma, threat, or stress (Stoltz, 1997).
IV. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND RESILIENCE
Prince-Embury (2007) defined resilience as the “ability to
weather adversity or to bounce back from a negative
experience” (p. 11). She also identified the three constructs of
resilience that allow for a multidimensional understanding and
assessment of resilience, namely, sense of mastery, sense of
relatedness, and emotional reactivity. This study focused on
sense of mastery and emotional reactivity as literature
suggests that these two are closely related to emotional
intelligence.
Emotional reactivity is viewed as a person’s susceptibility or
threshold of tolerance to stimulation prior to adverse
experiences. The aspects of emotional reactivity include
sensitivity, recovery, and impairment (Prince-Embury 2008).
Sensitivity is viewed as the threshold of and intensity of
emotional response; recovery relates to the ability to return
normal functioning after an intense emotional experience; and
impairment is the extent to which one is able to maintain
emotional balance when emotionally aroused.
Research findings suggest a significant relationship between
emotional reactivity, emotional regulation and resilience. For
example, Eisenberg, Spinrad, Fabes, Reiser, Cumberland, and
Shepard (2004) revealed a significant interaction between the
early experience of the child, the development of emotional
reactivity, ability for self-regulation, and beginnings of
psychological dysfunctions. Thus, emotional reactivity within
the average range and that is manageable is an important
aspect of resilience (Prince-Embury, 2007).
Mastery affords an individual to directly affect his or her
environment, and involves optimism, adaptability, and self-
efficacy. Research has also found relationships between EI
and optimism (Extremera, Duran, & Rey, 2007), and EI and
adaptability (Landa, Martos, & Zafra, 2010).
Some studies also point to the relationship between emotional
intelligence and resilience. Connor and Slear (2009) examined
the association between emotional intelligence, anxiety, and
resilience. The results indicated that there exists a positive and
significant relationship between emotional intelligence and
resilience. From the results, the authors suggested that
education must address these particular variables. A similar
study by Bumphus (2009) examined the emotional
intelligence and resilience of school teachers. Findings reveal
that there was a positive relationship between self-reported
emotional intelligence and resilience among school principals.
Specifically, a school leader’s general mood was found to be a
significant predictor of resilience.
However, there is clearly a gap in the literature that examines
the relationship between emotional intelligence and resilience
among adolescent samples, as most studies targeted adult
samples. To date, no existing studies have been found that
examined the connection of EI predictors, EI and resilience.
V. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND SELF-EFFICACY
Mayer and Salovey (1990) argued that emotions “subtly but
systematically influence some of the component and strategies
in problem solving” (p. 196) in four ways: First, emotional
transitions may facilitate the production of several alternative
plans. Second, positive emotions may change the organization
of memory so that cognitive information is better incorporated
and differing material are considered as more related. Third,
Mayer and Salovey (1990) also suggest that emotion provides
“interrupts for complex systems,” (p. 196) removing them
from a routine level of processing and focusing them on more
crucial needs. And last, emotions and moods may be used to
encourage and enhance performance at complicated
intellectual activities (Mayer & Salovey, 1990).
Mayer and Salovey proposed (1990) that moods assist in
flexible planning, creative thinking, and in the redirection of
attention. Moods may facilitate flexibility in planning in that
changes in mood assist people in unpleasant moods to break

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their negative emotional set. As a result, they will then be
more likely to generate alternate future plans for themselves.
Moods may also assist creative thinking and problem solving
through its impact on the organization and information-use in
memory. For example, it is easy for people to classify problem
features as related or unrelated while they are in a pleasant
mood (Isen & Daubman, 1984, as cited in Mayer & Salovey,
1990). Creative problem solving may be influenced by the
positive impact of clarity in classifying information.
Powerful moods re-direct attention to new problems. When an
individual attends to his emotions, it is possible that he is
directed away from the present problem, and is led to a new
concern of critical importance. In this manner, individuals
learn to make the most of the ability of emotional processes to
re-direct attention to the most relevant stimulus in their
environment. Mayer and Salovey (1990) proposed that “affect
can help individuals to reprioritize the internal and external
demands on their attention, and allocate attentional resources
accordingly” (p. 198).
In sum, Mayer and Salovey (1990) maintained that when
individuals approach life tasks with emotional intelligence,
they will be able to solve their “problems adaptively” (p. 199)
They assert that the kinds of problems people recognize and
the way they understand them is, most likely, framed within
an internal emotional experience. Placing a problem in an
emotional frame, individuals are allowed to be creative and
flexible in generating potential alternative solutions to
problems and will tend to integrate emotional aspects when
choosing from among problem-solutions. This approach leads
to behaviours that are “considerate and respectful of the
internal experience of themselves and others” (p. 200).
This aspect of emotional intelligence resembles Langer’s
(1997) concept of mindfulness learning: “the continuous
creation of new categories; openness to new information; and
an implicit awareness of more than one perspective” (Langer,
1997, as cited in Merriam, 2008). Learning from mindfulness
is sourced from different perspectives: seeing problems and
solutions from several viewpoints, attributing new meaning to
outcomes, with a sense of personal control in the conscious
shifting of perspectives, and recognizing the strengths and
weaknesses of point of view (Sykes, 2006).
Research findings also point to the predictive relationship
between emotional intelligence and self-efficacy. For
example, Chan (2004) showed that perceived emotional
intelligence is a significant predictor of self-efficacy.
Specifically, it was noted that the positive regulation
component emerged as the significant predictor for general
self-efficacy while empathic sensitivity is found to predict
self-efficacy in altruistic behaviors. Other researchers have
shown support for the relationship between emotional
intelligence and self-efficacy (Penrose, Perry, & Ball, 2007;
Villanueva, Sánchez, & Howard, 2007; Di Fabio, Giorgi,
Majer, & Palazzeschi, 2005; Huifang, & Jianping, 2007).
Although these studies clearly show a positive relationship
between emotional intelligence, its components, and self-
efficacy, the sample utilized in these studies were adult
samples.
Relationship of EI to Depression and Anxiety
Mayer and Salovey (2001) posit that at the fourth Branch of
EI, individuals are enabled to engage in mood repair
strategies. The model predicts that individuals who are
incapable of regulating their emotions tend to experience
negative affect. The model describes an individual with high
emotional intelligence as one who is able to repair his or her
negative moods, maintain positive affect.
The model describes the steps in the self-regulatory process.
Individuals (a) have confidence in their ability to repair
negative moods as they surface, also known as self-efficacy of
self-regulation; (b) are able to observe their moods accurately;
(c) are able to recognize and distinguish those moods that
require regulation; (d) are able to utilize strategies that will
moderate negative moods and maintain positive ones; and (e)
will evaluate the effective of their mood-regulating strategies.
Mayer and Salovey (2001) hypothesized that individuals have
different expectancies on the ability to alleviate negative
moods: there are those who believe in their capacity to
manage their emotions and in their ability to respond actively
to stress. There are others who are not confident in their
ability for self-mood-regulation. Catanzaro and Greenwood
(as cited in Mayer & Salovey, 2001) found that individuals
with low self-efficacy for regulation manifest avoidance
responses, depressive, and mild somatic symptoms.
Although the model shows that individuals need to attend to
their moods to recognize those that require regulation, the
Mayer and Salovey model further suggests that mere
“attention to moods may not always be adaptive” (p. 287).
Goldman, Nolen-Hoeksema, Morrow, and Frederickson (as
cited in Mayer & Salovey, 2001) found that attention to one’s
moods relates positively to depression and neuroticism. For
example, Swinkles and Guiliano (as cited in Mayer &
Salovey, 2001) found that high mood-monitoring individuals
are prone to experience stronger emotional states and greater
negative affect. Mood-monitoring, although a neutral activity,
may increase rumination and consequently, extend negative
affect experience (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991, as cited in Mayer
& Salovey, 2001).
Mayer and Salovey (2001) suggest that the clarity in
discriminating among moods is related to lower social
anxiety, depression and physical symptom -reporting as well
as to optimism and satisfaction with social and familial
relationships. Salovey (2000) found that individuals who
discriminate clearly their affective states ruminate less after a
negative incident than individuals who report being unclear
about their emotions.
Although mood-monitoring is found to promote rumination,
mood-labeling enables people to develop adaptive strategies
for dealing with their moods. The model suggests that
individuals need to first attend to their moods in order to

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distinguish among them. When one is able to recognize and
classify his moods, it enables one to prolong or change them.
Mayer and Salovey (2000) posit that when attention to moods
is not accompanied with discrimination of moods, the process
becomes maladaptive that can lead to rumination, which in
turn, leads individuals to extremely focus on their mood states
without understanding why they are experiencing them.
Rumination tends to intensify depression, and consequently,
leads to difficulty in dealing with taxing events.
In the model, the ability to reflect upon and manage one’s
emotions is identified as a major aspect of emotional
regulation. The means for emotional self-reflection is through
emotional disclosure. In labeling their emotions, individuals
are able to set a structure on their experiences. This structure
enables individuals to understand and adapt to their
experiences, in turn reducing emotional arousal associated
with the traumatic experience. The model predicts that the
clarity in discriminating among moods is related to lower
social anxiety and depression (Mayer & Salovey, 2001).
VI. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND DEPRESSION
In relation to depression, several studies have demonstrated a
relationship between emotional intelligence and depression
among university students. For example, the study of
Extremera and Fernandez-Berrocal (2006) revealed that high
levels of certain EI dimensions such as emotional clarity and
mood repair were related to low levels of anxiety and
depression, high physical, and social functioning, mental
health, vitality, and general health. Furthermore, their study
confirmed the predictive value of specific EI dimensions
named as attention to emotion, clarity of emotion and mood
repair to levels of depression and other areas related to mental,
social, and physical health among university students.
A similar research by Downey, Johnston, Hansen, Schemberi,
Stough, Tuckwell, and Schweitzer (2008) demonstrated a
similar relationship between low emotional intelligence and
depression: Their study showed that depressed individuals
scored poorly in all emotional intelligence dimensions, which
included expressing emotions and being self-aware,
understanding the emotions of others, utilizing emotions to
guide decision making, managing emotions, and controlling
emotions, compared to their non-depressed counterparts.
Specific relationships between severity of depression and the
EI dimensions of managing and controlling emotions
appeared in the study of Ciarrochi, Deanne, and Anderson
(2000). They found that emotional intelligence made a unique
contribution to understanding the relationship between stress
and three important mental health variables, namely,
depression, hopelessness, and suicidal ideation. Their study
showed that there is greater suicidal ideation among those low
in managing their own and others’ emotions. Moreover,
Pons’ (1997) path analysis result showed emotional
intelligence to be positively related to an adaptive form of
goal orientation and with life satisfaction and to be negatively
related to depression symptomatology. There is, then,
evidence from literature that shows a negative relationship
between emotional intelligence and depression.
VII. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND ANXIETY
A negative relationship between emotional intelligence and
anxiety is implied in much of the emotional intelligence
literature. For instance the regression analyses results of Siu’s
(2009) study reported similar results: the poor use of emotions
led to higher levels of problem behaviors, such as depression,
aggression and delinquency while a higher degree of self-
management led to less anxiety. This study supported the
study of Drago (2004) which indicated the relationship of
student anxiety to certain emotional intelligence abilities.
Using an Asian sample of college students from several
universities in Guangzhou, China, Wang (2002) revealed that
emotional intelligence scores were negatively correlated with
anxiety level and depression. He concluded that emotional
intelligence plays an important role in college students’
mental health.
Additionally, Summerfeldt, Kloosterman, and Parker (2009)
found that emotional intelligence is highly related to social
anxiety. The same study also indicated that EI was a dominant
predictor of interpersonal adjustment. In particular, the
interpersonal and intrapersonal domains of EI contributed
significantly to social adjustment. Likewise, Latorre and
Montañes (2004) showed a negative relationship between
anxiety and emotional clarity, emotion repair, and life
satisfaction. The study of Berrocal, Alcaide, Extremera, and
Pizarro (2006) showed comparable results where self-reported
emotional intelligence was negatively related to anxiety and
depression. Jorge and Garcia (2009) examined the
interactions between EI and several variables indicative of
mental health, personal welfare and life satisfaction among
teenagers, and revealed a negative relationship between
perceived emotional intelligence and psychological disorders,
such as depression and anxiety. The results of these studies
support the hypothesis that emotional intelligence is
significantly related to anxiety.
In general, aspects of emotional intelligence are inversely
related to anxiety and depression and are negative predictors
of healthy positive mental health. Although these studies have
clearly demonstrated the relationship of anxiety and
depression to EI, the relationship of these mental health
components and EI to EI predictors are, as of yet, unexamined
among Filipino adolescents.
VIII. SUMMARY
This review paper has two-fold aims: Firstly, this paper
reviewed the concept of emotional intelligence and related
terms such as emotion, intelligence, and emotional
intelligence. A distinction was be made between the different
models of emotional intelligence, the one that emphasizes
mental ability from those that combine mental abilities with
personality traits.

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This paper maintains that the Mayer and Salovey definition of
emotional intelligence lends itself to be model that can explain
the adolescent emotional intelligence: that emotional
intelligence as an ability to understand and regulate one’s
emotions is an ability that can be learned and improved; and
that with age, an individual’s level of emotional competency
progresses.
Secondly, this paper also showed and examined the existing
literature on the relationship of emotional intelligence and
mental health. Specifically, this paper reviewed the literature
on the relationship between emotional intelligence and
anxiety; relationship between emotional intelligence and
depression; relationship between emotional intelligence and
resilience; and relationship between emotional intelligence
and self-efficacy. From the examined literature, this paper
shows that emotional intelligence negatively predicts anxiety,
depression, and emotional reactivity; and positively predicts
self-efficacy and resilience, as shown by the existing
literature.
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