Biomimetic and biophilic design as an approach to the innovative sustainable architectural design

Abstract

Contemporary architectural design refers to nature's Potential as a primary and critical engine in the design process and its possibilities, using natural features and its systems as a drive to the architectural thinking and inspiration. It serves as a major role in solving environmental problems and its inhabitants. This paper aims to highlight two concepts that depend on nature in different ways, such as biomimetic and biophilic design; they express their role in achieving a sustainable environment. The first concept integrates architectural design with nature to achieve human interaction with it, thus explains the approached results which has complementary strategy to treat work stress, improve the performance and speed of patients' hospitalization in light of the general well-being. The second concept discusses the possibility of improving the building's performance by integrating biomimetic technologies in its architectural design to achieve clean technologies that limit environmental impacts of building. The research follows the deductive approach that analyzes the methodologies of these two innovative concepts and how they are integrated into the process of architectural design, and then engaged its framework with the principles of sustainable architectural design. in addition to better understand and define the importance of nature's interaction with architecture creates a more sustainable environment. This research concludes the importance of the integration of nature in the sustainable architecture design through biomimetic and biophilic design, which is the source of innovation for architects and has a great role in creating beautiful, livable and environmentally responsible spaces.

Full text

© AR-UP 2019
Architecture & Urbanism… A Smart Outlook
Makram, Abeer 1; Abou Ouf, Tarek 2
Abstract:
Contemporary architectural design refers to nature's Potential as a primary and critical engine in the design
process and its possibilities, using natural features and its systems as a drive to the architectural thinking and
inspiration. It serves as a major role in solving environmental problems and its inhabitants.
This paper aims to highlight two concepts that depend on nature in different ways, such as biomimetic and
biophilic design; they express their role in achieving a sustainable environment.
The first concept integrates architectural design with nature to achieve human interaction with it, thus explains the
approached results which has complementary strategy to treat work stress, improve the performance and speed of
patients' hospitalization in light of the general well-being. The second concept discusses the possibility of
improving the building's performance by integrating biomimetic technologies in its architectural design to achieve
clean technologies that limit environmental impacts of building.
The research follows the deductive approach that analyzes the methodologies of these two innovative concepts
and how they are integrated into the process of architectural design, and then engaged its framework with the
principles of sustainable architectural design. in addition to better understand and define the importance of nature's
interaction with architecture creates a more sustainable environment.
This research concludes the importance of the integration of nature in the sustainable architecture design through
biomimetic and biophilic design, which is the source of innovation for architects and has a great role in creating
beautiful, livable and environmentally responsible spaces.
Keywords: biomimetic, biophilic design, interaction with nature, biomimetic technologies, innovation concepts.
1. Introduction
Since the beginning of history, man has instinctively tended to nature and designed things by looking at it.
The two terms Biophila (love of nature) and Biomimicry (nature as a model) are derived from the
environmental movement. Although both terms are related to nature, each has different concepts, issues
and solutions.
Man began to appreciate sustainable ways that must be implemented in everyday design solutions in
order to create a sustainable future for the upcoming generations. Therefore, man sought to learn from
nature (Biomimicry) its processes, strategy and applied systems to create sustainable societies as nature
does. (Berkebile,2004). Sustainable solutions have also proven that the instinct human connection to
nature(Biophila) helps make buildings and cities more efficient and humane (Söderlund,2015). Therefore,
these trends point to the future of sustainable design and open up a wide range of approaches to
architecture and become cultural determinants and principles of design decisions. (Zari, 2007)
Biomimetic and Biophilic Design as an Approach to Innovative Sustainable
Architectural Design
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1Delta University for Science and Technology, Gamasa, Egypt; elmakram_abeer@yahoo.com
2Umm El Qura University, KSA; drtarekouf64@yahoo.com

2. Design for sustainability
Nowadays, sustainable development is considered as the most desirable way of development and not only
economic but also environmental and social development. Education for sustainability today is a major
need in society and therefore a design that is responsible for planning and creating a man-made
environment, with a focus on sustainability in design and application education, is imperative today.
Design for Sustainability considers the environmental, social and economic aspects impact on design
(Hoyos&Fiorentino,2016) which is Green Design that addresses the pressing problems of environmental
degradation, excessive use of scarce materials, and lack of respect for social rights. This is done through:
- Environmental management and conservation of resources.
- Improved wellbeing of human beings on the long term and quality of life and social cohesion.
- All economic benefits resulting from this and others. (Mike, 2011)
2.1 Basic principles of sustainable architectural design
Sustainability in architecture is based on three principles. These basic principles extend to a broad
understanding of environmental impact at the local and global levels of architectural work (Jong-Jin,
1998). These principles are summarized in the following:
 Economy of Resources:
It is related to the process of reducing the consumption of resources with reuse, reclassification and
recycling, all of which are inputs for the building. It includes the conservation of energy, water and
materials. The construction of the building requires:
- Continuous supply of energy during its operations. Most of the energy used in the building is
consumed in the processes of ventilation, air conditioning and lighting.
- Large quantities of water for different purposes, which requires consumption of energy in the
supply operations and treatment of wastewater discharged from the building.
- Materials that have a relatively long life capacity which make them more durable and less in
maintenance, replacement and renovation operations to allow reuse for long years.
 Life Cycle of Design
It provides a method to analyse the construction process and its impact on the environment. It illustrates the
life cycle of the building from the beginning until the return to nature. In addition, it works to transform the
material from a useful form of life to another useful form so that its end is not harmful and ineffective.
 Human Design
It focuses on the interaction between the man and the natural environment. It considers the human based
design as the third principle of sustainable architectural design and perhaps the most important as the first
and the second principles deal with the efficiency of the performance of the building and its systems.
Human design is concerned with the appropriateness of all components of the global ecosystem to living
organisms; especially, the human. The principle of human design is concerned with a wide range of
requirements of residents of the environment, who are built and varied in terms of culture, attention and
behaviour. These requirements take into account the feelings and emotions of man (Hue, 2002).
3. Biomimicry and biomimetic design
Biomimicry is a term for the design method by nature to reach sustainable solutions and needs to be
applied at all stages of design, taking into consideration the principle of disposal or recycle. Biomimetic is
used mostly in the field of engineering. (Boga-Akyol, 2016)
Bimimicry is a simulation of flora, founa, and ecosystems as a basis for architectural and engineering
design. (Zari, 2007) All of the (animals, plants and organisms) are designed to survive and thrive without
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producing any waste and with high efficiency with resources (Nkandu, 2018). Therefore, the imitation of
nature forms is a source of inspiration and new innovations.
This design is called looking at biology or devising a specific characteristic, behaviour or function in a
living organism or the ecosystem and interpreting it into human designs. (Zari, 2007). Therefore, imitating
the forms of nature, its systems and processes works to increase the efficiency of resources to the
maximum while mitigating the negative impact of buildings on the environment (Nkandu, 2018).
3.1 Principles of biomimicry in architecture design and planning
The principles of biomimicry must attain living as follows: (Vavan & Milošević, 2013)
1. All the energy and water needed to operate the building shall be obtained from its location.
2. All forms of the building are based on the site and the local climate with local materials.
3. The building does not produce waste and does not pollute the environment except for the useful wastes
of another process in the building or its surroundings.
4. The building establishes health and wellbeing for all users according to the ecosystem.
5. The building consists of overlapping systems and techniques that increase efficiency and comfort.
6. The building should be beautiful and compatible with people’s dreams.
3.2 Biomimetic design Framework for Sustainability
Biomimetic design supports the theory of survival and prosperity with no production of waste as well as
high efficiency of energy and materials use, which fulfills part of the above-mentioned principles of
sustainability. Thus, its framework strategies illustrate various methods of more sustainable solutions for
human challenges. These strategies consist of the following:
First: Resource efficiency strategy based on natural adaptation and climate response.
Second: Material and waste management strategy: It is based on the theory of survival and prosperity.
3.2.1 First Strategy: The resource efficiency strategy
The strategy needed for resource efficiency consists of three points to conserve resources (energy, water
and materials) as follows:
3.2.1.1 Energy conservation:
Reducing energy consumption is done with various natural methods (Fig.1) as ventilation, natural lighting
methods, keeping comfortable temperature levels by insulation methods and using natural forms to interact
with the surrounding environment (Shahda, Abd Elhafeez, & Ashraf, 2014). These methods can be
summarized in the following:
Fig. 1. Natural methods examples of energy conservation
● Natural ventilation: East gate mall, Zimbabwe: an office complex that simulates the termites in the
process of self-cooling. It achieves natural ventilation throughout the building as it is built to allow
Termite Nest - Eastgate
Building.(Singh &
Nayyar, 2015)
Cactus plant - MMAA
Building
(YELER, 2017)
Water cube‘ National Swimming
Centre -Soap Bubbles
(Batten Q.& Others).
Moving-photovoltaic
panels (Zyl, 2018) –
Sunflowers (Aeria, 2016)
SolarThermal Panel
-Jackrabbit's Ears
(Zyl, 2018)
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breathes and air to move through it. It has the ability to open and close the series of heating and cooling
vents all over the building during the day. (Singh A. &., 2015 )(Singh, 2015)
● Regulate heat and avoid sunlight (shading): Minister of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture office,
in Doha Qatar, used the systems of shading and protection to regulate the entry of sunlight through the
outside of the building, which mimics cactus in the form and shading systems of the building's front.
● Natural lighting: Water cube national swimming center project is based on simulating the form of
soap bubbles and using the fluoropolymer as a transparent plastic material which has many advantages. It
is light, flexible and transparent, which allows maximum natural light and excellent insulation and saves
50% of lighting costs. (Shahda, Abd Elhafeez, & Ashraf, 2014)
● Natural alternatives of power generation: Many biomimetic technologies aim to replace the use of
fossil fuels by sources of renewable energy. (Zar Pedersen,2012). There are some applications such as:
- Dye-sensitized solar cells: It is simulating photosynthesis by generating electricity from the sun by using
cells and solar panels. (Oguntona, 2016)
- Photovoltaic Panels: The sunflower plant follows the sun all day to absorb the largest amount of sunlight.
Solar panels simulate this movement to get the highest energy from the sun.
- Geothermal cooling and heating system: It is a simulation of jackrabbit's ears which exposes its broad
ears to the sun heat in the sunny days. Thus, the blood of the ear gets warm and conveys the warmth to the
rest of the body. It is the same idea of cooling and heating systems by ground temperature. (Zyl, 2018)
3.2.1.2 Preserving materials
The use of Localized materials, environment friendly forms, and long
lasting materials which simulate natural materials in terms of being more
durable, require less maintenance and deal with the surrounding
environment. This can be applied by using a natural structural method which
comes from the form based on the environmental pressures surrounding it
and the simulation of self-healing material by controlling the internal
temperature (Xia, 2016). For example, the bird's Nest stadium (Fig.2) in Chain simulates the process of
adapting the building to the external conditions. (Shahda, Abd Elhafeez, & Ashraf, 2014).
3.2.1.3 Water conservation:
It is carried out by simulating nature methods (Fig.3) of manufacturing surfaces, harvesting, collecting
water, or designing water collecting devices as the following:
Namibian Beetle - Surface to fog
harvesting: (Zar Pedersen,2012)
Collection of rainwater:
CH2,Melbourne,Australia.:(Shahda,
Abd Elhafeez, & Ashraf, 2014)
lotus leaf -Surfaces (Zari, 2007)
Chaac Ha : (Aslan,2018)
Fig. 3. Natural methods examples of water conservation
● Fog harvesting: Hydrological center project, it contains industrial surfaces that mimic the behavior
of the beetle in collecting fog to quench thirst, as these plates pick up water from the fog above the roof of
the building to provide all the needed fresh water.
● Collection of rainwater: It is a simulation of the surfaces of the lotus leaf as it collects water in the
middle of the leaf because it is water resistant. The presence of similar surfaces above the buildings allows
the collection of tons of rain water without the use of energy.
Chaac-ha: A water collection system, it is a device that collects water from rain and dew. It is a design
inspired by the shape and function of a local plant as a water collector and simulates the structural
characteristics of the spider web. (Aslan, 2018)
Fig.2 the Bird’s Nest (Singh &
Nayyar, 2015) - Bird’s Nest
stadium (Shahda, Abd Elhafeez,&
Ashraf, 2014)
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● Reuse of sewage water: Council House2, Melbourne (CH2), A building that simulates termite in
the reuse of underground water and use it for cooling in extreme temperatures where the termites make ten-
meter tunnels to reach the groundwater. (Zar Pedersen, 2012)
3.2.2. Second Strategy: Resource and Waste performance optimization Strategy
This strategy includes a set of systems that mimic natural systems. It achieves the optimum consumption of
resources (recovered and refurbished) over the life of the building and site and prevents the environmental
pollution. This strategy consists of the following:
3.2.2.1 The Optimum Consumption of Resources
Where the resources move to zero waste methods, these simulate the ecosystem to achieve recycling in
the closed loop as a large number of organisms form an industrial network that mimics the systems of
nature and produces a large amount of useful outputs as inputs. These natural methods (Fig.4) can be
summarized in following:
Cladding for buildings:Research
Project Bioplastic Façade
(ITKE,2013)
Zira Island Master Plan
project (Maglic, 2012)
The Olympic Games,
Arena & water lilies
(Michael, 2011)
Coral Reef Project Haiti
(Maglic, 2012)
Fig. 4. Natural methods examples of The Optimum Consumption of Resources
● Minimize Waste streams: is a set of processes and practices intended to reduce the amount of
waste produced (Wikipedia) such as creating free form sheets made of bio-based raw materials such as
Biokumststoff-fassada (Bioplastic façade) / Moosmodul Hannover Messe, which are applications for
sustainable walls. (Michael, 2011)
● Zero-Waste Systems: One of the examples zero-waste system is the city of Kalundborg in
Denmark that simulates environmental systems in waste management where a network of companies
integrates waste products of each other into their own industrial processes. All companies benefit from
this advantage as they buy resources at a lower cost than their competitors. (GaleWyrick, 2018).
● Zero Energy Systems: They only use the needed energy as in, Zira Island Master Plan project
which was designed to be a Zero Energy resort and entertainment city on the island. It is a resort designed
to simulate the mountains in the region. What distinguishes this site is that this island has no plant, water
or resources and is described as a desert so it is built simulating the ecosystem of the island and used
techniques to produce enough energy. (Maglic, 2012)
● Self-Optimising Systems: These systems are represented by natural structures where buildings are
adapted as living organisms and their behavior is modified by responding to changing environmental
conditions and achieving the vital constructions of beauty and efficiency. They achieve proven efficiency
in the use of resources. For example: Pier Luigi Nervi-Palazetto dello Sport, The Olympic Games Arena in
Rome is inspired by giant Amazon water lilies. (Michael, 2011)
● Flexibility and change in design over time: This design principle is inspired by coral reefs, which
are underwater structures with a dynamic form that allows growth. Based upon this principle, the carbon
neutral utopian village is designed with coral-shaped liquid forms that have the potential to grow and
accommodate 1,000 families. (Maglic, 2012)
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3.2.2.2 Resource Management
The natural methods of prevention of environmental pollution (Fig.5), including the characteristics of self-
cleaning, and their application to prevent pollution of daily surfaces, crusts, anti-bacterial, anti-fogging and
anti-corrosion surfaces, reduce CO2 emissions, prevent harmful emissions, and simulate leaves of plants,
insect wings and feathers of water birds cab be summarized as follows:
Lotus Leaf & Pattern of Galapagos Shark Skin (Singh &Nayyar, 2015)
Micro-turbines, The Nano Vent-Skin. (Pau, 2008)
Fig. 5. Natural methods examples of Resource Management
● Self-cleaning material: Some materials simulate super biological hydrophobicity and produce self-
cleaning properties, which mimic the lotus paper as the best model for self-cleaning in nature. This is
called the louts effect, where it has the potential and ability of self-cleaning with interacting materials,
simulated with new materials based on the micro Nano scale which are self-cleaning, smart coating, anti-
bacterial, anti-fogging and anti-corrosion. (Xia, 2016)
● Anti-bacterial surfaces: These surfaces mimic the surface of the Galapogos shark's skin in
Jalabos, where it does not allow the bacteria to be present on the skin and this causes the presence of
patterns on the outside skin that does not allow the bacteria to fall or stick to it. These surfaces are used in
hospitals to inhibit the growth of bacteria. (Singh & Nayyar, 2015)
● Management and reduction of CO2: Half the greenhouse effect is a result of CO2 emissions
which mainly results from the burning of fossil fuel to produce energy. To simulate the natural absorption
of carbon dioxide, there are some applications such as:
-Nano vent-skin (NVS): This bio-mimetic application where CO2 is absorbed by simulating the human
and animal skin to the building surfaces. The idea of the skin is based on 25 mm length and 10 mm width
turbines. These turbines are covered with photovoltaic materials to collect energy from the sun and have
the ability to absorb CO2 and convert it into oxygen (generates energy from the sun and wind).(Zyl, 2018)
- TecEco eco-cement: A type of cement that absorbs carbon dioxide from the air to treat the magnesium
compounds that absorb Co2 and solidify in the materials used in the built environment where it mimics the
marine organisms that build the shells. (Oguntona, 2016)
4. Biophila and Biophilic Design
Biophila is the innate human tendency to associate to nature (Kellert & Calabrese, 2015). It is the first term
adopted by the psychoanalyst Formm for life in his exploration of the "human essence”. It has been defined
as the love of life and living processes (Söderlund & Newman, 2015). Associating with nature is a human
prerequisite that makes man happier by enjoying the beauty and change. It plays a key role in the health
and improvement of human as a need for presence and a deep self-desire for life. A successful biophilic
design is the one that conveys our ethics and relationship to nature and this reflects the love of living and
the beauty of nature, which are components of a society in which human beings are characterized by health
and productivity. (Kellert S., 2018)
Biophilic design involves an international process of presenting a sustainable design strategy that
integrates human re-linking to the natural environment. (Downton, Jones & Athers,2017). The biophilic
architecture is a design approach that emphasizes the innate connection of man to nature, helping to make
buildings and cities more efficient and humane. Since associating with nature has a physiological and
psychological relationship, Biophilic Architecture is applied because of its social, environmental and
economic benefits. Thus, Biophilic design is based on the use of human, natural, economic and social
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sciences. (Söderlund & Newman, 2015). The use of such design extends to individual buildings, from
neighborhoods to cities.
4.1 Principles of Biophilic Design
To apply the Biophilic design effectively, some principles are needed, which are prerequisites for the
success of their applications such as: (Kellert & Calabrese, 2015)
1. Continuous and frequent participation with nature.
2. Focus on the adaptation of man with nature to enjoy health, fitness and well-being.
3. Encourage emotional attachment to places and surroundings
4. Establish positive interactions between people and nature, which generates connection between
human and natural societies.
5. Encourage support for alternatives to interrelated and integrated architectural solutions.
4.2 Biophilic Design Framework for Sustainability
The framework consists of strategies based on human design. This rule is based on the goals that bring
about the love of good, change, life and dignity of the human beings. The essence of this rule is the need to
preserve the series of elements of ecosystems that allow the survival of humanity (Hue S.C.,2002). This is
achieved through the ecosystem services and consists of the flow of materials, energy and information
about the natural capital stock represented in trees, minerals, ecosystems, the atmosphere and others. These
services are a large part of human recovery and well-being on earth .(Costanza,d’Arge,&Athers,1997). The
strategies of human design focuses on peaceful coexistence between the buildings and the best
environment, and between the buildings and their occupants (Jong-Jin, 1998) as following:
4.2.1 First Strategy: Protection of the natural environment
This strategy includes many methods (Fig.6) to protect the environment, such as:
Vegetation and Shading Trees:
An alley in the Mole Hill, in Vancouver.
Green Rooftop of the Seattle
Public Library
Patrick Blanc’s green walls,
Paris
Supporting bio-diversity in the City.
Toronto.(Torrance & McGlade, 2013)
Fig. 6. Biophilic methods to protect the environment (Beatley T. , 2011), (Torrance & McGlade, 2013)
4.2.1.1 Saving Energy
● Vegetation and Shading Trees: The use of vegetation in the built environment reduces the
urban heat island effect (UHI), adjusts the local urban climate and improves the thermal behavior of the
building skin. Tree planting in the urban areas reduces 25% of net energy used for cooling and heating
● Green roofing: It is green plants or grass that provide insulation, filtration, absorption,
retention of rain water and protection of the membrane of the building with high quality. It works to
reduce 5-15% of the electricity used in summer and thus increases the summer cooling and the impact of
heat in winter and the life span of the ceiling. Thus, it reduces the use of energy through insulation and
evaporation. (Söderlund & Newman, 2015)
● Green wall (vertical gardens): It provides shade, encourages breeze, acts as air filters, and
absorbs sound. This green wall cover works as a structural and climatic layer and acts as a thermal and
sound insulator, saves energy, is environmentally friendly and reduces heating and cooling costs (El
Messelmani, 2018). The Quai Branly Museum in Paris, France-an example of a green vertical wall - was
designed by Patrick Blanc. (Beatley T. , 2011)
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4.2.1.2 Water Management
Water conservation and filtration: The green cover and green roofing have the ability to reduce the flow of
rainwater and keep it by 70% and more. This control of rain water flow reduces the pollution of waterways.
The living wall system works as a bio-filter for the water used and works to purify the water efficiently
through plant treatment in the processes of plant filtration and root filtering.
4.2.1.3 Environmental Pollution
The pollution of the environment is controlled in natural ways using Phytroremediation which is the use of
plants and soil microbes associated with them to reduce concentrations or toxic effects of pollutants in the
environment. It is the ability of the plant to clean or treat the surrounding air, soil or water. (Söderlund &
Newman, 2015). Also Green tree leaves help reduce carbon through Phytroremediation processes and
carbon sequestration in the roots and stems. This can be achieved by biophilic design initiatives.
4.2.1.4 Biodiversity / Environmental Biodiversity
Environmental diversity on Earth is a diverse collection of all forms of life, bio-processes and biodiversity
that can form the basis of green infrastructure. Biodiversity is essentially the protection and preservation of
fauna, flora and habitats (Wells, 2011). Green roofs and walls with the choice of appropriate plant species
have the potential to mitigate the loss of ecosystem services in urban areas.
4.2.2 Second Strategy: Design for humam comfort
The strategy of human design provides psychological comfort, wellbeing and improved performance. It
includes some methods (Fig.7) such as:
Incorporating nature in the working
environment.(ElMesselmani,2018)
Khoo Teck Puat Hospitals in Yisun in
Singapore
The High Line Park, in New York
City,
The restored Akerselva
River in Oslo, Norway.
Fig.7 Design for human comfort methods (Beatley T. , 2017), (El Messelmani, 2018)
4.2.2.1 High quality interior environment:
The quality of the environment is a comprehensive term that refers to a range of characteristics affecting
humans and living organisms within their region. Biophila affects air quality, thermal comfort and
acoustics. The previous energy saving methods of vegetated facades, shading, green roofing and others
achieve a high quality internal environment. (Söderlund & Newman, 2015)
4.2.2.2 Connection to the external environment:
Being connected to nature and enjoying it helps to improve human biological health wellbeing and the
performance of the building. The physiological responses resulting from the connection between man and
nature include muscle relaxation, lowering of blood pressure, and stress hormone. (Browning, Ryan, &
Clancy, 2014). Khoo Teck Puat Hospitals in Yisun in Singapore is an example of the integration of
biophilic elements in the new and old buildings, where the comprehensive use of natural elements helped
to speed the patient's recovery. (Wolfs, 2015).
4.2.3 Third Strategy: Biophilic urban design and planning
This strategy provides creative methods to place natural elements as a part and parcel in designing and
building everything from schools, hospitals and other neighbourhoods, to urban communities, street
systems, urban design, urban and local planning at wider range. Biophilic cities and places enhance and
synthesize the different Biophilic scales in design planning. Thus, children and adults are able to drive and
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move through a series of green and Biophilic elements, i.e. through a garden or a courtyard to a green
street, local forest and then to the extended areas of the regional nature. For instance, In German, Dutch,
and Scandinavian cities bringing compact urban form along transit lines within a large regional network of
green areas and up to city centers. (Beatley T. , 2011).
5. Results and Conclusion
This research links the principles of sustainability to the framework of different, innovative design
solutions taken from nature, with their strategy and methods of application as it provides creative solutions
to environmental and human problems. The research concludes that both principles of the resources
conservation and the building life cycle give detailed design methods to support sustainable architecture.
These methods can be applied through Biomimetic Design, as a source of inspiration for intelligent and
innovative engineering to reduce or eliminate the negative impact of building on the environment. In
addition, the third principle of sustainable design applies through Biophilic Design which is a tool to
improve the health and performance of man in the built environment. These sustainable methods are
derived from nature to produce a favorable output for life, which not only arises but allows life to sustain
and grow as well. Thus, there is a need for planners, designers and policy makers to integrate nature in
comprehensive design solutions into their projects for a better sustainable life.
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