Title: Edible caterpillars and their food plants in Kongo Central Province, Democratic Republic of Congo

Full text

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Title: Edible caterpillars and their food plants in Kongo Central Province, Democratic Republic of Congo
Author: Paul Latham
Third edition: 2021
Copyright: © Paul Latham
ISBN 978-0-9928986-2-5
This publication is an output
from a project part funded by the United Kingdom Department for International
Development for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID.
[Advisory and Support Services Contract, project code ZX0077].
This English language edition of a manual being produced in French aims to encourage the conservation of edible
caterpillars and their food plants. Many of the plants and caterpillar/moth species mentioned are however present
in countries throughout the humid tropics of Africa so it is hoped the manual will be of interest to the many people
whose diet includes caterpillars.
Centre photo on cover:
Bunaea alcinoe
collected from
Cananga odorata
at Kavwaya.

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The manual is dedicated to the people of Kongo Central (previously Bas-Congo) province who first
introduced me to the delights of eating caterpillars.
Apprehend God in all things, for God is in all things.
Every single creature is full of God and is a book about God.
Every creature is a word of God.
If I spent enough time with the tiniest creature - even a caterpillar - I would never have to
prepare a sermon. So full of God is every creature.
Meister Eckhart (1260 ? – 1327)

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Contents
Acknowledgements 4
Introduction 5
Insects as a food source 5
Edible caterpillars 5
Cultural aspects 5
Conservation of species and food plants 5
Collection, preparation, storage and palatability 6
Life cycle 7
Food plants 9
Protecting caterpillars 10
Village education 11
Some important edible caterpillars 12 – 28
Some food plants of edible caterpillars 29 - 44
References 45
Tables
1. Species, food plants and availability of some edible 29
caterpillars in Kongo Central province.
2. Nutritional value of some caterpillars of Kongo Central 30
The names of caterpillars and plants are given in Kintandu dialect of Kikongo as used in Kongo Central. The
scientific names of most of the plants and some of the caterpillars are given in the description of each species.
However, I would be most grateful for help in identifying the remaining species.
Paul Latham,
Croft Cottage,
Forneth,
Blairgowrie,
PH10 6SW
United Kingdom
paullatham36@btinternet.com

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Acknowledgements
I would particularly like to thank the following people for their help in preparing this booklet:-
Tata Nganga for initially stimulating my interest in edible
caterpillars. For a number of years he was active in
conserving several species on his farm at Kasangulu and
the Salvation Army used his experience to encourage other
farmers to do the same through their Projet de
Développement Integré (PDI).
Right: Tata Nganga transferring caterpillars on to a
Leptoderris congolensis
bush.
Professor François Malaisse, Dr. Rolf Oberprieler, Thierry
Bouyer, Frank Cuypers and Dr. Angus McCrae for their help
with the identification of the caterpillars from specimens
and photographs. This revised edition owes much to Dr.
Angus McCrae who kindly checked the first edition and made many helpful suggestions for inclusion here.
The photographs of Mimpemba caterpillars and Nsindi chrysalids
were taken by Mr. L. Lemaire. Frederic Santereau
took the photos of
Imbrasia epimethea
on
Holarrhena floribunda
. Photos of many of the adult moths, though only
that of
Lobobunaea phaedusa
is included in this manual, were taken by Andrew Whittington from the collection at
the Edinburgh Royal Museum. His help is gratefully acknowledged. Much of the reference material was provided
by the museum. I am grateful to Ugo Dall'asta of Tervuren Museum for permission to take photographs of several
species of adult moth.
Kibungu Kembelo A.O., at one time director of the Jardin Botanique
de Kisantu and Professor Luc Pauwels, a previous director of the
same botanic garden identified the food plants for many of the
caterpillars.
Left: Kibungu Kembelo with a caterpillar specimen at the Kisantu
Botanic Garden.
Colonel Gracia Matondo of the Salvation Army, staff of the Centre
de Promotion des Techniques Appropries (CPTA) at Kasangulu,
Jacques Miaglia and the staff of the Programme Apicole/Agricole
(PAA) at Kavwaya, also run by the Salvation Army, assisted me in
collecting specimens and taking me to numerous villages to
photograph plants and caterpillars. Similarly Thérèse Luvuma and
the staff of the PDI, which succeeded these two programmes,
provided similar assistance.
Justin Kinsanga Mfulu provided information on caterpillars in the Kavwaya area and reared a number of species to
adulthood.
Augustin Konda ku Mbuta for a number of photos taken at Kilueka where he runs a programme to conserve various
species of caterpillars and encourages farmers to re-establish traditional nkunku forests.
The Helping Hand scheme of the British territory of the Salvation Army provided finance for the production of the
initial French edition of this book. Colonel Dorothy Evans, a retired Salvation Army officer, also provided generous
assistance for the initial development of the project.
I would especially like to thank Ena, my wife, for her encouragement and help during the preparation of this book.

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Introduction
My first experience with edible caterpillars took place in 1985 when my wife and I lived at Kavwaya near Kisantu
in what was then the Bas-Congo province of D.R. Congo. On one occasion I was shown how to hunt for Minsangula
caterpillars by a group of children from the village. Scrambling through dense bush they would stop every now and
then to call out "Yi Yi". If the caterpillars were present they would jerk from side to side on the twigs of the trees
where they were feeding and thus conveniently identify themselves.
Insects as a food source
Insects represent an important high protein food for many rural families in central and southern Africa. Nowhere
is this more the case than in the Congo. A study of animal protein consumption in the Cataractes district of Kongo
Central, where much of the current study was carried out, found that 12% of the animal protein consumed was
from insects (Gomez et al 1961). It is also known that many insect species are pests of a wide variety of crops
throughout the world and enormous quantities of expensive, toxic substances are used to kill them. Yet many of
these species are edible and traditionally have provided people with an important source of protein (Ramos-Elorduy
& Pino 1994). It is perhaps ironic that farmers frequently save crops that contain no more than 14% protein while
killing insects which may contain over 75% high quality protein (Ramos-Elorduy 1997). Insects in general have
good food conversion rates (4 or 5 : 1). Though poultry may be more efficient, with a rate of 2.6 : 1, insects have
the advantage that they convert plant material that is often not consumed by humans into a highly palatable food.
Edible caterpillars
Rural families in Kongo Central find it very difficult to get sufficient protein to eat. Hunting has cleared out most of
the larger animals and even many of the smaller animals, such as the cane rat, are now difficult to find. Fish and
meat are generally far too expensive and the only other main source of protein is groundnuts. Cassava root and
leaf are the staple foods for most rural and city dwellers. In Kinshasa a survey found that 70% of the population
ate caterpillars (Monzambe in Balinga et al. 2004). In D. R. Congo as a whole, the consumption of caterpillars is
estimated to be 40% of total animal protein consumed. Malaisse & Parent (1980) analyzed the nutritional value of
22 species of edible caterpillar and found the kcal/100 grams dry weight averaged 457 and crude protein content
averaged 63.5%. (See page 30 for a comparison with other foods).
Quantities actually harvested from an area of savanna or forest vary greatly from year to year and also according
to species and the prevalence of their food plants. It is estimated however that for
Cirina forda
an amount of 5 kg.
dry caterpillars can be produced per ha. Mopane worms in southern Africa are gathered and marketed
commercially to the value of over 1 million Rand annually and in Malawi yields of 14.63 kg/ha. have been recorded
(Munthali & Mughogho 1992). Often sufficient quantities are found during the rain season for them to be sun dried
and kept for use throughout the year or else transported live to the main markets. Kinshasa, for example, has a
section where it is common to find a wide range of species offered for sale. Dried caterpillars can even be purchased
in Brussels and London.
Cultural aspects
Caterpillars are considered a luxury food on a par with the fruit of the African pear, (
Dacryodes edulis
) in Kongo
Central province. Many of them (9 are mentioned in the book) bear the same Kikongo name as the food tree on
which they are most frequently found (e.g.
Elaphrodes lactea
on
Albizia ferruginea
and
Imbrasia epimethea
on
Petersianthus africanus
). Similar names for the caterpillar and the main food plant appear to be used throughout
Africa, wherever caterpillars are eaten.
Caterpillar species also enter into folklore and are commonly invested with human characteristics. A number of
proverbs relate to caterpillars and their behavior and several of these are mentioned in the text.
Conservation of species and food plants
Farmers in Kongo Central province practise a traditional system of shifting cultivation allowing the forest fallow to
build up soil fertility over a number of years. Due to increasing population however, the length of fallow has
shortened from between 15 to 20 years to sometimes as little as 4 or 5 years and much of the forest cover and
also its ability to recover has been lost. Yet the forest and its by-products, in addition to producing timber, firewood
and charcoal, are of vital importance to the rural population. The forest produces a variety of wild vegetables and
fruits, mushrooms, edible insects, medicinal plants, honey, tying materials and protects water sources. Any loss of
the forest fallow therefore significantly affects the quality of life for large numbers of people. The importance of
the forest fallow cannot be over-emphasized because, in large parts of the humid tropics, it still represents the
only practical method for replenishing soil fertility (Nye & Greenland 1960).

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It used to be the custom that where two or more generations of caterpillar were known to be produced in a season,
the first generation was left to pupate. The first generation of Ngala caterpillars (
Cirina forda
), for example, were
traditionally left "for the birds". Elsewhere if caterpillars were found on branches of trees too high up for the
collectors it was also traditional to leave them there, rather than cut the branch down. Unfortunately these
safeguards are no longer respected in many villages.
There is potential for far greater production of edible caterpillars with minimum additional input of labour. Most
edible caterpillars in Kongo Central live on forest trees and thus enhance the value of the traditional forest fallow.
It has actually been shown that the combined output, annually, from beekeeping and the production of edible
caterpillars from an area of forest can far exceed the value of the food crop for which the forest was initially cut
down! (Munthali & Mughogho 1992).
Collection, preparation, storage and palatability
Children are the main caterpillar collectors, though most people, while walking in the bush, keep a constant
watch for them.
Frequently people will bring back young caterpillars and place them on trees near their homes where they can
keep an eye on them. Many villages have a few
Acacia auriculiformis
trees planted nearby and these are used to
rear the caterpillars of a number of species until they are ready to eat. Some farmers have taken this a step further
and allow a proportion of caterpillars to pupate and frequently, for certain species, the resulting moths will lay
eggs on the same or nearby trees. One farmer purchased
Cirina forda
larvae in the local market, introduced them
to an area of savanna with plenty of
Crossopteryx febrifuga
and has been able to harvest the caterpillars regularly
ever since.
A good knowledge of local plants is vital when collecting caterpillars. For caterpillars that feed on poisonous plants,
there are certain methods for eliminating toxicity when preparing them for eating. For small caterpillars, the larvae
are boiled for a long time. For example, this is the case with Mimbota mbota harvested on Millettia versicolor, it is
also the case with Mfundi harvested on plants known as Kifundi (Millettia spp.). When cooking these caterpillars,
there is often a large layer of foam that forms on the surface. For large caterpillars, the intestine is usually emptied
to avoid the toxicity of the plants consumed. Toxicity is also avoided by keeping the larvae in a calabash or container
for some time time so that the intestine is completely emptied of toxic material. For the caterpillar Nkankiti (
Anphe
panda
) and Nkombo nseke it is the long stinging hairs that are the problem. To prepare these caterpillars, the
hairs must first be removed by singeing on a metal sheet or in a frying pan over the fire.
Caterpillars are normally boiled with salt and hot peppers until almost dry. Even though a number of species have
spines these are not removed. The caterpillars are then eaten direct or cooked with peanut butter, or the seeds of
pumpkin or sesame. They can also be cooked with cassava leaves. Nkankiti (
Anaphe
panda
) larvae contain a good
amount of fat so can be fried without additional oil.
Occasionally large enough quantities of caterpillars appear and are collected, boiled and dried for later use or for
transport to distant markets. Minsangula caterpillars in particular, though not frequently found, may be collected
by the sack full when they do appear. Smoking is commonly used for large quantities, allowing caterpillars to be
stored for up to 3 months. However the nutritional value is lowered and there is the danger that eating smoked
caterpillars may cause cancer (Balinga et al. 2004).

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Life cycle
In many areas of Kongo Central caterpillars have become scarce. The trees they feed on have been cut down or
the savanna grassland is burnt each year, thus killing many of the pupae, which often lie just below the soil surface.
Instead of leaving some caterpillars to pupate and breed, frequently all the caterpillars are taken during collection.
In order to conserve and increase the numbers of edible caterpillars available, without running the risk of over-
exploiting them, it is important that their life-cycle is understood, the plants they feed on are widely available, and
that sufficient numbers of larvae are left to pupate. This section provides limited information on the life cycle of
some of the 39 species known to be present in Kongo Central, recognising that older people understood and used
the knowledge gained from traditional practice and careful observation to sustain production of the most valuable
species for many years. There is no substitute for knowledge gained in this way and every effort should be taken
to consult people with this knowledge and experience before it is too late.
Note: The malembi lembi bird is probably the Abdim’s stork which is known to arrive at the start of the rain season.
A teaching chart demonstrating the life cycle of edible caterpillars in Kongo Central used
by the PDI project staff in village meetings

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Eggs. Caterpillars start life as eggs laid on a particular plant or tree. It is not difficult to find the eggs of Ngala
because they are laid as a bunch of tiny white balls on the
young shoots of
Crossopteryx febrifuga
in December.
However, other species, notably
Lobobunaea phaedusa
, lay
their eggs singly on a variety of plants.
Right: Eggs of
Imbrasia obscura
laid on a twig
Below: Eggs of
Platysphinx
stigmatica
Larvae. The eggs hatch out and the larvae start feeding. Most, if not all, kinds of caterpillars change substantially
as they grow and pass through their first to fifth moults. Some species also have distinctly different colour forms,
as is the case with
Bunaea alcinoe
.
Bunaea alcinoe
may have red and black
larvae in the same
colony, feeding on
Sarcocephalus latifolius.
See also front cover.
Pupae Some caterpillars, particularly those of Emperor moths, on
reaching their full size fall or descend and pupate in the ground. Others,
Anaphe
sp.,
Antheua
sp and Nkulu (Fam. Lasiocampidae), pupate in
cocoons above ground. Where the aim is to conserve and increase the
production of caterpillars they should not be disturbed at this stage.
Chrysalis of
Lobobunaea
phaedusa
in the soil.
Eggs of Imbrasia obscura

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Moths. The pupa remains in the soil for one to two months during the rains or until the start of the next rain
season. The moth emerges, usually at night. After mating, the male dies and the female finds a suitable food plant
on which to lay her eggs before she too dies. Emperor moths fly at night, often after midnight, though the females
of some species may fly earlier in the night.
Lobobunaea phaedusa
Photo: Andy Whittington
Many species produce more than one generation each year. Towards the end of the rain season pupae of the final
generation do not hatch out until the start of the following rain season.
Food plants
Each species of caterpillar feeds on specific plants. For example
Cirina forda
appears to be confined to
Crossopteryx
febrifuga
in Kongo Central.
Imbrasia epimethea
feeds on four species:
Funtumia africana
,
Petersianthus
macrocarpus
,
Holarrhena floribunda
or
Ricinodendron heudelotii
.
It is of course important that
there are enough trees of the
correct species. Where they are
not present, they can usually be
planted from seed or young
plants can be collected from
below mature trees and
transplanted. (See pages 29 –
44 for propagation methods of
some tree species).
Cirina forda
feeding on
Crossopteryx febrifuga
near
Kasangulu

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Protecting caterpillars
Understanding the life cycle and the food plants eaten by each species will help in protecting and increasing the
supply of caterpillars. The larvae of
Cirina forda
live in the savanna and pupate just below the soil surface. During
the dry season it is common to burn the grass in order to chase out a few small rats, but at the same time pupae
of this species, capable of eventually producing a considerable quantity of good food, will have been destroyed!
Careful timing of burning, preferably in early June, reduces mortality of this and other savanna species. Similarly
if all the larvae of
Imbrasia epimethea
are taken when they descend the tree to moult, there will be none left to
produce next year's caterpillars. It is normal that many caterpillars will be eaten by birds, killed by ants or destroyed
by parasites and numbers tend to vary widely from year to year. Traditionally the village chief decided when
caterpillars could be collected and it is
important that his authority is respected and
that caterpillars are not taken at other times.
Right: A basin of
Imbrasia epimethea
caterpillars. It is suggested that at least half
the caterpillars on a tree should be left to
produce sufficient numbers for next season.
For forest species a good site for rearing caterpillars is an
area of woodland where beehives are present. A strong
colony of bees will deter indiscriminate collecting of
caterpillars and thus help to protect both the caterpillars
and the trees. In this way a permanent reserve will be
created where the caterpillars can be carefully managed.
An area of at least 1 ha would be suitable for this purpose.
A traditional "voka" (burial ground forest) or "nkunku"
(forest fallow) can form an important reserve for
caterpillars as long as it is protected from indiscriminate
felling and fire.
"If you don't have a farm in the forest there is no
need to take a basket to collect anything there".
Kikongo proverb
Left: The trunk of a
Pentaclethra macrophylla
tree marked
to denote ownership of a colony of
Imbrasia obscura
. As
can be seen, an older cross in the centre denotes
caterpillars have been found on this tree before.

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Village education
Left: A teaching chart used by the PDI project
during meetings in the villages in Kongo Central.
At the top, two panels illustrate the complete
destruction of the forest for firewood and charcoal
and of the savanna by fire. In the centre, a panel
demonstrates the life cycle showing that
caterpillars are not brought in, as is commonly
believed, by the Malembi lembi bird, but hatch
from eggs laid by large Emperor moths. Many
valued edible caterpillars in Kongo Central, and
throughout sub-Saharan Africa, are produced by
these moths. Because they only fly at night they
are rarely seen. The lower panels illustrate some of
the important species of edible caterpillar, their
nutritional value and the role the adults of some
species play in pollination.
Right:
An illustrated cartoon booklet has been
produced to explain the importance of conserving
edible caterpillars and the plants they feed on.

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Some Important Edible Caterpillars in Kongo Central
Bisu
Nudaurelia petiveri
This species is
widespread throughout
west, central, and south-
eastern Africa. It appears
in Kongo Central in
December and January.
Up to 200 eggs are laid in
clusters on the
undersides of young
leaves. They hatch after
about two weeks. Larvae
are often found feeding
together in large
numbers. Pupation takes
place underground and
there may be 4 to 5 generations per year. The moths hatch out when the soil becomes damp at the start of the
rain season.
The caterpillars are most often found on
Milicia excelsa
in Kongo Central but may also be found on
Ricinodendron
heudelotii, Antidesma membranaceum
,
Vitex madiensis, Acacia auriculiformis
and
Psidium
guajava.
They
can be transferred from one plant to
another. This can be useful. If the young caterpillars are
found far away from the home they can be moved to
the village, to an
Acacia auriculiformis
for example,
where they can be guarded more easily. The species is
particularly rich in protein.
Right:
Nudaurelia petiveri
on
Antidesma
membranaceum
Kaba
Lobobunaea phaedusa
The name Kaba is used for several large green caterpillars.
Lobobunaea phaedusa
can be up to 10 cm long and is
usually found singly between October and May. When disturbed the caterpillar contracts in defence. They are
sometimes very difficult to see, blending well with surrounding leaves.
Lobobunaea
phaedusa
photographed in
January

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The caterpillar is usually found
when its droppings are
discovered below the tree on
which it is feeding, hence the
saying "Kaba kafurilanga mu
nsasa yani kibeni kagetanga va
ntoto” - “The death of the Kaba
is caused by its own droppings”.
It turns brown when about to
pupate. This takes place in the
soil under some leaves. There
may be 3 – 4 generations per
year.
Above : Larva in defensive position on
Annona senegalensis
at the Kisantu botanic garden.
Right: Droppings on a path are a sure sign of the caterpillar
feeding in a tree above.
Lobobunaea phaedusa
feeds on a wide variety of plants. It is
however often found on
Annona senegalensis
subsp.
oulotricha
and on
Crossopteryx febrifuga.
Kaba
Pseudobunaea
pallens
Larvae are up to 8 cm long,
green with swollen ridged
segments and speckled with
dark green spots. Some
segments may bear small silver
knife-like markings. Spiracles
yellow. The larvae were feeding
on
Acacia mangium
and are
known to eat a wide variety of
plants.
Photo: Daniel Ambühl

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Kindengula, Kidishi foncé
Daphnis nerii
A solitary species. When disturbed it
curls its head and thorax down to
display the large eyespots. It feeds on
Rauvolfia vomitoria
in Kongo Central.
Photo: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta
Kitete mbika, mbua ki siwu
Bunaeopsis licharbas
This solitary species is found
from Senegal to Kenya and
south to Zambia. It feeds on
Eriosema psoraloides
but is
known to eat other plants.
Photo: Daniel Ambühl
Kwesu
Bunaeoides eblis
This distinctive caterpillar is
usually found in small
numbers on a variety of
plants, but most frequently on
Chaetocarpus africanus
. The
species is found from Sierra
Leone to the Congo and east
to Uganda. In Kongo Central it
is collected between October
and May when it may be
heard, crunching the leaves as
it eats or as the droppings fall
through the leaves. The eggs
are large, up to 3 mm long,
whitish with brown stripes.
Bunaeoides eblis
feeding on a Mango leaf.
Foodplants include
Chaetocarpus africanus
,
Manotes expansa
,
Ochna
afzelii
, Mango,
Mangifera
indica
and
Acacia
auriculiformis
.
Pupation takes place in
the soil and may remain
from 1½ to 2 months
during the rain season.
The caterpillar may weigh up to 20 g just before pupation.

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Makedi kedi
Bunaea alcinoe
An important edible
caterpillar which is found
from October to May in both
savanna and forest. There are
at least two and maybe three
generations per rain season.
Eggs are laid in groups on the
undersides of leaves.
They hatch after about two
weeks and the larvae feed for
just over a month. Pupation takes place near the soil surface. When the rains come the pupae are often washed
out of the ground. The larvae may have a ground colour of either black or red, both types being found on the
same plant (see front cover and page 8)
Food plants are normally
Sarcocephalus
latifolius
, but it also feeds on
Acacia
auriculiformis
, mango, oil palm,
Dacryodes
edulis
, avocado,
Crossopteryx febrifuga
and
Anthocleista schweinfurthii
. This caterpillar
can be moved from one food plant to
another if necessary, for example to an
Acacia auriculiformis
tree near one’s home,
for better protection.
Left:
Bunaea alcinoe
feeding on
Sarcocephalus latifolius.
Photo: Augustin
Konda ku Mbuta
Malomba loka
Antheua sp.
This is also an important species, somewhat larger than
other Notodontid species referred to below. The caterpillars
feed on
Millettia eetveldeana
and are collected in December
and January.
Malumbuka
Antheua sp.
Malumbuka was seen in January also feeding on
Millettia
eetveldeana
. They sometimes rest head to tail and when
disturbed descend on a silk-like thread and remount again
later.
Photo : Augustin Konda
ku Mbuta

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Masela, mimboti, mimbimbi ya mbwala,
nluti
Elaphrodes lactea
A small, gregarious caterpillar which appears in
large numbers from the end of November until
the start of the dry season. It is sometimes sold
in local markets. The food plant is
Albizia
ferruginea
.
Mbambi, mingo ntulu, mingo nti
Imbrasia truncata
The Kikongo name ngo = leopard is given
because of the yellow spots present on the
young larvae. In Kongo Central it feeds on
Harungana madagascariensis
. It is often sold
with mvinsu caterpillars. Larvae can be moved
from one plant to another.
Photo: Jurgen Vanhoudt
Mbidi
This species is often found in large numbers. It feeds on
Canarium
schweinfurthii
. The caterpillar is collected in January.
Mfundi
Antheua
sp.
There appear to be at least 4 species
known as Mfundi. This one feeds on
Millettia eetveldeana
and
M. theuszii
and
is found in January.

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A second species (right) feeds on
Leptoderris
congolensis
and is found in December and January.
A third species feeds on
Millettia theuszii
Photo: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta
Miengeti
Phalera
sp.
The larvae feed in large numbers on
Millettia eetveldeana
and
Macaranga monandra.
When disturbed they descend
from the leaves on a fine silk-like thread. The photograph
was taken in January of a caterpillar feeding on
Millettia
eetveldeana
.
Mingombo or Nsielele
This small caterpillar is collected from September to
February. It feeds on Kisielele (
Pteridium centrali-
africanum
) a common weed of field crops in Kongo
Central.

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Minsangula, lukunku
Achaea
catocaloides
While most species of edible caterpillar remain in one
area, providing they are not disturbed by over collection,
fire or loss of their food plant, Minsangula appear in
large numbers in completely different areas. They may
commence feeding on
Pentaclethra eetveldeana
but will
then move on to eat the leaves of most plants, giving
rise to the saying “Nsangula ka ziluti nti!” (Nsangula
don’t spare any trees).
Photo: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta
If the caterpillars are found on plants low enough to
reach, they can be 'called' by shouting 'Yi! Yi'. This
causes them to jerk from side to side and thus identify
themselves to the collector. If in a high tree they are
sometimes smoked down. The caterpillars are
collected from October to December and are usually
only found where the forest has been allowed to grow
for a reasonable length of time.
Photo: Gracia Matondo
A Kikongo proverb states that:- “The forest which has
not yet reached maturity cannot attract the
Minsangula”. It used to be the custom, following the
harvest of Minsangula caterpillars, the chief would
give authority for the forest to be cut down for
planting crops. The larvae also have the habit of
descending on fine threads in a similar way to
Miengete.
Minsendi
Gonimbrasia jamesoni
Minsendi is a name given to
several species with similar
markings and having spines
shaped like horns (Minsendi =
horn). These are forest
species.
Right:
Gonimbrasia jamesoni
feeding on
Macaranga
monandra in March

19
Gonimbrasia jamesoni
has white or
yellow markings made up of small
platelets whereas in
Imbrasia obscura
these are in the form of bands or stripes.
The white hairs are also longer in this
species.
Final instar of
Gonimbrasia jamesoni
feeding on
Acacia auriculiformis
in
February
Minsendi
Imbrasia obscura
Note the different form
of the white markings
and the longer hairs in
this photo. Eggs of
I.
obscura
are laid along
twigs and leaf petioles
(see page 8). Caterpillars
appear from October to
February. Pupation takes
place underground. Gut
contents are removed
before cooking.
Imbrasia obscura
feeding on
Entada gigas
Photo: Augustin Konda
ku Mbuta
Foodplants include
Pentaclethra macrophylla
,
Macaranga monandra
and
Albizia ferruginea
. Sometimes young
caterpillars are transferred to an
Acacia auriculiformis
tree near the home village to rear until mature.
Young larvae of an unidentified
species of
Minsendi
feeding on
Maesopsis eminii
in January

20
Minsendi noir
Nudaurelia rhodina
Although not particularly
common this slow-moving
species is appreciated and
was found in January feeding
on
Maesobotrya vermeulenii
,
a straggling bush which
frequently grows near water
or in shade.
Minsendi,
m’bua kisiwu
Nudaurelia rectilineata
Usually found in small numbers but an
important species in eastern D.R.
Congo.
Nudaurelia rectilineata
feeding on
Hymenocardia acida
in January near
Mbanza Nzundu.
The caterpillars also feed on
Diplorhynchus
condylocarpon
,
Cajanus cajan, Erythrophleum
africanum
,
Syzygium guineense
subsp
.
macrocarpum, Antidesma membranaceum
and
Hymenocardia acida.
Nudaurelia rectilineata
feeding on
Acacia
auriculiformis
in February.

21
Minsongo or Malemba
Gonimbrasia alopia
Gonimbrasia alopia
feeding on Mango in
January
This species is found from Guinea to Congo and into Kenya. The eggs are oval in shape, 2.0 x 1.5 mm and hatch
in about 15 days. Caterpillars appear from November to January, usually in small numbers. In the final instar they
may be distinguished from
Pseudantheraea discrepans
by having a single dorsal bifid spine on the 11th. segment.
Food plants are
Albizia ferruginea
,
Manotes expansa
,
Millettia barteri
, Mango and
Chaetocarpus africanus
. Pupation
takes place underground.
Minsuka, boso boso
Nudaurelia anthina
This species is found from
Sierra Leone and Gabon and
across into East Africa. The
caterpillars are also called
Minsuka lala (lala = sleep)
from their tendency to curl
their heads downwards, as
in the photo. The eggs of
Nudaurelia
anthina
are
round, cream coloured, and
laid in a cluster. They hatch
after 12 days. The
caterpillars are found in
small colonies during the
rainy and short dry seasons
(January and February). Like related species, pupation takes place just below the soil surface. The chrysalis remains
underground for 4 - 10 months. The main food plant in Kongo Central is
Aframomum alboviolaceum
. Other food
plants include
Antidesma venosum, Strychnos pungens
and
Manotes expansa
.
It used to be the custom that if a child discovered these caterpillars he took them to the chief who would decide
whether it was time to start collecting. Now, unfortunately, everyone collects without seeking the chief’s authority,
and the species is becoming rare. Being a savanna species, fire is also a likely cause of its disappearance.
Mukoko
Bunaeopsis
aurantiaca
On the Bateke plateau
caterpillars were seen
feeding on an unidentified
species of grass. They are
also eaten in eastern D.R.
Congo.
Photo taken by Louisa Ngoie
near Lubumbashi

22
Munsona
Platysphinx stimatica
Not everyone appreciates this species either
because it is considered an orphan’s food
(Nsona = orphan) or because it is thought to
make one susceptible to skin infections. It feeds
on
Millettia versicolor
and
Crossopteryx
febrifuga
in Kongo Central. Pupation takes place
in an earthen chrysalis underground.
Munsona sona
Acherontia atropos
Again, not everyone will eat this
species. In Kongo Central it feeds on
Solanum macrocarpon
which is a
commonly planted vegetable. The
moths are sometimes found in
beehives, feeding on the honey,
particularly when colonies are weak.
Though these last two species are the
only hawkmoths (Sphingidae)
included here
, Agrius convolvulus
(the
Convolvulus hawkmoth), which feeds
on sweet potato vines, is common and widely eaten in southern Africa.
Mvinsu
Imbrasia epimethea
This forest species is highly sought after in Kongo Central.
Eggs are laid in large clusters on the undersides of leaves.
Young caterpillars hatch out in November and December.
Large numbers of caterpillars feed and move together. The
caterpillars normally descend the trunk of the tree during
the day and then ascend to feed at night. However larvae
are sometimes found feeding during the day. They may
feed from between 45 and 61 days
Left:
Imbrasia
epimethea
feeding
on
Petersianthus
macrocarpus
Foodplants
are
Holarrhena
floribunda,
Petersianthus
macrocarpus
,
Ricinodendron heudelotii
,
Funtumia africana
and
Acacia auriculiformis
.
Ricinodendron heudeloti
was traditionally planted in villages to attract this
species.
Right:
Imbrasia epimethea
photographed on the trunk of
Holarrhena
floribunda
. Photo: F. Santereau
If the caterpillars are found they belong to the family that planted the tree.

23
If a colony is found in the forest it is marked with
grass, or the bark of the tree is cut, to signify that
the colony is claimed.
Prior to pupation, which occurs in the soil, the
larvae lose most of their hair. There may be 2 or 3
generations per year. Gut contents are sometimes
removed before cooking. This species is particularly
rich in protein.
The parasites attached to some larvae in the photo
right are probably the cocoons of
Glyptapanteles
maculitarsus
.
Ngala
Cirina forda
This savanna species is also very much
appreciated and is found early in the rain
season from November to January in
Kongo Central. Probably as a result of
over collection and bush fires it is much
less common than previously. It is widely
distributed and eaten by people
elsewhere in sub-Saharan Africa. The
eggs are small and white and are laid in a
single large cluster around the tip of a
twig of the food-plant
Crossopteryx
febrifuga
. The caterpillars are often found
in large numbers on each tree and can be
located because they leave the branches
bare. The gut contents are normally
removed before cooking. Pupation takes
place at between 5 and 7 cm depth.
It is not difficult to
reintroduce and rear this
species in areas where the
food plant is plentiful. One
farmer obtained young
larvae from the market in
November/December,
introduced them to
Crossopteryx febrifuga
trees on his land and
reared them to maturity
allowing them to pupate,
which they did below the
trees.
Cirina forda
on
Crossopteryx febrifuga
He protected the area from fire during the dry season and the following year the numbers had increased sufficiently
for him to start collecting them for consumption. In subsequent years he has been able to collect and dry
reasonable quantities for his family from an area of savanna (approximately 10 kg fresh caterpillars per ha). He
has found that providing the land is protected from fire the species remains in the same location from year to year.
Unfortunately this species has since disappeared from Kongo Central due to over collection. Attempts to reintroduce
it from Bandundu have so far been unsuccessful.

24
Nkaka nsani, kikuya
Acraea
pharsalus
Both photos: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta
The caterpillar was feeding on a
Ficus
sp. (Kikuya) probably
F. exasperata
or
F. asperifolia
in August.
Nkankiti
Anaphe panda
A processionary caterpillar. Nkankiti feed together on
Bridelia
spp. or
Chaetocarpus africanus
. The young
larvae collect together on the leaves while the older
larvae collect on the bark of the tree. When pupating
the caterpillars form a silken nest close to the stem of a
bush or tree. The caterpillars are removed once they are
of sufficient size and are much appreciated, being rich in
fat. They are usually cooked with a few hot peppers and
a little salt. Gut contents are not removed. Previously the
nests were used to keep gunpowder dry while hunting.
Above: Nest formed by larvae about to pupate in
January.

25
Nkulu Fam: Lasiocampidae ?
This species forms a long, loose sack, similar in width to Nkankiti, but up to
30 cm long. The caterpillars have to be prepared with care as they can be
poisonous. The head and gut must be removed. They are found in February,
often feeding on
Lannea antiscorbutica
or
Syzygium guineense
var.
macrocarpum
, but are not particularly common.
Nsanga, mfundi, mimbota mbota
Epidonta brunneomixta
An important edible caterpillar found in December and January. It is particularly rich in protein and can be eaten
without removing the gut contents. It feeds on
Hymenocardia ulmoides,
Millettia versicolor
and
Leptoderris
congolensis
.
Nsanga
feeding on
Hymenocardia ulmoides
Nsani
Cymothoe caenis
Nsani is a very common species of butterfly which feeds
on
Oncoba welwitschii.
At least two generations appear
during the rain season and caterpillars can be collected in
large quantities during January and again in May/June.
Some people do not eat it because of its bitterness.
Left: Dried
Nsani
caterpillars before being soaked in water and
cooked

26
Nsindi
Haplozana nigrolineata
This species appears in November and is
collected in large quantities on the Bateke
plateau. It feeds on Masinda,
Hyparrhenia
diplandra
, and other tall, tuft forming
grasses.
Photo above: François Malaisse
Right: Pupae collected from Bateke plateau in December.
Nsongi
Rhypopteryx poecilanthes
Rhypopteryx poecilanthes
caterpillars (left) and moths
(below)
The caterpillars feed on
Symphonia globulifera
, appearing in
July.
Pupation lasts about 15 days.
N’teku
Nyodes vitanvali
The caterpillars appear in August and
feed
on
Pteridium centrali-
africanum.
Photo: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta

27
Nziozu Lasiocampidae sp.
Nziozu is collected in January and February but
is not eaten by everyone. It is found in small
colonies on
Leptoderris congolensis.
This plant
is used as a fish poison and known to contain
rotenone.
Nziozu
on
Leptoderris congolensis
in January
Children collecting caterpillars near
Mbanza Nzundu
Some pests of caterpillars
Caterpillars have many enemies. Here a
Cirina forda
larva has
been attacked by
Glyptapantales
wasp that lays its eggs inside
the body of the caterpillar. These turn into grubs and later
cocoons attached to the skin.
Photo: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta

28
Several species of ant,
often living in large
colonies in trees, attack
both caterpillar eggs and
larvae:- Mankambala
(
Oecophylla longinoda
),
Bimama (
Crematogaster
jullienei
), Nsongeni
(
Dorylus
sp. known as
safari ants), Mfwila and
Nsimba zi nsiasi. Here a
colony is being destroyed
with fire.
Photo: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta
A nest of Mankambala (
Oecophylla longinoda
) ants in a Citrus
tree.
Photo: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta
Nsongeni ants. These safari
or driver ants (
Dorylus
sp.)
can completely destroy a
colony of caterpillars in
minutes.

29
Note:
Nudaurelia petiveri, N. eblis, Imbrasia obscura,
&
I. epimethea
also feed on
Acacia auriculiformis
Caterpillar species
Principal
Months
Kikongo name
Scientific name
food plants
available
Bisu
Nudaurelia petiveri
Milicia excelsa
12 - 1
Ricinodendron heudelottii
Kaba
Lobobunaea phaedusa
Polyphagous
10 - 5
Kindengula
Daphnis nerii
Rauvolfia vomitoria
8
Kitete mbika
Bunaeopsis licharbas
Eriosema psoraloides
12
Kwesu
Nudaurelia eblis
Chaetocarpus africanus
10 - 5
Manotes expansa
Makedi kedi
Bunaea alcinoe
Polyphagous
10 - 5
Malomba loka
Antheua
sp.
Millettia eetveldeana
12 - 1
Malumbuka
Antheua sp.
Millettia eetveldeana
1
Masela or Nluti
Mbambi
Elaphrodes lactea
Imbrasia truncata
Albizia ferruginea
Petersianthus macrocarpus
12 - 1
Mbidi
Canarium schweinfurthii
1
Mfundi
Antheua sp.
Leptoderris congolensis
1 - 2
Mfundi
Antheua sp.
Millettia eetveldeana
1
Mfundi
Antheua sp.
Millettia theuszii
Miengeti
Phalera sp.
Millettia eetveldeana
1 - 2
Mingombo, nsielele
Pteridium centrali-africanum
9 - 2
Minsangula
Achaea
catocaloides
Pentaclethra eetveldeana
10 - 12
Minsendi
Gonimbrasia jamesoni
Macaranga monandra
2 - 3
Minsendi
Imbrasia obscura
Entada gigas
1
Pentaclethra macrophylla
1 - 2
Minsendi noir
Nudaurelia rhodina
Maesobotrya vermeulenii
1
Minsendi
Nudaurelia rectilineata
Hymenocardia acida
1
Minsongo
Gonimbrasia alopia
Albizia ferruginea
11 - 1
Minsuka
Nudaurelia anthina
Millettia barteri
Aframomum alboviolaceum
1 - 2
Mukoko
Bunaeopsis aurantiaca
Poaceae
Munsona
Platysphinx
stigmatica
Millettia versicolor
12
Munsona sona
Acherontia atropos
Solanum macrocarpon
Mvinsu
Imbrasia epimethea
Ricinodendron heudelotii
11 - 1
Funtumia africana
Holarrhena floribunda
Ngala
Cirina forda
Crossopteryx febrifuga
11 - 1
Nkaka nsani
Acraea pharsalus
Ficus
sp.
8
Nkankiti
Anaphe panda
Bridelia
sp.
1 - 2
Nkulu
Lannea antiscorbutica
1 - 2
Syzygium guineense var.
macrocarpum
Nsanga, mimbota
Epidonta brunneomixta
Hymenocardia ulmoides
Millettia versicolor
12 – 1
Nsani
Nsila
Cymothoe caenis
Oncoba welwitschii
Petersianthus macrocarpus
1, 6 - 7
Nsindi
Haplozana nigrolineata
Hyparrhenia diplandra
10 - 11
Nsongi
Rhypopteryx poecilanthes
Symphonia globulifera
N’teku
Nyodes vitanvali
Pteridium centrali-africanum
8
Nziozu
Leptoderris congolensis
1 - 2

30
Nutritional value of some edible caterpillars
Value per 100 g dried caterpillars
Dry matter
%
Protein
g
Fats
g
Carbo-
hydrate g
Fibre
g
Calories
kcal
Fam. Saturniidae
Bunaea alcinoe
9.0
65.7
10.0
19.3
n/a
443
Cirina forda
27.0
51.9
13.0
29.4
n/a
447
Nudaurelia petiveri
19.0
57.5
9.1
27.2
N/a
425
Fam. Notodontidae
Anaphe panda
26.1
45.6
35.0
9.2
6.5
543
Antheua insignata
25.0
61.0
10.0
12.7
11.0
397
Elaphrodes lactea
28.0
58.3
21.0
6.3
10.1
461
(Malaisse & Parent, 1980)
Comparative value of other local foods
Cassava leaves
28.3
21.2
3.0
56.7
12.1
321
Beef, average fat
35.9
49.3
48.0
0.0
0.0
642
(USDH/FAO, 1968)
Nsani (Cymothoe caenis) caterpillars being sold in a market.
Photo: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta

31
Some food plants of edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo
Acacia
Acacia auriculiformis
Although not an indigenous tree, several species of edible caterpillars, in particular
Lobobunaea phaedusa
, various
species of Minsendi,
Imbrasia epimethea
and
Nudaurelia eblis
feed on the leaves of this tree and on
Acacia
mangium
. Trees are frequently planted in villages and in small woodlands. Introduced from Australia, where it
often grows on sandy soils,
A. auriculiformis
is a vigorous tree reaching 30 m high. It will grow on deep or shallow
soils that are even too low in nitrogen and organic material to support
Eucalyptus
. It also grows in acid soils and
can be planted on steep slopes where its densely matted root system helps to stabilise the soil. It is not fire
resistant and does not withstand drought as well as
Eucalyptus
. It will not grow in waterlogged soils.
Bunaeoides eblis
feeding on
Acacia auriculiformis
The tree is grown for fuel wood producing from 16 - 25 tons/ha. It produces good charcoal that glows well and
burns without smoke or sparks. It is also planted as an ornamental that withstands city heat better than many
others. Tannin can be obtained from the bark. The tree is useful for smothering
Imperata
grass. The fallen leaves
produce compost, which is rich in nitrogen and builds up fertility. Edible mushrooms grow on the rotting wood.
The tree is propagated by direct seeding or transplanted from the nursery. Seeds should be put in boiling water
and allowed to cool and soak for 24 hours. Young trees do not like weed competition in the early stages. Although
the tree does not produce new shoots after felling (i.e. it does not coppice), a good crop of seedlings emerge,
particularly after burning the site. The tree can grow up to 6 m in 2 years. An unidentified disease is killing trees
in Bas-Congo and it is therefore advisable to plant it in mixed stands with indigenous species.
Dila dila
Manotes expansa
A common shrub, found growing on sandy soils in bush
fallows in Kongo Central. It is the food plant for Kwesu
Nudaurelia eblis
edible caterpillars. Cut stems yield a
liquid that can be drunk. The red sap from stems or
pounded shoots is drunk for dysentery or anaemia and
is also dropped into the eyes for conjunctivitis or to cure
headaches. The leaf paste is applied to burns. Bees
collect nectar and pollen from the flowers. The stems
are sometimes used for making fish traps.

32
Kibidi
Canarium schweinfurthii
This tree is the food plant for Mbidi edible caterpillars. The fruits
fall to the ground when ripe and can be eaten after being put in
hot or boiling water for a few minutes. The fruit pulp is boiled
with meat to soften and give it a pleasant smell. The timber is
used for construction. A resin is obtained from making cuts in the
trunk. This is used as a substitute for incense and, mixed with
fat, is rubbed on the body. When boiled in oil, it is used as a
perfume. The tree can be grown from seed. Allow the outer coat
of the fruit to decompose, place the seeds in hot water and soak
them for a further 24 hours as the water cools.
Right: Fruits of
Canarium schweinfurthii
Kibwenge
Millettia eetveldeana
Millettia eetveldeana
is the food plant for
Malombaloka, Malumbuka, Mfundi and Miengeti
edible caterpillars. It can grow to a height of 20 m.
The compound leaves are composed of between 7
and 12 pairs of leaflets. The tree is found in primary
and secondary forests, particularly on the edges, in
gallery forests and in wooded savanna. It is also
present in Angola, Zambia and Mozambique. It is the
food plant of Malomba loka, Mfundi and Miengete
edible caterpillars, even though it is known to contain
rotenone, an insecticide. It can be grown from
cuttings, which sprout after about one week. The
stakes are commonly used to make live fences and in
hut construction. Parts of the tree are used
medicinally in Bas-Congo.
Right: Trees are often found in flower during the year
and bees collect both pollen and nectar.

33
Kidimbi
Ochna afzelii
A shrub or small tree which is found in the
savanna. It is the food plant for Kwesu,
Nudaurelia eblis
. The wood is light brown,
hard, heavy and used for tool handles and
furniture. Leaves and fruit are reported to be
edible. The bark is put in boiling water and a
small amount of the liquid is drunk to treat
anaemia.
Left:
Ochna afzelii
with fruit
Kienga
Sarcocephalus latifolius
Usually found as a small savanna tree. It is common
throughout West Africa and across the Congo basin
to Uganda. The leaves are eaten by Makedi kedi,
Bunaea alcinoe
. The wood is used for making live
stakes and for charcoal and firewood. The bark is an
effective worm remedy. The roots are widely used for
the treatment of fevers. Bees visit the flowers from
October to December. The fruits are edible. The tree
can be grown from large cuttings or from seed. Seeds
are even smaller than those of
Eucalyptus
or tobacco.
When the fruit is ripe and soft, it should be mashed
and floated in a pail of water. The seeds will then
separate and sink to the bottom, after which they can
be collected and gradually dried. Store in a sealed
container in a dry place. Plant within two months.
Kifilu
Vitex madiensis
A small tree present in the savanna. Bisu,
Nudaurelia petiveri
feed on the leaves. The
fruits, which are up to 1.5 cm long, are edible
and sweet and become black when ripe. A
decoction, made from the young leaves, is
taken for coughs, colds, diarrhoea and
dysentery. The boiled roots are used to treat
diabetes and anaemia.

34
Kifitidi
Antidesma membranaceum
This small tree is widespread in tropical Africa,
from Senegal to Ivory Coast, and from Angola to
Mozambique. It is usually found at the forest
edge in the savanna. It is the food plant for Bisu,
Nudaurelia petiveri
. An infusion of the leaves and
roots is drunk to relieve coughing. Scrapings
from the roots are used to cure mouth ulcers in
children. Powdered bark is used as a dusting on
wounds in Tanzania.
Kifundi
Leptoderris congolensis
A scrambling bush or creeper with large rectangular shaped
leaves. The stems are covered with a dense mat of fine brown
hairs. It occurs in forests, particularly after cultivation, and
sometimes in wooded savanna. It is the food plant of Mfundi,
Nsanga and Nziozu caterpillars and can be grown from cuttings.
Kigala
Crossopteryx febrifuga
A common small tree of the savanna.
Ngala,
Cirina forda,
caterpillars used to
feed on this plant in Cataractes and
Lukaya districts, though elsewhere in D.R.
Congo they feed on
Burkea africana
and
Erythrophloem africanum
. Munsona,
Platysphinx
stigmatica
, also feed on the
leaves. The wood is hard, fine textured
and durable and is used for making tool
handles and for firewood. Bees visit the
flowers for nectar in November.
Crossopteryx febrifuga
with fruit

35
Kigete, mvete or mpete
Hymenocardia acida
Another common tree in the savanna growing from 3 to 6
m high. The wood is used to make charcoal. The shoots and
young fruits have an acid taste and are used to relieve
coughing, especially in children. Bees collect both nectar
and pollen from the flowers. The leaves are eaten by Kaba,
Lobobunaea phaedusa
and Minsendi,
Nudaurelia
rectilineata
. The bark is used to tan leather.
Kilolo
Annona senegalensis
subsp.
oulotricha
Another common savanna tree. Kaba,
Lobobunaea phaedusa,
are often
found feeding on the leaves. The
sweet pulp around the seeds is edible.
Rope is made from the bark. Stems
are used in hut building and for tool
handles. The gum is applied to cuts
and wounds to seal them. Soluble
wood ash is used for making soap.
The timber makes good firewood. The
tree can be grown from seed or wild
seedlings; germination is good but
sporadic. No treatment is needed but
the seed is best sown in pots. Store
the seed in ash to reduce insect
damage. It loses viability after 6
months.

36
Kimbaki
Funtumia africana
Food plant for Mvinsu,
Imbrasia epimethea
, Mbambi,
Imbrasia
truncata
and
Kaba,
Lobobumaea phaedusa
edible caterpillars.
The latex is used as a bird-lime and produces an inferior rubber.
The floss from around the seeds is sometimes used for making
pillows. The wood is soft, white, uniform in texture and fine-
grained and is used for carving, stools, bowls, doors and paddles.
It is said to be durable enough for sawing into planks and house
timbers but subject to stain and attack by beetles. The tree can
be grown from seed or wild seedlings. Fruit is collected when
mature and is left to split open in a dry place. Sow as soon as
possible. No treatment is necessary.
Flowers and fruits of
Funtumia africana
Kimuindu
Bridelia
sp.
There are several species of
Bridelia
in the province.
Bridelia micrantha
is the food plant for Nkankiti,
Anaphe
panda
, and Nkumbi edible caterpillars. Several other African silk worms (
Anaphe
spp.) are known to feed on this
tree. It makes a good shade tree for coffee and cocoa. The wood is hard, heavy and termite proof. When worked
it takes a good polish and large timbers are good for indoor carpentry and furniture. The wood is very durable in
contact with the ground and in water and is used for hut and fence posts. It makes a good firewood and charcoal,
giving out an intense heat. In the inner bark and outer sapwood there is a sticky substance which is adhesive. This
is used elsewhere to produce glue for repairing boots and shoes. The fruits have a small amount of pulp and are
edible. An edible mushroom grows below the tree. The tree is grown as a hedge or boundary plant and can be
propagated by seed or cuttings. Seed is best planted when fresh.
Bridelia ferruginea
is a savanna
species, and has small sweet
fruits which are also edible.
Nkumbi caterpillars also feed on
this plant. The tree is fire
resistant. The bark is used for
tanning and a dye is made from
the leaves. A decoction of the
bark, mixed with clay forms a kind
of cement, used to protect flat
roofs from rain, and is of sufficient
strength to build terraces and
houses. The tree has various
medicinal uses. The wood is
termite proof and used for making
granaries. A macerate of the
wood is used for glazing pottery.
It is also a very good firewood,
long lasting, with a hot flame and
little smoke.
Another species,
Bridelia ripicola
, grows near water and was the plant on which the Nkankiti caterpillars in the
photograph on page 24 had been feeding.

37
Kingela
Ricinodendron heudelotii
This fast growing tree, which may reach 50 m, is the food
plant for Mvinsu,
Imbrasia epimethea
, Kaba
, Lobobunaea
phaedusa
and Bisu,
Nudaurelia dione,
edible caterpillars. The
wood is white and soft, light, buoyant and perishable and used
for coffins and rough planks. It is a possible substitute for
balsa wood and for paper making. Wood ash is used as a
cooking salt, for soap making and in the indigo industry. It is
used for making drums and mortars in the province. The
leaves and shoots produce a high quality sheep and goat
fodder with an average of 16% protein. It has no known
toxicity. The seeds are boiled and eaten in a sauce, like
groundnuts, in D.R. Congo. The nut contains from 15.5 - 45%
oil and the tree could become a major source of cooking oil. If
Imbrasia epimethea
caterpillars are found on a tree planted in
the village, they belong to the owner. It used to be customary
to plant
Ricinodendron heudelotii
trees on or near graves in
the Congo and to attract this caterpillar. The tree is deep
rooting and useful for erosion control and soil improvement. It
is also used for live fencing and windbreaks. Edible
mushrooms are produced at the base of many of the trees.
The tree can be grown from cuttings, seedlings or from wild
seedlings. Seed can be soaked in cold water for 24 hours to
hasten germination.
Left:
Ricinodendron heudelotii
with fruit.
Kingembu
Maesopsis eminii
A large tree, indigenous to East, Central and
West Africa. It grows well in wet tropical
climates and prefers a deep, fertile, sandy
loam. The leaves are eaten by Minsendi,
Imbrasia obscura
, and Kaba,
Lobobunaea
phaedusa
. The fruits are edible. The wood
tends to split and warp and is not resistant
to fungi, borers or termites. It is used for
fencing posts and firewood. It is suitable for
general carpentry and internal construction
work and has been used for cabinet making.
The tree has various medicinal uses and is
sometimes used as a shade tree for tea and
coffee. It is reported as a bee forage in
Gabon. The tree can be grown from
seedlings, wild seedlings or by sowing direct
in the field. To grow from seed, collect the
fruits from the ground. The flesh must be
either cut off or the fruits are rubbed on wire
mesh to remove it. Wash and dry them
before storing. When planting, soak the
seeds for 3 days changing the water after 12 hours. For small quantities, the seed should be nicked before soaking.

38
The tree grows very quickly at first, reaching maturity in 20 years. It regenerates from seedlings around planted
trees over a wide area. Young plants do not compete well with weeds however, especially
Imperata
, but once
established tend to shade out the weeds. Young trees are susceptible to cankers caused by fungi.
Kinzenze
Holarrhena floribunda
This tree or shrub is found from Senegal to the Central African Republic
and Angola. It is widespread and abundant in drier forest areas and the
edges of savanna. It is the food plant for Mvinsu,
Imbrasia epimethea,
and Mbambi,
Imbrasia truncata
, caterpillars. The tree grows from 2 to
25 m high. The bark is widely used as a cure for dysentery. The wood is
soft and white and used for carvings, spoons, stirrers etc. In Kongo
Central it is also used for house construction, timber and charcoal
making. It can be grown from seed but will also grow from cuttings.
Holarrhena floribunda
with
Imbrasia epimethea caterpillars
near the
base. (See page 22 for a closeup photo of these caterpillars feeding).
Photo: F. Santereau
Kisani
Oncoba welwitschii
A very common small tree or shrub
5 to 6 m high. It is the food plant
for Nsani (
Cymothoe caenis
)
caterpillars. The fruit pulp is
occasionally eaten and the leaves
are used to treat fleas in poultry. It
is an important bee forage but
reported to produce a bitter honey.
Elsewhere in central Africa the tree
has considerable medicinal use. In
The Congo Republic the leaves and
bark are made into poultices to
treat abscesses and into plasters
for bronchial infections and for
rheumatism. The leaf sap is instilled into the nose for headaches and pounded
leaves are applied to reduce swellings in bone fractures before fixing splints.
The pulped bark together with palm oil is used to treat itch, and juice from
the bark is drunk or given by enema to expel parasites. The plant is also used
as a snuff for head-colds. The fruit is sometimes used for treating leprosy.

39
Kiseka
Pentaclethra eetveldeana
A common tree in secondary forest growing up to 30
m high. It is the food plant for Minsangula,
Achaea
catocaloides
. The seed contains oil of similar quality
to that of
Pentaclethra macrophylla
. The white wood
is hard, durable, and resists termites, insect and
fungal attack. It is used for pestles and mortars and
makes a good construction timber. It also makes
good fuel wood and is an important source of
charcoal. It provides bee forage in March. The seeds
are sometimes eaten. The seed germinates unevenly
but with a high percentage and is best shallow
planted direct into the field to avoid damaging the
taproot. The tree coppices well during the fallow
period.
Kisielele
Pteridium centrali-africanum
An erect terrestrial fern about 1 - 3m high
that has long subterranean rhizomes and is
capable of reproducing from these as well
as from spores. Stems are thick, rounded
and hairy. The frond is up to 45cm long,
compound and triangular in outline. The
plant is common in cultivated areas and
eaten by N’teku,
Nyodes vitanvali
, and
Nsielele edible caterpillars. The young
unopened leaves are edible.
Photo of Nsielele feeding: Augustin Konda
ku Mbuta
Kisongi
Symphonia globulifera
A tree of damp locations. It is the food
plant for Nsongi,
Rhypopteryx
poecilanthes
, caterpillars. The wood is
used for general carpentry and
particularly for making boats, paddles
and household utensils. It is resistant
to insect and fungal attack. The bark
produces a yellow resin which is
strongly adhesive and water resistant.
This is used for joining wood,
attaching knives to handles and
patching calabashes etc. It is also
used to protect the feet against
jiggers. The resin, bark and leaves
have medicinal uses. The tree is often
debarked for this reason and is now
becoming scarce. Seed can be
collected from the ground. Immerse
in hot water and allow to cool over
night. Seed should be planted as soon as possible, direct into the field, as the seedlings develop a long taproot.

40
Kitundibila
Aframomum alboviolaceum
A common herb of the savanna and food plant of Minsuka,
Nudaurelia anthina
, caterpillars. The red fruits are often eaten and
have a refreshing acid flavour. They are an important source of
vitamins.
Right:
Aframomum alboviolaceum
in flower and fruit (below).
Kivinsu
Petersianthus macrocarpus
A tree 20 - 30 m high. It mainly occurs in dense
secondary forest, and is present from Guinea to Congo
and in Angola. Mvinsu,
Imbrasia epimethea
, Minsongo,
Gonimbrasia alopia
, and Mbambi
Imbrasia truncata
,
edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. The timber is
resistant to termites and is used for mortars, hut
building and for canoes and paddles, but it has a
unpleasant smell when freshly cut. It makes a good fuel
wood. The roots, stem and particularly the bark are used
medicinally as a laxative and a purgative.
Below: Fruiting branch of
Petersianthus macrocarpus
.

41
Kiwandu ki nseke or Wandu nseke
Eriosema psoraleoides
A low growing shrub, the food plant for both Nsindi,
Cymothoe
caenis
, edible caterpillars. It is sometimes eaten by stock at the end
of the dry season. The yellow seeds are cooked and eaten in South
Africa. A decoction of the leaves is used as an expectorant.
Mbota
Millettia versicolor
A tree 20 - 30 m high but often found as a shrub 3 - 4 m high.
The fine golden-brown wood is hard and does not rot. It is used
for carving and for tool handles. The flowers are attractive to
bees and are produced all the year round. Kaba di mbedi,
Pseudobunaea alinda
, Munsona,
Platysphinx stigmatica
,
Bwenge, Nsanga
Epidonta brunneomixta
or Mimbota mbota
edible caterpillars feed on the leaves.
Munsanga
Hymenocardia ulmoides
This small tree is the food plant for Nsanga
Epidonta brunneomixta
and Kaba,
Lobobunaea
phaedusa
. Branches are commonly cut for
livestock fodder. The leaves are edible and the
young fruits and shoots are acidic in taste and
occasionally eaten. The wood is hard, dense and
durable and resistant to termites. Poles are
therefore used in house construction. The wood is
also used for charcoal making. The plant has
several medicinal uses. A decoction of young
leaves is used to treat stomach-ache and coughs.
A decoction of the roots is used to treat fever and
intestinal worms and of the bark is gargled for
throat problems.
Ngansi
Pentaclethra macrophylla
A large forest tree. It is the food plant for
Minsendi,
Imbrasia obscura,
and Minsangula
Achaea
catocaloides
caterpillars. The wood is
very hard and, though difficult to work, is
used for turning and general carpentry and
also for firewood and charcoal. Elsewhere it
is planted around farmland for its edible
seeds. These yield 30 - 36% oil, rich in
protein but poor in starch. The oil is suitable
for making candles and soap. The seeds are
edible after roasting or boiling for 12 hours.
Flour from the seeds can be used for bread
making. Leaves are shed during the dry
season providing a good mulch. The wood
ash can be used as cooking salt.

42
Seedpods make good fuelwood and, when burnt to ash,
give a lye which can be used for making soap. The
flowers are an important source of nectar for honey
bees in Bas-Congo, which visit throughout the day. The
tree is not attacked by termites and grows well after
being cut down. It is propagated easily from seed which
should be planted direct into the field.
Nkamba
Milicia excelsa
Traditionally this tree was planted near the village for timber and
to attract Bisu,
Nudaurelia petiveri,
edible caterpillars. The timber
is hard and durable yet easy to work and taking a good polish.
The heartwood is ant proof and resistant to water and fungal
diseases and used for making furniture and canoes. It also makes
good charcoal. The tree is fairly fire resistant when mature and
used for boundary marking in the province. Young leaves may be
used as a vegetable. The bark can be used for roofing houses
and for dyeing leather and cloth. The tree is best planted using
fresh seed. These are extracted by soaking and squeezing fruit
under water. If dried, the seeds can be stored for up to one year.
Root suckers 12 cm long can also be used but must be planted
vertically and are best covered over with a clear plastic bag.
Nkumbi
Lannea antiscorbutica
A tree or shrub from 5 to 15 m high often found at the
forest edge. It is the food plant of Nkankiti,
Anaphe
panda
, and Nkumbi edible caterpillars. It is reported to
be a good bee forage. Poles are used to make
enclosures and for building houses. The tree has a
number of medicinal uses, for example the bark from
the twigs is used to cure heart palpitations and to treat
tooth decay. It can be grown from cuttings or seed,
though germination is sporadic and reaches only 30%
after 3 weeks. The fruit skin and pulp are removed by
soaking in water and then squashing by hand. Seeds
are then washed and those which float are rejected.

43
Nkungu teke or Sesa
Chaetocarpus africanus
This shrub grows from 2 - 7 m high and is a
common plant in sandy soils in secondary
forest. Kwesu,
Nudaurelia eblis,
are often
found feeding on it. Bees collect nectar from
the flowers which are produced over a long
period during the rain season. The thin stems
are used for making brushes.
Chaetocarpus africanus
with fruit
Nsafu
Dacryodes edulis
An important fruit tree often planted in the villages. It is the food plant for Minsongo,
Gonimbrasia alopia
, Makedi
kedi,
Bunaea alcinoe
and Kaba,
Lobobunaea
phaedusa
caterpillars. The tree is planted for
shade and for its edible fruit, which is either
boiled in saltwater, roasted in hot ashes or
fried. The fruit is an important food in the
province. The fresh pulp is rich in fat. The resin
is used medicinally. The wood is greyish white
to pink, heavy and elastic, and used for tool
handles, particularly for axe shafts. It is also
suitable for veneers and cabinet work. The
production of oil for food or for cosmetic
industries could reach 7 - 8 t/ha. This compares
favourably with palm oil which produces only 3
t/ha. The flowers are 82% pollinated by
honeybees and the tree is an important bee
forage.
Propagation of good varieties is sometimes done by planting large cuttings or truncheons. The top of the cutting
must be covered with soil, or a pad of leaves, and kept humid until rooting has taken place. Seeds are more
generally used and can be stored for up to 14 days, once the flesh has been removed, but are best sown
immediately.
During harvest it is important to avoid breaking branches as this can delay flowering for a year. Cuts are sometimes
made in the tree trunk to improve fruiting.
Nsoki
Hyparrhenia diplandra
A coarse perennial grass, 2 – 4 m tall (right). It grows
on sandy clay soils in the savanna. Found mainly in
damp places in deciduous bushland and wooded
savanna in tropical Africa, and also present in S. E.
Asia. The grass provides good forage for livestock
when young. Protein content 5.7%. Food plant for
Nsindi,
Haplozana nigrolineata
, edible caterpillar.
Flowers are reported to be visited by honeybees in
Gabon.
Photo: Augustin Konda ku Mbuta

44
Sela
Albizia ferruginea
A forest tree up to 45 m high. Masela,
Elaphrodes lactea
,
Minsongo,
Gonimbrasia alopia
, Nkankiti,
Anaphe panda
, and
Nsanga,
Epidonta brunneomixta
, caterpillars feed on the
leaves. The tree produces a good timber, hard, heavy, easy
to work and resistant to decay. It is used for charcoal
making. It is a promising reafforestation species which
coppices freely. Bees collect nectar from the flowers.
Yensi
Macaranga monandra
A forest shrub or tree to 25 m high. Found
in Nigeria, Cameroon, Tanzania and
Angola. It is the food plant of Minsendi,
Gonimbrasia jamesoni
, caterpillars.
Trees with colonies of caterpillars are often
marked either with a cross as on page 10, or
with various items hung on the trunk to show
that the colony has been claimed by a family
and must not be taken.
Protected tree at Ipene village

45
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47
Index of caterpillars
Scientific name
Kikongo name
Page
Achaea catocaloides
Minsangula
5,6,18,29,39,41
Acherontia atropos
Munsona sona
22,29
Acraea pharsalus
Nkaka nsani, kikuya
24
Agrius convolvulus
22
Anaphe panda
Nkankiti
6,8,24,25,29,30,36
Antheua
sp.
Malomba loka
15,29,32
Antheua
sp.
Malumbuka
15,29
Antheua
sp.
Mfundi
6,16,29,32,39
Bunaea alcinoe
Makedi kedi
Front cover,8,15,29,30,33,43
Bunaeoides eblis
Kwesu
14,29,31,33,42
Bunaeopsis aurantiaca
Mukoko
21,29
Bunaeopsis licharbas
Kitete mbika, mbua ki
siwu
14,29
Cirina forda
Ngala
5,6,8,9,10,23,27,29
Cymothoe caenis
Nsani
25,29,30,38, 41
Daphnis nerii
Kindengula, kidishi foncé
14,29
Elaphrodes lactea
Masela, nluti, mimboti,
mimbimbi ya mbwala
5,16,29,30
Epidonta brunneomixta
Nsanga, mfundi or
mimbota bota
25,29,41,43
Gonimbrasia alopia
Minsongo, malemba
21,29,40,43
Gonimbrasia jamesoni
Minsendi
18,19,29,43
Haplozana nigrolineata
Nsindi
4,26,29,43
Imbrasia epimethea
Mvinsu
4,5,9,10,22,29,31,36-38,40
Imbrasia obscura
Minsendi
8,10,19,29,37,41
Imbrasia truncata
Mbambi, mingo ntulu,
mingo nti
16,29,36,38,40
Lobobunaea phaedusa
Kaba
4,8,9,12,29,31,35-37,41,43
Nudaurelia anthina
Minsuka, boso boso
21,29,40
Nudaurelia petiveri
Bisu
12,29,30,33,34,43
Nudaurelia rectilineata
Misendi, mbua kisiwu
20,29,35
Nudaurelia rhodina
Minsendi noir
20,29
Nyodes vitanvali
N’teku
26,29,39
Phalera sp.
Miengeti
17,29,32
Platysphinx stigmatica
Munsona
8,22,29,34,41
Pseudobunaea alinda
Kaba di mbedi
41,
Pseudobunaea pallens
Kaba
13
Rhypopteryx poecilanthes
Nsongi
26,29,39
Mbidi
16,29,32
Mfundi
16
Mfundi
17
Mfundi
17
Miengeti
17,29,32
Mingombo or Nsielele
17,29
Nkombo nseke
6
Nkulu
25,29
Nziozu
27,29,34

48
Index of food plants
Scientific name
Kikongo name
Page
Acacia auriculiformis
6,12-15,19,20,22,29,31
Aframomum alboviolaceum
Kitundibila
21,29,40
Albizia ferruginea
Sela
16,19,21,29,44
Annona senegalensis
var
. oulotricha
Kilolo
13,35
Anthocleista schweinfurthii
Mpukumpuku
15
Antidesma membranaceum
Kifitidi
12,20,34
Antidesma venosum
Kifitidi di nseke
21
Bridelia ferruginea
Kimuindu ki nseke
36
Bridelia micrantha
Kimuindu ki mfinda
36
Bridelia ripicola
Kimuindu ki masa
36
Bridelia sp.
Kimuindu
29,36
Cajanus cajan
Wandu
20
Cananga odorata
Front cover
Canarium schweinfurthii
Kibidi
16,29,32
Chaetocarpus africanus
Nkungu teke or Sesa
14,21,24,29,43
Crossopteryx febrifuga
Kigala
6,8,9,15,22,23,29,34
Dacryodes edulis
Nsafu
5,15,43
Diplorhynchus condylocarpon
Nvondongolo
20
Funtumia africana
Kimbaki
9,22,29,36
Holarrhena floribunda
Kinzenze
4,9,22,29,38
Hymenocardia acida
Kigete or mpete
20,29,35
Hymenocardia ulmoides
Munsanga
25,29,41
Hyparrhenia diplandra
Masinda, nsoki
26,29,43
Lannea antiscorbutica
Nkumbi
25,29,42
Leptoderris congolensis
Kifundi
4,17,25,27,34
Macaranga monandra
Yensi
17-19,29,44
Maesobotrya vermeulenii
Kutakani
20,29
Maesopsis eminii
Kingembu
19,37
Mangifera indica
Nmanga
14
Manotes expansa
Dila dila
14,21,29,31
Milicia exelsa
Nkamba
12,29,42
Millettia barteri
Kifundi
21
Millettia eetveldeana
Kibwenge
15-17
Millettia theuzii
Kifundi ki masa
17
Millettia versicolor
Mbota
6,22,25,41
Ochna afzelii
Kidimbi
14,33
Oncoba welwitschii
Kisani
25,38
Pentaclethra eetveldeana
Kiseka
18,29,39
Pentaclethra macrophylla
Ngansi
10,19,29,41
Petersianthus macrocarpus
Kivinsu
9,22,29,40
Psidium guajava
Fulunta
12
Pteridium centrali-africanum
Kisielele
17,26,29,39
Rauvolfia vomitoria
Kilungu
14
Ricinodendron heudelotii
Kingela
9,12,22,29,37
Sarcocephalus latifolius
Kienga
8,15,33
Solanum macrocarpon
Nkeka
20,29
Strychnos pungens
Nbumi
21
Symphonia globulifera
Kisongi
26,39
Syzygium guineense subsp. macrocarpum
Nkisu
20,25
Vitex madiensis
Kifilu
12,33