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1
The performance of different ventilation methods
in residential kitchens with different spatial
organizations: A literature review
Jing Zhang a, Jun Gao a,*, Jian Wang a,b,** , Changsheng Cao a, Mengxiao Xie a,b, Lingjie Zeng a，
Lipeng Lv a
a Institute of HVAC Engineering, School of Mechanical Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai
200092, China
b Tongji Architectural Design (Group) Co,. Ltd., Shanghai 200092, China
*corresponding author
Email Address: gaojun-hvac@tongji.edu.cn (J Gao)
**corresponding author
Email Address: wangjiantjad@tongji.edu.cn (J Wang)
Abstract：Studies have shown that the ventilation is of great significance in controlling
the harmful cooking oil fume (COF) that is generated during cooking process and is
mainly composed of thermal oxidation decomposition products produced by the
chemical reactions of food and oil at high temperature. In order to fully understand the
performance of the ventilation system and to assess the suitable ventilation methods for
various spatial organizations of residential kitchens (RKs), this paper reviewed and
summarized the presented literatures on the ventilation methods and the assessment
index used for ventilation system in residential kitchens via a literature research of
Revised Manuscript with No Changes Marked Click here to view linked References
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publications. The results showed that three assessment index can be used to evaluate the
performance of the ventilation system and six ventilation methods have been employed
in the three kinds of spatial organizations of RKs. The performance of the ventilation
system and the indoor environment varies very large between different ventilation
methods and spatial organization of the kitchen. Among the existing ventilation methods,
the use of the natural ventilation does not provide a reliable indoor environment and the
use of the mechanical ventilation with natural make-up air does not provide a
satisfactory indoor environment in RKs. The use of the organized make-up air and high-
efficiency range hood are effective methods to improve the performance of the
ventilation system in RKs. The new measurements to improve the performance of the
ventilation system and the strategies to prevent the COF disperses to the adjacent room
in the open kitchen should be further studied to create a good indoor environment in
RKs. The results of this study will facilitate to design and choose the suitable ventilation
methods in RKs.
Keywords: ventilation; residential kitchens; air distribution; spatial organization;
indoor air quality
1. Introduction
3
Residential Kitchens (RKs), the place for daily practice in most residential houses,
are relatively smaller in size but the main source of the indoor pollutants of the non-
smoking houses [1, 2] and one of the most main source of the outdoor pollutants [3].
The pollutants generated from cooking process are characterized by a large amount
emission and the complex and varied emission scenarios, and are mainly composed of
waste heat, gaseous pollutants including CO/CO2/SO2/NOX, VOCs, etc., and particulate
pollutants including fine particles and PAHs [4-6]. Exposure to cooking oil fume (COF)
can cause a wide range of symptoms of respiratory [7, 8], increase the risk of oxidative
DNA damage [9-11] and even increase the risk of lung cancer [10, 12, 13].
Kitchen ventilation, combined with other factors such as fuels, cooking
temperature, oils applied, food ingredients, greatly affects the level of the pollutant in
the kitchen [4, 14-16]. Among them, improving the efficiency of kitchen ventilation can
reduce or compensate for the adverse effects by these listed other factors on the indoor
air quality (IAQ) of the kitchen. High-performance ventilation systems can effectively
reduce the pollutant and maintain the good indoor air quality in RKs. However,
ventilation in kitchens often fail to meet the requirement for ventilation and air quality
in RKs [17-19]. A questionnaire in China showed that about 90% of people were
adversely affected by COF during cooking [20]. A survey of 180 households in South
4
Korea indicated that 16.7% residential kitchens did not apply any ventilation during
cooking [21]. These two studies also showed that 12–30% households had no make-up
air for the range hood, which represented a typical scenario of inefficient kitchen
ventilation.
There are two main reasons for the insufficient ventilation in RKs. First, the
parametric design of ventilation in the kitchen is insufficient, ventilation technology is
inadequate, unstructured, and not specialized. The second reason for the insufficient is
that the kitchen ventilation is not paid enough attention in the process of design and use.
In order to guide the better improvement of the kitchen indoor environment, it is
necessary to conduct a review on presented technologies, evaluation methods, parameter
ranges and design methods of the ventilation in RKs.
There are already many review articles on the types, quantities and influence
factors of the contaminants generated from cooking procedure [4, 15, 16, 22]. The
interventions such as using the improved stove and clean fuels to reduce the pollutants
in the kitchen using solid fuel are reported by Quansah [23] and Pope [24]. There are
also many review articles that provide a partial summary of kitchen ventilation
technology. Han [25] reviewed the capture efficiency, influence factors and method to
determine the airflow rate of the exhaust hood in Chinese commercial and industrial
5
kitchen. Zhao [26] reviewed the particulate pollution, the influence factors of the
performance of the range hood and the supply air distribution strategy in the commercial
and residential kitchen. Liu [27] discussed the exhaust rate of the range hood in Chinese
RKs, and summarized and proposed the way to control fume diffusion by using air
curtain. These reviews helped us understand the amount of the pollutants emitted during
cooking, influence factors of the pollutants emission, and a partial of kitchen ventilation
technology. Our literature search find that there is no summary of new researches and
knowledge about the evaluation index of ventilation performance in RKs. The natural
ventilation technology, especially natural ventilation technology in rural areas, and its
adaptability have not been comprehensively discussed. And there is no review of the
influence of different forms of kitchen special organization on indoor thermal
environment and air quality. Such literature would provide a better understanding of the
effect of ventilation on RKs environment.
This review summarized those studies reported from the perspective of residential
kitchen ventilation. This paper summarized and classified the known ventilation
methods that have been for various types of spatial organizations of the RKs based on
the ventilation driving force, the exhaust device and the air distribution. To assess the
suitable ventilation methods, evaluation index that has been used in the study of kitchen
6
ventilation were gathered. And then the methods to enhance the effect of the ventilation
in the RKs were summarized.
2. Method
An open source search of the literature published from 2000 to 2020 was performed.
The literatures were collected by searching through the major databases for literature in
English, i.e. SCI (Science Citation Index) and EI Compendex. The searches included
one or more the following terms: “ventilation”, “Natural ventilation”, “mechanical
ventilation”, “Ventilation system”, “Kitchen ventilation”, “Building ventilation”,
“Ventilation behavior”, “Range hood”, “Exhaust hood”, “Canopy hood”, “Residential
kitchen”, “cooking”, “Personal exposure”, “Household air pollution”, “Airflow
distribution”, “efficiency”, “capture efficiency”, “fume”, “cooking fume”, “Indoor air
quality”. Then the relevant articles were searched using these keywords, and then from
these articles, the most relevant papers for further study were selected. The main
countries involved in the selected papers are Australia, Bangladesh, Ghana, China,
Greece, India, Korea, Nepal, Singapore, South Korea, the United States and other
countries. The studies that provides no long-term ventilation method results were
excluded, and the final 94 studies were selected for this study.
7
3. Assessment index for residential kitchen ventilation (RKV)
The main function of kitchen ventilation is to remove the cooking-generated
pollutants and waste heat, and to protect the indoor occupants to the greatest extent
possible with the lowest energy consumption. The evaluation index presented in the
published literatures to evaluate the effectiveness of the ventilation system in the RKs
is as follows.
3.1 Contaminant removal efficiency
Contaminant removal efficiency is usually used to evaluate the performance of the
ventilation system [28]. The contaminant removal efficiency in the RKs zone is:
(1)
where is the concentration of the pollutant in the exhaust air, is the mean
contaminant concentration in kitchen zone and is the concentration of the pollutant
in the outdoor ambient.
For the mechanical ventilation, the contaminant removal efficiency is sometimes
replaced by the capture efficiency (CE) of the range hood to evaluate the performance
of the ventilation system in RKs. The CE is expressed as:
(2)
8
where
is the capture efficiency of the range hood, is the concentration of the
pollution directly captured by the exhaust hood, is the concentration of the pollutant
escape from the hood, and is the total concentration emitted from the source. In
equation (2), the , and are idealized parameters and are very difficult to
measure in the kitchen space. Therefore, on the basic of equation (2), Wolbrink et al.
[29] derived the calculation method of efficiency (see equation (3)).
(3)
where is the concentration of the pollutant in the kitchen zone and is the
concentration of the pollutant in the cooking zone.
Considering the air exchange between the cooking area and the room area, Li et al. [30]
revised the calculation method (see equation (4)), and found that the contaminant
removal efficiency was equal to the ratio of the capture flow rate to the flow rate of the
hot plume in the height of the range hood.
(4)
where is the concentration of the pollutant in the kitchen zone and is the
concentration of the pollutant in the cooking zone.
However, the flow field in the cooking area is complex, the concentration gradient is
9
large, and the accuracy of the concentration test in the cooking area is not high. A simple
method for calculating the CE of range hood is presented by Kim et al. [31, 32]. The
equation is expressed as:
(5)
This equation uses the concentration of a representative point instead of the
concentration in the kitchen zoon to calculate the capture efficiency of the range hood.
To improve the accuracy of calculation, a new definition of the capture efficiency
has been proposed (See equation (6)). The CE is defined as the ratio of the amount of
pollution collected by the hood to the amount of the pollution emitted from the source
in a period of time [33]. Compared with the two traditional correlations for CE, this
definition requires two sets of experiments to obtain the cooking emission rate and
capture rate, and considers the transient effects of the COF.
(6)
where is the time of range hood capture efficiency experiment, is the start time
of experiment, is the end time of experiment and S is the emission rate of the
contaminant.
For the pollutant which the release rate is given and the perfect mixing is assumed
in the kitchen zone, the contaminant removal efficiency can be used for the contaminant
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removal in the mechanical ventilation and natural ventilation in kitchen zone. If the
measuring position is located at the breathing zone, this index can be used to evaluate
the effect of pollutant removal in the breathing zone. If the concentration in the formula
is replaced by the temperature at the corresponding position, then the heat removal
efficiency can be calculated by the equation (2), (3) and (5). Since the index is calculated
as the ratio of pollutant or heat excluded by the ventilation system to that emitted from
the pollutant source, it can be used to compare the performance of different ventilation
systems under different amounts or temperatures of the source emission.
3.2 Intake fraction
The definition of the intake fraction in RKs is the attributable pollutant mass taken
in by an exposure person per unit mass COF [34]. Here, "attributable" refers to the part
of the pollution encountered that can be attributed to the cooking procedure. The intake
fraction that focus attention on the exposure-emissions relationship constructed a
relative quantitative relationship between the amounts of pollutants inhaled by humans
and the amounts of indoor pollution sources. This index has been successfully used to
improve the performance of kitchen ventilation [20]. Intake fraction (IF) can be
calculated by the ratio of the total amount of pollutants inhaled by an individual to the
11
total amount of pollutants emitted over a period of time [35]. The formula for calculating
IF is [14]:
t
ic
ivv
dtS
dttCtB
0,
,
t
0
i
)()(
IF
(7)
where
)(
,tC iv
is the mass concentration of pollutant at the breathing level, mg/m3;
)(tBv
is the human breathing rate, m3/s;
ic
S,
is the pollutant emission rate of cooking source,
mg/s.
Using the inhalation factor as an evaluation index can better reflect the influence
of oil fume in the kitchen on the human body. The indoor emissions in RKs produce is
in the order of 10-6 to 10-1 (1-1000000 per million).When the inhalation intake factor is
in the order of 10-5 to 10-6, it can be shown that the effect of the oil fume removal in the
breathing zone is better. The use of the IF to assess the performance of the ventilation
method is summarized in Fig.1. Currently, this index is mostly used to evaluate the
performance of the mechanical ventilation using natural make-up air. This index can be
usually used to assess the impact of the ventilation system on people and can be used to
compare the performance of ventilation system for the breathing zone under different
emission conditions. This index can be further used to evaluate and compare more
ventilation methods.
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Fig. 1. IF value in residential kitchens with mechanical ventilation.
3.3 Evaluation index of the thermal environment
In addition to the air quality in the kitchen, the thermal environment in the kitchen
also has an important impact on people. There are two main methods of the evaluation
index for the thermal environment in RKs. The vertical temperature difference and the
skin temperature of the cook can be used to evaluate the thermal comfortable in the RKs
[36, 37]. The maximum thermal comfort temperature difference is 3.0°C in ASHRAE
[38]. The second index is the index that directly evaluate the thermal comfort, e.g. TSV
[39], PD [40]. However, most RKs did not have the air conditioning and the thermal
environment of the kitchen is easily affected by outdoor air temperature (season). The
evaluation index of the thermal environment always be used with the IAQ to improve
the environment in RKs.
4. The ventilation methods used and its influence on the indoor environment in
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RKs
This study summarized and classified the ventilation methods presented in the
literatures based on the ventilation force, air distribution, supplied air strategy and air
inlet device in residential kitchens with different spatial organizations. The indoor
environment in terms of the thermal environment and the indoor air quality affected by
the ventilation method in the RKs with different spatial organizations is also
summarized in this section. Based on the ventilation force, ventilation methods can be
classified into natural ventilation and mechanical ventilation. The primary ventilation
pattern in some rural RKs of developing countries is natural ventilation [41, 42], due to
the lower economic level and lower awareness on health. And the natural ventilation
method can be further divided according to the air inlet methods. The mechanical
ventilation is widely used during cooking in urban residential kitchens [43]. The
mechanical ventilation is characterized by the high efficiency and high stability, but high
energy consumption and can be further divided according to the air distribution,
supplied air strategy and air inlet device.
In this paper, the spatial organizations of the RKs are summarized and classified
into three types: enclosed kitchen, open kitchen and outdoor kitchen, based on the
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positional relationship between the kitchen and the living room. The schematic of these
three kinds of kitchens is shown in Fig.2. The spatial organizations have a significant
effect on the pollutant concentration and distribution both in the kitchen and the living
room [44]. Therefore, it is important to conduct a comprehensive review on the kitchen
ventilation considering the spatial organizations.
(a) (b) (c)r
Fig.2 Schematic of the typical special organization of the residential kitchen: (a) enclosed kitchen,
(b) open kitchen and (c) outdoor kitchen [44].
4.1 Ventilation methods used in enclosed kitchen
4.1.1 Natural ventilation using windows or doors
In enclosed kitchen, considering the types of ventilation used, about 9.4% of
respondents relied that they open the window or door to naturally ventilate the kitchen
during cooking [21]. Natural ventilation is characterized by the low efficiency and low
energy consumption, and the ventilated effect is easily affected by outdoor wind
environment [45, 46]. Natural ventilation needs to consider the influence of factors such
15
as the size of the air intake area, the form of windows or doors, and the orientation of
the residence. The effect of using the natural ventilation with opening window and door
at the same time is more effective than that using natural ventilation with open door only
[47]. This maybe because opening window and door at the same time can generate the
cross ventilation [65] to increase the air change rate of the RKs. However, there is a lack
of comparison of the effect of the ways to generate natural ventilation, that is, using
window only method, using window only method and using window and door method.
4.1.2 Natural ventilation using designed air inlet.
Numerous researches have been carried out to improve the performance of natural
ventilation. Using transom at the side top wall with the lower louver on the other side
door (see Fig. 3) is an effective methods to naturally ventilate the indoors [48, 49]. This
method uses the principle of hot pressure ventilation, and directly discharge the
pollutants outside where the air contaminant and heat accumulate. A similar principle is
also applied to the use hole in the roof to ventilate the kitchen [47]. However, because
this method does not arrange the air inlet at the low position, the effect is not that
satisfactory. Using the wall-mounted vent cap (see Fig. 4) is another improved method
to naturally ventilate the indoors in the conditions when the outdoor temperature is low
and windows or doors cannot be opened for natural ventilation [50]. When using this
16
method, to ensure the effectiveness of the natural ventilation, the installation location
and quantity of the caps need to be considered. There is a special way of ventilation,
that is, the use of chimneys for ventilating the enclosed RKs in rural areas [65]. The
leaks and cracks of the chimney may allow the pollutant back to the kitchen [51]. This
kind of ventilated method is usually used in the kitchen that burn the biomass fuels (such
as wood, animal dung, and crop residues [23]). Burned the biomass fuels produce more
contaminants, especially particulate matters [42, 52-54] than burning the clean fuels
(such as liquefied petroleum gas, biogas, ethanol or solar [24]) [55]. Since there are not
many scenarios for the use of this kind of ventilation, there are relatively few researches
on this kind of method.
Fig.3 Schematic of the kitchen using transom.
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Fig.4 Schematic of wall-mounted vent caps.
Table 1 shows the results of the influence of the natural ventilation used in
enclosed kitchen on the indoor environment. It can be seen that the pollutant
concentration in naturally ventilated enclosed kitchen greatly exceeds the standard limit
set by the WHO [56] and ASHRAE [57]. The indoor environment varies very large
between different ventilation methods.
Table 1. A short summary of results of the influence of the natural ventilation methods.
Reference
Type of
Kitchen
Cooking
method
Ventilation
Ventilation
flow rate
Type of
pollutant
Measurement
location
Emission
amount
Indoor environment
Natural ventilation using window or door
Lai
[45]
Numerical
kitchen
Natural ventilation
using window
0.3 m/s
Heat
PM
Breathing
zone
4.5104
W/m2
1 s-1
34-43°C
(outdoor: 30°C)
1 μm: 1-5 s-1
10 μm: 1-4 s-1
Natural ventilation
using window
1 m/s
30-38°C
(outdoor: 30°C)
1 μm: 0-3 s-1
10 μm: 0-3 s-1
Grabow
[47]
Real life
kitchen
Burning
biomass
fuel
Without
CO
PM
Kitchen zone
79-256 ppm
2806-24992 μg/m3
Natural ventilation
using door
8.6 h-1
4-43 ppm
54-1145 μg/m3
Natural ventilation
using door and
window
12.8 h-1
3-27 ppm
54-1145 μg/m3
Rahman
Without
CO2
0.5 m/s
6300 ppm
18
[58-60]
Numerical
kitchen
Natural ventilation
using door
Breathing
zone
5000 ppm
Begum
[44]
Real life
kitchen
Real life
cooking
(biomass
fuels)
Natural ventilation
using door
PM10
Kitchen zone
785-846 μg/m³
Nakora
[61]
Real life
kitchen
Real life
cooking
(biomass
fuels)
Without
CO
PM2.5
Breathing
zone
47.8 ppm
780 μg/m³
Natural ventilation
using door and
window
37.4 ppm
370 μg/m³
Natural ventilation using designed air inlet
Chiang
[48, 49]
Numerical
kitchen
without
Heat
CO
CO2
Breathing
zone
5.9105
W/m2
3.310-4
kg/s
3.6910-4
kg/s
60°C
(outdoor: 26°C)
124 ppm
-
Natural ventilation
using louver and
transom
33°C
(outdoor: 26°C)
15 ppm
611-680 ppm
Grabow
[47]
Real life
kitchen
Burning
biomass
fuel
3.9 h-1
CO
PM
Kitchen zone
61-182 ppm
1988-7866 μg/m3
Lin
[50]
Numerical
kitchen
Natural ventilation
using wall-
mounted vent caps
0-31.9 m³/h
(0-6 m/s)
CO
Kitchen zone
6.8810-5
kg/s
140-200 ppm
Van Vliet
[42]
Real life
kitchen
Real life
cooking
(biomass
fuels)
Natural ventilation
using openness
PM2.5
Kitchen zone
474.9 μg/m³
Breathing
zone
106.5 μg/m³
Parajuli
[62]
Real life
kitchen
Real life
cooking
(biomass
fuels)
Natural ventilation
using chimney
0.7-2.7 h-1
PM2.5
Kitchen zone
825.4 μg/m³
4.1.3 Mechanical ventilation without make-up air
Compared with natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation is a more effective
method of excluding pollutants in residential kitchens [59, 60, 63, 64]. In enclosed
kitchen, considering the types of ventilation used, about 11.7% and 32% of respondents
relied that they open the range hood without open the door or windows during cooking
in different areas [20, 21]. Although air can penetrate into the room through the doors
19
and windows cracks, the amount of penetrated air is not enough to meet the demand for
make-up air [54]. In the condition of insufficient make-up air, the large negative pressure
in the kitchen will cause insufficient exhaust power of the range hood, and the
performance of the range hood will be significantly reduced [20]. Using the door crack
to supply the make-up air. Therefore, this kind of ventilation method is not
recommended for use in the enclosed kitchen.
4.1.4 Mechanical ventilation with natural make-up air
Most of the respondents open the window or door while opening the range hood to
supply the make-up air for ensuring the effectiveness of the hood [20, 21, 65, 66]. The
performance of the range hood is related to the exhaust rate [30, 59, 60, 67, 68], the
temperature of the make-up air [69] and the methods of suppling make-up air [14, 20,
70, 71]. The cases with different methods of suppling make-up air involved in researches
are summarized as open door and close window (case 1), close door and open window
(case 2) and open door and window (case 3). In these cases, the effectiveness of the
ventilation methods are ranked from high to low as case 2>case 3>case 1. This is
because the make-up air supplies from the door forms a similar effect to the
displacement ventilation. However, the opposite result appeared in the research of Liu
et al. [70]. It has been found that in case 3, the effectiveness of the ventilation method
20
is higher than that in case 2. This may be because in the latter study, they used the
exhaust fan to ventilate the kitchen which has a different resistance to the disturbance
of the make-up air with the range hoods. Another methods of suppling make-up air to
form similar effect to the displacement ventilation is the use of the lower louver in the
door and the use of the mesh opening opposite to the wall where the range hood is
installed [48, 67]. However, considering the spatial layout of residential buildings, the
latter is more difficult to implement in reality.
Table 2 shows the results of the influence of the mechanical ventilation with
natural make-up air used in enclosed kitchen on the indoor environment. It can be seen
that the pollutant concentration in enclosed kitchen is significantly decreases. However,
in some conditions, the indoor pollutant also exceeds the standard limit set by the WHO
[56] and ASHRAE [57]. The indoor environment varies very large between different
exhaust rates and methods of supplying make-up air.
Table 2. A short summary of results of the influence of the mechanical ventilation with natural
make-up air.
Reference
Type of
Kitchen
Cooking
method
Ventilation
Exhaust
rate
Type of
pollutant
Measurement
location
Emission
amount
Indoor environment
Liu
[60]
Numerical
kitchen
Range hood with
window
315 m3/h
Heat
PM
Breathing
zone
190°C
12.5-17.5°C
(outdoor: 5°C)
29.5-34°C
(outdoor: 27°C)
Zhao
[72]
Real life
kitchen
Chinese
cuisine
Range hood with
door crack
720 m3/h
Heat
CO
Breathing
zone
31-38.8°C
21
CO2
(outdoor: 27.81-
29.43°C)
5.2-34.8 ppm
1165-2435 ppm
Zhou
[73]
Real life
kitchen
Frying potato
filament and
brassica
chinensis
Range hood with
window with
insect screen
5.22 m/s
CO2
Kitchen zone
1.410-3
kg/s
1003 ppm
Gao
[14]
Laboratory
Heating oil
Range hood with
30° opening
door
518 m3/h
PM0.1-10
Breathing
zone
1.1210-3
kg/s
1.5 mg/m3
Range hood with
door
14.5 mg/m³
Range hood with
window
133.3 mg/m³
Range hood with
window and
door
18.5 mg/m³
Shao
[74]
Real life
kitchen
Real life
cooking
Range hood with
window
PM2.5
Kitchen zone
summer:
30.83±10.06 μg/m3
winter:
40.80±17.95 μg/m3
transitional season:
38.38±15.18 μg/m3
Cao
[20]
Laboratory
Heating oil
Range hood with
door
564 m3/h
PM2.5
PM10
Breathing
zone
9.2910-2
mg/s
9.9910-5
mg/s
0.20-0.21 mg/m3
0.45-0.62 mg/m3
Range hood with
half window and
door
0.68-1.93 mg/m3
1.94-5.09 mg/m3
Range hood with
half window
1.65-2.15 mg/m3
4.44-5.10 mg/m3
Liu
[70]
Numerical
kitchen
Exhaust fan with
door and
window
6 m/s
PM2.5
Working area
3.2842
mg/s
The mass fraction is
0.02-0.06
Exhaust fan with
window
The mass fraction is
less than 0.02
Sun
[68]
Real life
kitchen
boiling
prepackaged
frozen
broccoli and
frying frozen
beef
hamburgers
Range hood with
door
526 m3/h
PM
room
connected to
kitchen
9103 particles/cm3
432 m3/h
1.1104
particles/cm3
302 m3/h
2.2104
particles/cm3
270 m3/h
2.3104
particles/cm3
248 m3/h
5.7104
particles/cm3
Chiang
[48, 49]
Numerical
kitchen
range hood
130 m³/h
Heat
CO
Breathing
zone
5.9105
W/m2
3.310-4
kg/s
5.8104
particles/cm3
Chen
[67]
Laboratory
Gas
combustion
Range hood with
mesh opening
74
CO2
Breathing
zone
6000 ppm.
209
1400 ppm.
22
4.1.5 Mechanical ventilation with organized make-up air
Using the air inlet to form the organized make-up air will help improve the
effectiveness of the ventilation used in the kitchen with mechanical exhaust [75]. The
effectiveness of the ventilation method used in RKs is related to the types of the air inlet.
The make-up air supplies from the installed slots around the stove can form the air
curtain effect to prevent the spillage of pollutants. There are two forms of the
arrangement of the slots: three slots around the stove (see Fig.5 (a)) and four slots
around the stove (see Fig.5 (b)). A short summary presented in Table 3 shows the results
of the studies on the mechanical ventilation with slots make-up air. The effectiveness of
this kind of ventilation method is greatly influenced by the velocity of the upward air
curtain [36, 73]. The unreasonable speed of air curtain velocity will adversely affect the
performance of the ventilation system [76, 77]. This maybe because if the air curtain
speed is too large, the make-up air will destroy the suction flow of the range hood and
if the air curtain speed is too small, the anti-interference ability of the air curtain will be
weakened [20]. Considering indoor thermal comfort of the cooker, an improved method
for increasing the conditioned air was proposed for the slots make-up air ventilation
method. Using the upward slots make-up air with the conditioned air from the cabinet
under the stove can not only increase the indoor air quality but also improve the thermal
23
environment in the RKs [40].
(a) (b)
Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of the arrangement of slots: (a) three slots mode and (b) four slots mode.
Table 3. A short summary of the mechanical ventilation with slots make-up air.
Reference
Slots
number
Area of the
slots
Optimal parameter of the
makeup air
pollutant
Comparison of pollutant
concentrations
Zhou [73]
four slots
0.052 m2
exhaust rate: 608.86 m3/h
optimal air velocity: 0.5 m/s
makeup air angle: 90
CO2
without slots: 1003 ppm
with slots: 615 ppm
Zhou [36]
four slots
0.087 m2
exhaust rate: 486-506 m3/h
optimal air velocity: 0.5 m/s
makeup air angle: 90
CO2
capture efficiency:
without slots: 77.5%
with slots: 85%
Gao [20]
three slots
0.0136 m2
exhaust rate: 564 m³/h
optimal air velocity: 1.0-1.5 m/s
makeup air angle: 90
PM
IF:
without slots: 10-4
with slots:10-6
Huang[78]
three slots
0.07 m
(width)
exhaust rate: 900 m³/h
optimal air velocity: 3m/s
makeup air angle: 90
SF6
without slots: 20.54 ppm
with slots: 0.17 ppm
exhaust rate: 900 m³/h
optimal air velocity: 4 m/s
makeup air angle: 90
without slots: 20.54 ppm
with slots: 0.20 ppm
exhaust rate: 720 m³/h
optimal air velocity: 3 m/s
makeup air angle: 90
without slots: 16.92 ppm
with slots: 0.49 ppm
Liu [40]
three slots
0.0812 m2
exhaust rate: 750 m³/h
optimal air velocity: 1.54 m/s
PM2.5
PD
capture efficiency:
96.2%-97.1%
24
make-up air angle: 90
Temperature
difference
PD around the cook
lower than 20%
vertical temperature
difference between
head and feet -0.9C
4.1.6 Mechanical ventilation using high-performance exhaust hood
The capture efficiency of the range hood is related to the factors included the
exhaust rate [48, 68, 79-82], installation height [83-85], relative position between the
range hood and cooktop [80, 86, 87], types of the contaminant [80, 86, 88, 89], operation
time of the range hood [90, 91] and the structure of the range hood [79, 84, 92, 93]. The
use of the traditional range hood cannot provide a reliable indoor environment for the
RKs [94]. Using the high-performance range hood can improve the effectiveness of the
ventilation system [76, 95]. Adding the auxiliary airflow to form the air curtain effect
can effectively improve the performance of the range hood with a small exhaust rate [20,
94]. There are two structures of the air curtain means air curtain on front side (Fig. 6
(a)) and air curtains on three sides around the outlet of the range hood (Fig. 6 (b)). The
air curtain range hood can achieve the best performance and effectively control the
leakage of the fume with the optimal air curtain velocity [20, 96]. The best operating
parameters of the air curtain range hood are summarized in table 4.
25
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of the range hood with (a) air curtain on front side and (b) Air curtains on
three sides.
Table 4. The optimal operating parameter of the air curtain range hood.
Reference
Form of air curtain
Size of the air
curtain slot
Best parameter of the makeup air
Liu [103]
On three sides
Width: 0.004 m
Exhaust rate: 630 m3/h
Optimal air velocity: 1.5 m/s
Inclination angle: -5
Gao [18]
On one side
1.00 m0.01 m
Exhaust rate: 564 m³/h
Optimal air velocity: 1.8-2.5 m/s
The studies above did not consider the effect of the factors such as human, walk-
by motion and cross draft that can easily affect the suction flow of the range hood [78,
97], on the performance of the range hood. Therefore, the studies on the performance
improvement of the range hood to resist the interference of the human and the cross
draft are presented.
The mannequin and wall-by motion will destroy the efficiency of the range hood
due to the Coanda effect, which is the effect that the COF always tend to deflect toward
the nearby objects [78]. Although increasing the exhaust rate of the wall-mounted and
26
the jet-isolated range hood, the fume leakage is also serious with the presence of a
mannequin. The inclined air-curtain range hood (see Fig. 7 (a)) can solve this problem
[98, 99]. When the jet velocity Vb=1.0 m/s and the outflow angle is 15°, the interferences
of the thermal plume and the human body to the air curtain are almost negligible. The
pollutant concentration in the breathing zone is two orders of magnitude smaller than
that in the kitchen with wall-mounted range hood. Moreover, the efficiency of the
inclined air-curtain range hood is still high under the exhaust rate of this range hood is
50% smaller than that of the wall-mounted one.
The flow rate, velocity and direction of the cross draft have great influence on the
performance of the range hood. When the draft velocity is greater than 0.2-0.3 m/s or
comes from the lateral direction, the decrease in the efficiency of wall-mounted, jet-
isolated and inclined air-curtain range hood is serious [97, 100]. To further improve the
anti-interference ability of the range hood, Huang et al. proposed an inclined quad-
vortex (IQV) range hood (see Fig. 7 (b)) [101]. The airflow of the IQV range hood is
almost unaffected by the human body and the IQV range hood has very good ability to
resist to the cross draft [102]. When the draft velocity is ≤0.5 m/s and 0.8m/s, the
efficiency of IQV range hood can reach almost 100% and 99.67%. It is important to
note that, to form a special quad-vortex flow field of this kind of range hood, the exhaust
27
speed must be ≥8 m/s [103].
(a) (b)
Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of the inclined air-curtain range hood and the inclined quad-vortex
(IQV) range hood.
4.2 Ventilation methods used in open kitchen
In the open RKs, the pollutant and heat can be rapidly dispersed to the adjacent
room and stay longer indoors because the range hood is difficult to capture them [104,
105]. For example, this accumulation of pollutants will cause the concentration of small
particles (<1μm) in the living room to be higher than that in the kitchen during the
cooking. In an open RK, it is more important to control the diffusion of pollutants and
heat to adjacent room.
4.2.1 Natural ventilation using windows
The methods to naturally ventilate the open residential kitchen in the present
research is the use of the windows. The effectiveness of method to open the window of
kitchen to ventilate the indoors is a slightly better method than that to open the windows
28
of the kitchen and living room at the same time [106]. If the effect of excluding
pollutants is poor, the pollutants in the open kitchen will not only affect the environment
in the kitchen but also the environment in the living room. Therefore, natural ventilation
with unsatisfactory effects is not suitable for open kitchens, so there is relatively little
research on it. However, this study does not consider the diffusion of pollutants to the
living room.
4.2.2 Mechanical ventilation with natural make-up air
The natural make-up air can supply from the window of kitchen or living room in
open residential kitchen [92]. In the kitchen with mechanical ventilation with make-up
air supplied from windows of kitchen and living room, pollutant diffusion is serious and
pollute the living room. The improved method is to close the window in the kitchen or
living room and use only one window to supply the make-up air. Only open the window
in kitchen can improve the effectiveness of the ventilation in kitchen zone. However,
the pollutant in the kitchen with this kind of ventilation method can still seriously spread
to living room. The use of the window of living room to supply the make-up air is a
good method to reduce the impact of the pollutant on the living room.
Table 5 shows the results of the influence of the ventilation methods on the indoor
environment in open kitchen. The indoor pollutant exceeds the standard limit set by the
29
WHO [56] and ASHRAE [57], and the pollutant in living room is also serious. The
improved ventilation methods needs to be further studied.
Table 5. A short summary of results of the influence of the ventilation methods.
Reference
Type of
Kitchen
Cooking
method
Ventilation
Exhaust
rate
Type of
pollutant
Measurement
location
Emission
amount
Indoor environment
Lee
[106]
Real life
kitchen
pan-frying a
piece of pork
Window of
kitchen
PM2.5
Kitchen zone
1820 μg/m³
Windows of
kitchen and
living room
1930 μg/m³
Range hood with
window
510 μg/m³
Xu
[92]
Numerical
kitchen
Range hood with
window of
kitchen
1.88 m/s
CO
CO2
Cooking
zone
0.05%
9%
73 ppm
4879 ppm
Range hood with
window of
kitchen and
living room
73 ppm
5835 ppm
Shao
[74]
Real life
kitchen
Real life
cooking
Range hood with
window
PM2.5
Kitchen zone
summer:
41.8±16.2 μg/m³
winter:
64.9±23.6 μg/m³
transitional season:
53.8±21.7 μg/m³
Kim
[105]
Real life
kitchen
Real life
cooking
Range hood with
window
PM0.3-1.0
PM1.0-2.5
PM2.5-10
Kitchen zone
751.2 μg/m³
55.2 μg/m³
4.5 μg/m³
Zhou
[104]
Numerical
kitchen
Gas
combustion
Range hood with
transom and
22.5° air inlet
500 m³/h
Heat
CO2
Breathing
zone
53.1
kW/s
2.21103
mg/s
33°C
(ambient air 27°C)
1463 ppm
750 m³/h
-
1344 ppm
1000
m³/h
-
1232 ppm
4.2.3 Mechanical ventilation with organized make-up air
Using the transom and air inlet between the living room and kitchen to supply the
organized make-up air is a ventilation method used in the open kitchen. The
performance of this kind of ventilation method is related to the exhaust rate, the location
30
of the air inlet [107] and the angle of the outflow air from the air inlet [104]. The best
angle of the air outflow from the air inlet is 22.5° and the best location of the air inlet is
1.5 m from the source. Although this ventilation method can prevent pollutants from
spreading to the immediate room, there is no comparative study between the
performance of this ventilation method and other ventilation methods, so the
advancement of this ventilation method cannot be evaluated.
Another way to prevent pollutants from spreading into the living room is to
increase additional exhaust air that is CSEV (concurrent supply and exhaust ventilation)
system (see Fig. 8). Adding only one exhaust outlet in the kitchen can significantly
improve the performance of the ventilation system [108] and can effectively prevent the
spread of the pollutant to the living room.
Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of the CSEV system.
4.2.4 Mechanical ventilation with using high-performance exhaust hood
31
The use of the guide plate (see Fig. 9) can combine the exhaust effects of the top-
suction and side-suction of the range hood [109]. The use of this kind of exhaust hood
with the air inlet between the kitchen and living room in the open kitchen can increase
the heat capture efficiency and pollutant capture efficiency by 1.4-1.9% and 9.4-11.9%.
High capture efficiency and no additional energy consumption are two main features of
the range hood with separation plate.
Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of the range hood with guide plate.
4.3 Ventilation methods used in outdoor kitchen
The outdoor kitchen includes the semi-outdoor kitchen and full-outdoor kitchen.
The semi-outdoor kitchen is partially enclosed by walls or a roof only; and full-outdoor
kitchen is completely open and not surrounded by any walls or roof. The outdoor kitchen
that mainly exist in the rural area such as Ghana and India et al. is a special form of the
kitchen. In rural Ghana, a majority (55%) of the households reported using the full-
outdoor kitchen to cooking and 28% of the households used the semi-outdoor kitchen
32
[42]. There is only one type of ventilation method used in this kind of kitchen means
natural ventilation.
In the full outdoor kitchen, although the effectiveness of the fully natural
ventilation is better than that of the natural ventilation using door in enclosed kitchen,
the ventilation cannot provide a reliable environment for the cooker [44]. The use of
natural ventilation using the openness is a main ventilation method to ventilate the semi-
outdoor kitchen [42, 110]. The effectiveness of ventilation in semi-outdoor kitchen is
related to the ratio of openness and increasing the ratio of openness can increase the air
change rate and reduce the concentration of pollutants [41]. The comparative study of
the ventilation effects of these two kitchens has shown opposite results [42, 110], so
further verification is needed.
5. Conclusions
This paper introduced a comprehensive review on assessment index and the
ventilation method used in RKs with different spatial organizations. The classification
and performance of the ventilation methods, and the corresponding indoor environment
in enclosed RKs, open RKs and outdoor are presented. The main conclusions are:
The contaminant removal efficiency, IF and assessment index for the thermal
environment are employed to evaluate the performance of the ventilation in RKs
33
according to different assessment needs. Considering the relationship with the adjacent
room, the spatial organizations of the RKs are divided into three modes: enclosed
kitchen, open kitchen and outdoor kitchen and there are six ventilation methods used in
RKs regarding natural ventilation using window and door, natural ventilation using
designed air inlet, mechanical ventilation without make-up air, mechanical ventilation
with natural make-up air, mechanical ventilation with organized make-up air and
mechanical ventilation using high-performance exhaust hood. Three assessment indices:
pollutant capture efficiency, intake fraction and thermal environment related index can
be used to evaluate the performance of the ventilation system used in RKs.
The performance of the ventilation system and the indoor environment varies very
large between different ventilation methods and spatial organization of the kitchen. Most
residential kitchens does not properly ventilate to achieve good indoor air quality and
thermal comfortable. The natural ventilation does not provide a reliable indoor
environment for the RKs. The thermal environment and the indoor air quality in the
naturally ventilated enclosed kitchen, open kitchen and outdoor kitchen seriously
exceed the standard limit. Although using the mechanical ventilation with natural make-
up air can improve the thermal environment in RKs, the indoor environment is not
acceptable.
34
Using the organized makeup supply air and high-performance range hood are two
effective method to improve the indoor environment in the RKs with mechanical
ventilation. The use of air curtain technology both for the make-up air and for the range
hood can control the COF diffusion into the environment.
However, there is still a lack of a more comprehensive study on the comparison of
different ventilation methods. There is also less research on thermal comfort for the
cooker and on the indoor humidity in the RKs. The new measurements to improve the
performance of the ventilation system and the strategies to prevent the COF disperses
to the adjacent room in the open kitchen require further study.
6. Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [No.
51578387 and No. 51778440].
35
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