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NOW AND FUTURE OF LIBRARIES: THE NECESSITY TO EQUIP LIBRARIANS
WITH CYBERSECURITY SKILLS
Murtala Ismail Adakawa1, CLN, Zam'a Muhammad Al-Hassan2, CLN & Musa A. Auyo3, CLN,
PhD
1,2,3 University Library, Bayero University, Kano
Abstract
Libraries across the globe are adopting technologies for enhancing their capabilities and
meeting the information needs of their users on demand and expectations. This makes scholarly
communication a cornerstone in speeding up the discovery process where metadata plays a vital
role in this regard. Unfortunately, this makes data goldmine for cybercriminals and databases
more susceptible to unauthorized access. This paper reviews web information seeking behaviour,
status, and future prospects of libraries in equipping librarians with cybersecurity skills for
guarding against unauthorized access to the databank. The methodology used in reviewing the
literature was systematic review. In the review, information needs-seeking cycles of digital
natives and librarians were shown to be different on account that, digital natives employ non-
linear information seeking behaviour and librarians, as organizational workers, used linear
information seeking behaviour. It is recommended that librarians must rise up to the challenge
and embrace cybersecurity skills to guard against unauthorized access.
Keys: Cybersecurity, Cybersecurity Skills, Metadata, Scholarly Communications, Web
Information Behaviour
Introduction
Global insecurity is ubiquitous, devious, dynamic landscape, and renders individuals,
organizations, and societies unimmunized (Farley, 2015) from attacks thereby making it a top-
down responsibility for all and everybody's business. It has become an aspect of everyday life
(McLaughlin, 2015; Agyei & Möller, 2019). This is true as most of the insecurity challenges
appear just as pieces of an iceberg, representation, resemblance of or even less than the actual
scenes (Agyei, & Möller, 2019) usually presented to the third parties, and thus, brought many
scholars to ascribe insecurity paradigmatically (Mehrez, 2019) or through photojournalism as
"the temporality of everyday and everyday overturned" (Dell, 2010, p37-49). In the interest of
full disclosure, data/information remains a gold mine of criminals; numerous cyber-attacks in
cyberspace are omnipresent amassing to a million threats in just a blink of an eye. These attacks
are of different forms ranging from "denial of service, attacks on websites through to theft,
blackmail, extortion, manipulation, and destruction. The tools are many and varied, and can
include malware, ransomware, spyware, social engineering, and even alterations to physical
devices" (ACS 2016, p14). To be precise, every year, thousands of millions of cyber-attacks
occur globally. For instance, in 2015 alone, there was one of the highest packet rate attacks,
accounting for 214 million packets per second (Mpps) (Akamai, 2015). Similarly, every minute,
there are approximately half million-attack attempts in cyberspace (ACS 2016). Furthermore,
according to a report by Fortinet, the company encountered cyber-attacks nearing 500, 000
threats in just a single moment (Biggest Cybersecurity Threats, 2016). This makes managing
cybersecurity threats far more beyond the dominion of IT and it is a continuity necessity to
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protect intellectual property of every organization (Farley, 2015; Hoonakker, Bornoe & Carayon,
2009).
Cyberattacks are exponential and the "attack surface and potential targets will continue
to grow" (McLaughlin, 2015, p4). Some of the global insecurity issues are termed "wicked
problems" (Rittel, & Webber, 1973) due to the difficulty experienced in defining those problems
as separate entities because of their interwoven and intricate nature (Villeneuve, et al., 2020).
These manifest themselves in food insecurity (FAO, 2010), human insecurity (Werthes, Heaven,
& Vollnhals, 2011), poverty (Akokpari, 2007) to the dependency on the enabled-technology that
increases with an increase of innovations and creativity as society continually witnesses the
failure and attack on cyber infrastructure (Goldsmith & Siegel, n.d). In other words, the
challenge of the world population projected to be 9 billion people by 2050 (Godfray et al., 2010)
coupled with food production predicted to be 70% sufficient enough for sustaining such a
population (Karunasagara, & Karunasagarb, 2015) intimidates the survival of the smartest and
largest economies. Despite cyber domain experiences significant transformations, it presents
threats, on the one hand and opportunities, on the other hand, to individuals, corporations and
society at large (World Development Report, 2019).
Several interventions and programs have been put in place to reduce cyber insecurity.
Examples of these interventions include government configuration (Martin, 2005), assistance to
form a sound investment strategy to defend against a strategic attack on financial services
(NCDFSWR, 2009), among others. However, in spite of these programs and interventions to
reduce the risks associated with cybersecurity threats, the problem of cybersecurity remains a big
challenge. The consequences of not addressing this problem lead to an embarrassment for a
company, institution, or individual resulting in significant financial or operational impairment
(ACS 2016), social and psychological problems (Bada, & Nurse, 2019), to mention but a few.
This calls for further researches to be conducted to reduce cybersecurity issues from a potentially
useful perspective. Unless the problem of cybersecurity is addressed from the web-information
behaviour of librarians, and digital natives, the problem of cybersecurity will continue. Even
though studies about cybersecurity have focused wholly on pragmatic approach applying only
technological, pathological (malware, spyware, etc.) perspectives; unless the problem of
cybersecurity is looked at from web-information behaviours of librarians, and digital natives on
how they utilize websites for knowledge creation, distribution, and use, cybersecurity threats will
continue. One of the key theorists that discussed the issue of web-information behaviour is
Detlor Brian. Detlor, (2005, p380) states that, "a user's problem situation influences how and
what information needs to be displayed in an Internet-based information system".
Previous researches that discussed cybersecurity issues focused on using methodologies
neglecting an approach that allows in-depth understanding of the real problem from theoretical,
policy and methodological perspectives. To begin with, research in cybersecurity is accelerating
with no slackening in its pace and at the same time remains fragmented and interdisciplinary.
This makes it hard to keep up with new trends in the field and to make pieces of evidence
available in a single research that can inform practice a challenge. This conformed with Nelson
and Campbell's (2017) finding that, single studies lack evidence-based contextual and
methodological contributions that inform policy and practice decision-making process a
consequence of necessitating a shift in single studies to systematic review. This corroborated
with Snyder's (2019, p333) study that "an e ective and well conducted review as a researchff
method creates a firm foundation for advancing knowledge and facilitating theory development."
This paves way for including substantive findings, theoretical and methodological contributions
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to a topic of interest (Hart, 2018) in a well-articulated review. By so doing, literature review can
address dangling and deteriorating cybersecurity issues with a power that no single research can
do. Systematic review, used in this study, despite appears simple; encompasses epistemological
and theoretical frameworks about a phenomenon of a study (Newman, & Gough, 2020). As per
the selection criteria in this study, digital natives, their characteristics, inclination to partake in
criminal activities and hacking behaviour as well as their information-needs-seeking behaviour
cycle were included. This is because, this category of people are born, raised or immersed in and
surrounded by technology and inclined to be part of cybercrimes. Also of importance is the
general behaviour of organizational workers where librarians are portrayed generally as
organizational workers in terms of their information-needs-seeking behavior cycle. The
significance of the study is illustrative conceptually and theoretically as it conceptualized
librarians employing makerspace scenario in their daily dealings where they used decades-old
protective mechanisms to guard against unauthorized access to library data. Conversely, digital
natives use sophisticated tools and search strategies that are always modified to get access into
organizational e-assets. From theoretical perspective, librarians used linear information seeking
while digital natives or hackers used non-linear information seeking that has no beginning let
alone ending. Rationale for conducting research can be justified as libraries are migrating from
print to e-resources thus making data prone to unauthorized access and that, scholarly
communication is changing from traditional to web-based form. This makes data more prone to
dangers than before and the necessity to equip librarians with cybersecurity skills. Libraries
especially academic libraries are known to subscribe for e-journals and e-books for aiding
research, teaching, and learning. Without a watchful eye, libraries can spend out of control and
the resources subscribed to assist faculty members and students, might get accessed by
unauthorized users. Thus, this research will guide practice especially in training and retraining of
library staff on cybersecurity issues to guard against unauthorized access to e-resources.
To achieve the objectives of this chapter, it is divided into the following sub-headings
1. Understanding a Shift in the Global Insecurity
2. Digital Natives and Information Behaviour
3. Obsolescence of Electronic Media Storage, Metadata Technology Integration, and
Scholarly Communication
4. Web-Information Seeking Behaviour of Organizational Workers
5. Competence Development of Librarians towards Digital Security
6. Conclusion
1. Understanding a Shift in the Global Insecurity Landmark
It is important to acknowledge the fact that "global insecurity" contains two words that
uninterruptedly receive disagreed definitions among scholars. To begin with, globalization, as a
concept remains tricky and contested to describe; and lacks any intellectual harmony regarding
its definitions. Rather it receives its definition based on its visible features and impact (Akokpari,
2007). Globalization means, "the vision of a borderless world in which territory has lost all
importance and functionalism is predominant" (Hettne, Adreas, & Osavaldo, 1999, p7). It also
denotes "the multiplicity of linkages and interconnections that transcend nation-states and
societies, which currently make up the modern world system" or "a process through which
events, decisions, and activities in one part of the world can come to have significant
consequences for individuals and communities in quite distant parts of the globe" (McGrew,
1992). Giddens (1990) conceives it to refer to "the intensification of worldwide social relations,
which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring
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many miles away and vice versa." From the above captions, it follows that, globalization deals
with internationalization i.e. cross-border interactions between countries and regions;
liberalization i.e. deregulation of the political and economic space; universalization i.e. the
capacity to spread experiences of one region to another part of the globe; and deterritorialization
i.e. the ability to weaken state border (Scholte, 2001, Akokpari, 2007).
Furthermore, it is described as the shrinking of world territories to "global village" (McGrew,
1992, p63) thereby increasing interconnectedness between countries, economies, and people.
This interconnectedness is possible through technological advancement especially in
telecommunications, internet, and social media platforms that change the way people interact
with one another and, the development of supersonic jets that impacted the way people travel
physically from one geographical location to another (Akokpari, 2007). Thus, globalization is a
kind of re-ordering of social and economic life whereby "locales are thoroughly penetrated by
and shaped in terms of social influences quite different from them" (Giddens, 1990, p19). The
actions, inactions, and decisions of the powerful have consequences on the welfare and security
on people across globe (Poku, 2001).
Marrying the two words, global insecurity represents a historic landmark in the development
of international relations and political advancement. Perhaps that is why attention of scholars has
been polarized and popularized since UNDP Report in 1994. In this report, there is a paradigm
shift from state definition [focusing on territorial integration, respect for sovereignty of state,
non-interference in its domestic affairs, etc.] (Oberleitner, 2005, p189) to human security thereby
making it a referent point (Akokpari, 2007). In this regard, several definitions of human security
evolved with seeming difference but converged at absence of any harm. For instance, human
security is the "freedom from fear, freedom from want and freedom to take action on one's own
behalf" (UNDP, 1994) overcoming economic, health, environmental, personal, community and
political insecurities. State security regarded as old and traditional, ethnocentric and parochial
(Henk, 2005) to "any major security issues, including without limitations those of political,
strategic, economic, social or ecological nature" (Vale, 1992, p100). In other words, human
security challenges the dominance of state security especially in international relations
(Akokpari, 2007). To buttress this point further, Lodgaard, (2000, p4) claimed that, "the
constraints on state sovereignty, the mobilization of international civil society in defense of
international norms, the sharing of power between state and non-state actors in globalizing
world… leave a clear message: the state is no longer able to monopolize the concept and
practice of security". The cosmopolitan poverty, tenacity of underdevelopment and overall
hopelessness, indicate a rather inability of states to sufficiently address the issues facing
humanity (Akokpari, 2007).
Human insecurity concerns itself with all critical threats to peoples' lives commonly referred
to as "social threats" (Buzan, 1983). Social threats, according to Buzan, (1983, p19) comes into
being whenever there are dangers "arising from the fact that people find themselves embedded in
a human environment with unavoidable social, economic, and political consequences". Human
security means "freedom from pervasive threats to people's rights, safety, and lives" (Dorn, 2001,
p1). These definitions did not go well as they received several criticisms from other scholars
from different perspectives. For example, Paris (2001, 2005) claimed that, the definition is too
general, expansive and can incorporate any threat to human discomposure. In his wordings, the
concept is expansive and can include "virtually any kind of unexpected or irregular discomfort"
(Paris, 2001, p89). Similarly, Pettman, (2005, p140) observed that, focusing exclusively on
human as "the referent of security is inadequate and problematic" and called for a
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comprehensive account of human security to cater for the traditional way of living (Akokpari,
2007).
Cybersecurity is rooted in human security. Cybersecurity, previously taken for granted,
receives maximum attention of the corporate bodies, government organizations, and institutions
nowadays. This is because it concerns all and easily affects the reputation of an organization and
its customers, pulls criticism from stake(share)holders, attracts grievances from affected
individuals, attention of the media, etc. (Farley, 2015). Furthermore, organizations are moving
into interdependent technology (e.g. interlibrary loan); the threats will even be greater. To assist
remedy the inherent failures in organizations, Farley, (2015, p iii-iv) suggested that,
organizations should "remain vigilant, taking steps to proactively and intelligently address
cybersecurity risk within their organizations. Beyond the technological solutions developed to
defend and combat breaches, we can accomplish even more through better training, awareness,
and insight on human behaviour". In this respect, information behaviour is equally important.
This is because the defender who tries to guard against their identity might be using decades-old
security technology whereas the hacker is always working like a Trojan, updating to get into the
accounts of million others. From this scenario, simple mathematics emerges; according to
McLaughlin, (2015, p4-5), "as computing power becomes less expensive, the cost for launching
automated attacks decreases. This allows the number of attacks to increase at a given cost” or
“harnessing automation and integrated intelligence can continually raise the cost of making an
attack successful, eventually decreasing the number of successful attacks". These are some of the
reasons why cybersecurity should not be treated as mono-discipline rather interdisciplinary. This
is because, advocacy for interdisciplinarity has continued to gain prominence (Borrego &
Newswander, 2010) across scholarly communication system (Kessel, Rosenfield, & Anderson,
2008; Karunasagara, & Karunasagarb, 2015). This is because the 21st technological and socio-
technological challenges can only be addressed using interdisciplinary approaches (Musa, 2018).
To be precise, 21st-century threats require integration of theories, models, and research
methodologies from various disciplines (National Science Foundation, 2006) including global
security in general and cybersecurity in particular.
2. Digital Natives and Information Behaviour
Before beginning to discuss digital natives, it is important to note the chains of happenings
that shaped its formation. The word "digital native" first emerged in 1995 by Barlow (1995),
later by Papert, (1996). Tapscott, (1998) used "Net Generation" as a substitute for the digital
native. At the same time, Howe and Strauss, (2000) used the word "Millennial" to refer to the
same phenomenon. However, several other concepts denoting similar meaning with digital native
have been used, such as Generation C, Google Generation, Nintendo Generation, etc. (Bennett,
2012). Subsequently, it was Prensky (2001) who used and resurfaced the word, digital native,
because of which received prominence and thus accepted by most scholars. He noted that the
contemporary generation continuously gets immerse in a world permeated with networked and
digital technologies. This trend makes them behave differently from previous generations to the
extent they think, learn, and interact differently, they display different social characteristics, and
their expectations about life and learning differ markedly from previous generations (Tapscott,
1999, 2009; Howe & Strauss, 1991, 2000; Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005; Palfrey & Gasser, 2008).
Furthermore, researches indicated that, this new set of people prefer now, multitasking, tolerance
to e-dealings, and immediateness in their daily transactions (Tapscott 1999; Oblinger, 2003;
Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005).
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To start with, digital natives refer to individuals born, raised and often spend their entire lives
spinning in and surrounded by the technology-driven medium in a vicious cyclic manner.
Kennedy, Judd, Churchward, Gray, and Krause, (2008), referenced Prensky, (2001, p1) who
noted that, in his wordings, digital natives "[used to] spend their entire lives surrounded by and
using computers, videogames, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the other
toys and tools of the digital age" (Prensky, 2001, p1). These attributes and interactivity
differentiate them from their predecessors. In other words, the brains of the digital natives are
quietly different in physical form and thus, their cognitive abilities have far become more
complex as regards how they grew up (Prensky, 2001). The digital culture of digital natives has
influenced their preferences and skills with regards to education (Kennedy, Judd, Churchward,
Gray, & Krause, 2008). It can be assumed that, the more connected the world seems, the better
the security it experiences. However, the reverse happens despite global village scenario. This is
captured by Raytheon, Forcepoint and the National Cyber Security Alliance (2017) who noted
that "the ever-evolving era of internet-connected technology has provided the world with
unprecedented ways to make our lives easier and more productive. Unfortunately, when
everything is connected, everything is potentially vulnerable to cyber threats," and not only that,
the report further stated that, "it is estimated 1.8 million cybersecurity jobs will go unfilled across
the globe".
2.1 Why Digital Natives and Cybersecurity?
According to Prensky, (2001), digital natives spend less than 5, 000 hours of their lives
reading but more than 10, 000 hours playing or more than 20, 000 hours on TV. This means that,
they spend most of their time on the internet; they grow with the growth of its sophistication.
Prensky referenced Berry who noted that, "different kinds of experiences lead to different brain
structures". In effect, the sophistication of digital natives with technology is their attribute. It is
important to acknowledge that, for digital natives, the paper medium is obsolete and therefore
irrelevant, which makes data/information to circulate uncontrollably owing to the advancement
of technology, inappropriate use of technology by novices or weakest link of information
security and low level of awareness (Ogutcu, Cirakoglu, & Cula, 2016). To buttress this point
further, minor negligence can result in major damage in cyberspace. This implies that, data, as an
e-asset needs to be protected and this leads to the development of e-government and ensues
international cooperation thereby strengthening national information security system (Ogutcu,
Cirakoglu, & Cula, 2016). In 2004, for example, Turkey Internet Security Research showed
concern over a breach of cyber contents that made the entire nation prone to digital dangers
(Canbek, & Sağıroğlu, 2006). A closer look at this scenario indicated that cybersecurity
challenge is not the problem of the technology itself but that of human and management
(Mitnick, 2009). Perhaps that is why it has become a commonplace nowadays to see private
corporations and government agencies striving to spend their last kobo in ensuring safety and
security of their e-assets from unauthorized access. This is possible via employing software- and
hardware-security methods (Ogutcu, Cirakoglu, & Cula, 2016) and these hardware and software
are the agents used to mine data using illegal methods. Despite many studies have shown that
sensation seeking tendency and addiction to smartphone and enabled-technologies are
characteristics of digital natives thereby rendering information security unimportant (Ogutcu,
Cirakoglu, & Cula, 2016); still, studies show that small minority of people commit the majority
of crimes (Wolfgang,1983; ACS 2016) especially in the digital medium (Dijle, 2006). To be
precise, Ogutcu, Cirakoglu, and Cula, (2016) referenced Dijle, (2006) who noted that, 42.1% of
the respondents in his research indicated that they want to be hackers. This is because the
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possibility of engaging in cybersecurity issues increases with increase in using such technologies
(Ogutcu, Cirakoglu, & Cula, 2016).
In terms of password selection, Bensmann (2009) observed that, among Turkish
technology users, there are two categories: those that used less than and more than 7 digits
password system. For those less than 7-digit, they use password-user name matchup, which is
either numerical or alphabetical ending with numerical characters. Alternatively, for those using
more than 7 digits, their contents will have predictable nature, usually a well-known word
particularly special name. Hoonakker, Bornoe and Carayon, (2009) reiterated that 91% of the
cybersecurity threat is that identity theft usually occurred through offline channels. Merely 5% of
such threats occur via employing viruses, spyware, or hackers while only 3% was by a phishing
attack. Similarly, this means that, institutions of higher learning are at high risk since 86% of
them use username and password system for identity check (Hoonakker, Bornoe & Carayon,
2009) as password and username are the most effortless and least in cost since they are simple
and easy to remember. Some staff (20%) wrote their password on a notepad and stuck it on the
screen of their computers; 66% saved their password on papers and 58% electronic papers
(Ogutcu, Cirakoglu, & Cula, 2016).
According to Raytheon, Forcepoint and the National Cyber Security Alliance (2017),
Millennial believe that cybersecurity is important (83%), but their behaviours, if used in the
working place, could jeopardize the employers. For instance, the report indicated that, Millennial
is perfect in protecting their smartphone (87 %), and computers (83 %) using password and PIN
neglecting to protect other devices with a password. There was an increase of 15% awareness of
cybersecurity from 2014. This increase in awareness of cybersecurity issues can serve as a
yardstick for parents, professionals, and peers to influence young adults' career decisions. To
these digital natives, space is no longer a barrier in their today's transactions where
communication technologies, social networks, etc. have transformed the lives of and how people
interact in a digital medium (Ogutcu, Cirakoglu, & Cula, 2016). This has made data/information
an e-asset in circulation that needs maximum protection, as do other commodities under
conventional circumstances. People are continuously becoming dependent and more complex in
their daily dealings. This is true as "… our students are clamoring for these [new] technologies
to be used as part of their education, in part because they are things that the students have
already mastered and use in their daily lives, and in part because they realize just how useful
they can be" (Prensky, 2007; p41). To support the above claims, they are versatile as they prefer
receiving information quickly, adept at processing information swiftly, fond of multi-tasking and
non-linearity in accessing information, select active learning, dependent on communication
technology, and require social and professional interactions (Prensky 2001; Oblinger, 2003;
Gros, 2003; Frand, 2000; Kennedy, Judd, Churchward, Gray, & Krause, 2008).
In addition, World Development Report (2019) observed that, despite innovation and
creativity causes disruption but brings more blessings than destruction, technology is felt by
every part of our lives to the extent robots substitute most of the routine work thereby
eliminating many low-skill jobs in developed and developing countries. In a similar vein, the
report stated that "when we consider the scope of the challenge to prepare for the future of work,
it is important to understand that many children currently in primary school will work in jobs as
adults that do not even exist today" (pvii). This implies that investing in human capital
development especially in education and health is a necessity. To buttress this point further, there
is a continuous widening of gap creating a hollow space that the "haves" should not ignore the
suffering of "have-nots" (Brainard, Chollet, & Lafleur, n.d). A great number of poverty in sub-
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Saharan Africa is beyond expression and has several implications, and this factor psychologically
resulted in people becoming angrier like never before. It is a known fact that angry people want
to increase in possession lawfully or otherwise. This captured the attention of UNDP who
observed for many decades that, over 40% of 800 million people in sub-Saharan Africa live
beyond poverty line (i.e. they earn less than a dollar to take home in a day, UNDP, 1999). It is the
only region where poverty nourishes, flourishes; and is to increase (UNDP, 2000) if something
urgent is not done. The poverty line in sub-Saharan Africa fulfils all indicators of human
development. For example, only 36% had access to sanitation, 58% to water sources, and 61.3%
to literacy. These figures are slightly above the ones recorded in 1990 (UNDP, 2005, p243). Also,
welfare—mainly income, health and education—has been declining since 1990 (UNDP, 2005,
p21). Poverty is cyclical can be passed on from generations to generations, especially if left
unbroken and exposes people to abuses and violence (Akokpari, 2007). The fear people have for
themselves and their children and the next generations exposes them to venture into all vices of
criminal activities, which include cyber insecurity issues. To this end, cybersecurity is not an
optional but a necessity. According to ACS (2016, p6), "therefore, it follows that in order to keep
our way of life – and to continue to prosper through technology – we must ensure that it always
operates and works for us as intended".
2.2 Digital Natives and Information Behaviour
As studies showed, a small minority of people commit the majority of crimes
(Wolfgang,1983; ACS 2016) and that, digital natives are embedded in technology, means that,
the information needs and seeking behaviour of this category is entirely different from
organizational workers. In this regard, non-linear information-seeking, proposed by Foster
(2005) is suitable for this group. This theory is based on "exploring the relationship between
interdisciplinarity, disciplinarity, behaviour, and strategies. The specific focus of enquiry was the
identification of the activities, strategies, contexts, and behaviours used and perceived to be used
by interdisciplinary information seekers" (Foster, 2005, p254). The model suggests that activities
are continuous, non-linear, dynamic, holistic, and flowing having no fixed starting point let alone
finishing ends, and remain available throughout information seeking. In other words, "each
process may be repeated, or lead to any other, until either the query or context determines that
information seeking can end" (Foster, 2005, p254). In the model, there are three core processes,
which include opening, orientation, and consolidation. Furthermore, these core processes move
outward to the three contextual interactions namely; cognitive approach, internal context, and
external context (Foster, 2005). On this basis, the current study on digital natives is concerned
with the cognitive approach. The model highlights four cognitive approaches, which are 1.
Flexible and adaptable; 2. Openness; 3. Nomadic thought, and 4. Holistic.
It is a known fact that, hackers are flexible, adaptable, and holistic in terms of their
information needs and seeking. These features have cognitive abilities (Spink & Cole, 2007).
Hackers are characterized as having hackerspace. Hackerspace began in the 1990s and received
widespread recognition in 2000s (Moilanen, 2011). It is important to acknowledge that, there is a
misconception as regards hacking activity itself. To the public, hacking is an illegal activity
(Ziccardi, 2013; Alleyne, 2011; Jordan & Taylor, 1998; Chandler, 1996). Conversely, hackers
regard it as a creative interaction with technology (Nikitina, 2012; Kelty, 2008). Perhaps that is
why some scholars observed that, hackerspaces have the ability to facilitate creativity and IT
literacy or development, civic engagement for engagement and learning (Lindtner, 2014; Kera,
2014; Slatter, & Howard, 2013) and new civic participation (Rosner, Lindtner, Erickson, Forlano,
Jackson, & Kolko, 2014). There is also a disparity between males and females in hackerspaces.
8
This is due to the male dominance in such an ecosystem and this received maximum debates
among feminist thinkers (Lewis, 2015). Hackerspaces are community-operated physical places,
where people can meet and work on their projects and, as is opposed to an online meeting, it
involves a gathering of like-minded people that hack (Hielscher, Smith, & Fressoli, 2015). The
projects are mainly "grounded in software and hardware developments, whilst experimenting
with computing and digital fabrication machines (such as laser-cutters) and getting engaged in
areas like technology, science and art (robotics and electronics)" (Hielscher, Smith, & Fressoli,
2015, p4).
The areas of their specialization revolve around "free software development, computer
recycling, wireless mesh networking, microelectronics, open hardware, 3D printing, machine
workshops, and cooking" (Maxigas, 2012, p.5). Many events shaped the development of
hackerspace worldwide since 2007. For example, a mission called "Hackers on a Plane" which is
a nexus of USA and Europe brought hackers together that led to the formation hackerspace.org in
2006, and thus became globally known (Hielscher, Smith, & Fressoli, 2015). They have no
absolute definition, and no definite boundaries (Moilanen, 2011), as hackers do not want to
expose their secrets, targets, and missions. To augment this statement, a hackerspace is
influenced by the way it evolves and mixes with others and whether it is still active or inactive
(Moilanen, 2011) or how it has been set up or being run (Maxigas, 2012). There are about 400
[this figure might have doubled, tripled or even quadrupled] member locations globally but half
are under construction or inactive (Troxier, 2010). Their features are; 1. They are self-declared
communities that are independent; 2. They have a common space through which they share their
tools and knowledge; 3. Activities are technologically inclined or scientifically motivated
explored through trial and error and sharing information; 4. The space is open to the public for
some time (Moilanen, 2011). These features give them an edge in environmental scanning
capabilities. According to Choo, (2001, p1), environmental scanning deals with the "acquisition
and use of information about events, trends, and relationships in an organization's external
environment" the knowledge gained can assist them in planning how the hacking activity can be
conducted. In other words, hackers can scan the external environment in order to understand the
external forces that bring about a change. They scan in order to avoid surprises, identify threats
and opportunities, gain competitive advantage, and improve long-term and short-term planning
(Sutton, 1988, Choo, 2001). Similarly, because scanning behaviour depends on external forces
(such as environmental turbulence), organizational factors (such as nature of business),
information factors (such as availability and quality of information), and personal factors (such
as scanner's knowledge or cognitive style) (Choo, 2001) can give hackers an advantage to choose
from these options the weakness of the organization to be hacked.
3. Obsolescence of Electronic Media Storage, Metadata Technology Integration, and
Scholarly Communication
Use of electronic media storage can no longer be affordable to carry the contents of the
enormous volume of information resources especially in libraries. That is, the use of CD, flash,
hard drives, etc. for storing information has become obsolete. An alternative to storage is
mandatory. That is why libraries are transforming from traditional (print materials) to digitally
sophisticated web-based medium that affects the reading habits of information users (Soroya, &
Ameen, 2020) and hence the description of their resources (Dervin, 1998). For instance, 50% of
UK research books are expected to be available in digital format in 2020 (British Library, 2010).
Similarly, 95% of US public e-books and their acceptance are high among the populace (Library
Journal, 2014). Furthermore, e-books' user penetration was 24.5% in 2018 and it is projected to
9
be 26.5% by 2023 (Statista, 2018a). To buttress this point further, there is a projection that, e-
book publishing revenue will grow from $118.62 billion in 2018 to $134.85 billion in 2022
(Statista, 2018). However, these developments are affected by poorly organized search results
upsetting 53% of sites; poor information architecture distressing 32% of sites (Vividence
Research, 2001) and having similar style-items on the web (English, Hearst, Sinha, Swearingen,
& Yee, n.d). Because the trend has dramatically changed from print to audio-visual,
electronic/digital resources, the need for other metadata standards other than MARC arose and in
order to ensure maximum accessibility; systems other than Integrated Library System (ILSs) are
needed (Han, 2012). As a result, Dublin Core, Metadata Object Description Schema (MODS),
Encoded Archival Description (EAD), and Visual Resource Association (VRA) Core are used for
describing resources in digital formats (Han, 2012). Metadata is constantly becoming vibrant,
variant, and ever-evolving in a direct proportion as the online resource (Baca, 2000) for building
authoritative, reliable, and useful digital resources. This came at a time, where if metadata is
managed well can "deliver a significant return on intellectual capital" (Gilliland-Swetland, 2000,
pVI) from scholarly enhancement perspective. These multifaceted developments are due to the
increase in online resources (Roy, Sarkar, & Ghose, n.d.); researches and technological
advancements that promote interoperability of content and applications (Mason, 2004). It is also
due to the increased capacity of telecommunications infrastructure and rise of the network
society (Castells, 1996) or an international effort that aimed at developing technical standards
and protocols to facilitate e-learning (Mason, 2004). This can also be attributed to the pressing
needs of end-users (Soroya & Ameen, 2018) or domain-specificity of users (Khan, Bhatti, &
Khan, 2016; Tenopir et al., 2015).
Similarly, the foundation of institutions of higher learning usually built upon principles that
catalyze the concrete structure formation reflects the missions and visions of those institutions,
which include but not limited to the production and dissemination of knowledge. This is true;
despite some institutions of higher learning do not treat the publishing function or scholarly
communication as an important, mission-centric effort (Brown, Griffith, & Rascoff, 2007); still
researches point out that, scholarly communication receives little attention from senior leadership
of those institutions. Scholarly communication, a global product of an academic environment
that entails generating and sharing knowledge is the root of scientific progress leading to the
knowledge society (Lederberg, 1993). While some scholars consider scholarly communication to
refer only to the peer-reviewed literature put out after completing research (Rowlands, Nichols,
& Huntington, 2004); others regard it to denote all communication among peers (Harnad 1995).
To make a full disclosure of the reality, scholarly communication has to do with the methods and
approaches employed to pass scholarly information from scholar to information users through
various intermediaries (University College of London, n.d.). In other words, scholarly
communication means the study of how scholars in any academic discipline use and share
information via formal or informal channels (Borgman, 2000). Unfortunately, only a small
portion of scholars is highly productive, visible and target top-tier journals (Dubini, Galimberti,
& Micheli, n.d.) in institutions of higher learning. This dormancy is attributable, according to
Cohen, (2017), to the latency of research outputs by faculty members of institutions of higher
learning in highly reputable journals, which lies in the incapacity of scholarly communication
skills of academic librarians. The triads mainly scholarly contents, OA and subscribed scholarly
resources are usually unfairly imbalanced a blame for upsetting the equation of institutional
mission (Chan, 2018) of meeting the scholarly visibility of such institutions globally. This is true
considering the shift from traditionally acclimatized practice where libraries pay to read to
10
authors pay to publish via author pay charge (APC) a consequence of disrupting the subscription
models and market (Chan, 2018). For instance, to harmer on the paradigmatic shift, Chan, (2018)
referenced Pinfield and Johnson, (2018) who observed that, "globally the proportion of all
scholarly journal articles accessible immediately upon publication, which includes gold or full
OA, hybrid APC articles, and green OA, accounted for about 25% of global scholarly articles in
2016 compared to 18% in 2014". Similarly, in UK alone, there was an increment of 20% of OA
articles in 2014 to 37% in 2016 (RIN, 2017). Furthermore, there is a projection of annual growth
rate of 25% from 2014 to 2020 (Research Consulting et al., 2017).
From the foregoing, it is apparent that, both the electronic storage media and scholarly
communication patterns are changing dramatically. However, in developing countries, most of
the metadata designs are a function of IT personnel neglecting the contributions of librarians.
4. Web-Information Seeking Behaviour of Organizational Workers
From the above, it is clear that, non-linear information seeking is a characteristic attributed to
hackers in this chapter. Conversely, organizational workers use a linear information needs-
seeking-use model. The basic premise of the theory is that, "a user's problem situation influences
how and what information needs to be displayed in an Internet-based information system"
(Detlor, 2005, p380). In other words, the theory postulates that, "organizational workers utilize
web-based systems as an information source to help solve typical work-related problem
situations" (Detlor, 2005, p377). The basic component of the theory are information needs
(problem situations and their corresponding problem dimensions), information seeking
(information traits) and information use (classes of information use). Upon these bases, the
theory is rather a linear model despite it calls for repetitions cyclically based on using or
modifying the information needs-seeking-use cycle. Similarly, according to Detlor, (2005, p377),
organizational workers utilize "various web-based information systems, such as enterprise
portals, departmental web sites, and World Wide Web, for knowledge creation, distribution, use
purposes". The model, according to Detlor, (2005, p377-379) has three components: information
needs, information seeking, and information use stage. In the first stage, users are confronted
with problems a characteristic of problem dimensions. Each problem dimension requires a
peculiar information need to resolve such a situation. In the second stage, information users
(workers) turn to web-based information as an interface that assists them to resolve the situation
at hand. In this regard, the output shows the effectiveness or otherwise of such a system. In the
third phase, information use, begins when the user scans the information sources available over
the internet. The user is at liberty to select and process information according to the various
dimensions of problem situation at hand. If the problem situation is resolved, that indicates the
end of information needs-seeking-use cycle and if not, the cycle is repeated.
From this model, it is crystal clear that, there are many implications for organization's
program developers and metadata designers. In this way, these web-based designers are limited
to design what the organization requires of them based on the problem situation at hand.
According to Cohen, (2007), scholarly communication office should encompass librarians and
legal practitioners. Unfortunately, most of the universities in developing countries do not have
scholarly communications offices let alone specialize in the metadata development and other
web-based forms that can equal hackerspaces. This implies that, there is a long way to freedom
than expected. Even if the databases are uploaded unto the institutional websites, they might not
necessarily be secured optimally due to lack of involving librarians in the web-based design, and
the likes. In other words, hackerspaces and their members do not neglect ideas from any member
as they value contributions from all and sundry irrespective of his/her attributes.
11
5. Competence Development of Librarians towards Cybersecurity Threats
Every then and now, any problem, innovation, or creativity that emanates worldwide must
have a corresponding consequence on libraries: its theory, methodology, curriculum, or practice.
Unfortunately, in Africa, only those who take computer studies at universities are aware of
cybersecurity issues and precautionary measures (Venter, Blignaut, Renaud, & Venter, 2019).
Digital literacy skills have evolved from gaining proficiency with productivity tools, email, the
World Wide Web, social media, collaboration tools, mobile devices and the cloud (Dijk &
Deursen, 2014; Frydenberg & Press, 2010) to creating, organizing, sharing, and reusing online
content, accessing information across devices and platforms, and maintaining privacy and
identity online (Wheeler, 2010). To some scholars particularly Koh and Abbas, (2015), they
reiterated that, the key competencies needed for successful job performance of professionals in
Learning Labs and Makerspaces, include (1) ability to learn, (2) ability to adapt to changing
situations, (3) ability to collaborate, (4) ability to advocate for the Learning Lab or Makerspace,
and (5) ability to serve diverse people.
Conclusion
Cybersecurity is rooted in global insecurity. It concerns manipulating data over network
that is detrimental to organization and its clienteles but lucrative to the perpetrators. Libraries and
librarians are challenged to keep abreast with the emerging threats over cyberspace. It is clear
from the above that, digital natives due to the psycho-social problems or economic situations
(they are in), find it useful to engage in cybercrimes a consequence of exposing the weaknesses
of organizations affected and the strengths of the cybercriminals. This is true as information
needs-seeking-use of organizational workers seems to be linear against the non-linear
information needs-seeking-use of cybercriminals. In other words, while organizational workers
use makerspace particularly designed for students to interact with one another, cybercriminals
have sophisticated hackerspace that is highly equipped, and can access, share, and retrieve
valuable information of the organization itself or its clienteles according to the crime at hand.
Unless librarians get up to the challenge of cybersecurity threats, the cybercrimes will continue.
A slight mistake done by programmers or metadata developers can risk the relevance of
organizations especially with regards to metadata terminology or vocabulary. This also gives
hackers opportunities to have unauthorized access to databases or manipulate data.
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