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Economic and environmental consequences of implementing an EU model for collecting and seperating wastes system in Lebanon
Abstract
In this study, we examine the economic and environmental significance associated with the implementation of an EU waste-separated collection scheme in a developing context – Lebanon. Two scenarios, S1 and S2, representing different intensities of source segregation were analysed. In S1, the average source segregation intensity reached 25% and 13% for the Italian test area and Lebanese test area, respectively. In S2, source segregation intensity increased to 48% and 68% for the Italian and Lebanese test areas, respectively. Passing from S1 to S2 increased collection costs significantly, up to 44% with greater increases in the Italian test area where labour cost is higher. In both areas, environmental impacts decreased with greater source segregation intensity. Savings in the climate change impact and stratospheric ozone depletion potential were lower under the Lebanese test area in comparison with the Italian test area. In contrast, savings in freshwater eutrophication and acidification impact were lower for the Italian test area. The increase in the source segregation intensity resulted in maximum savings for the depletion of abiotic resources, 74% to 77% and 79% to 80% in a developing and developed context, respectively.
... Concerning the WM sector, in previous study, Di Maria and Micale (2014) compared in a LCA perspective different integrated scenarios for municipal WM in an Italian context. Similar approaches were also exploited in case studies reported by Maalouf et al. (2019), Yay (2015), Boeva et al. (2010) and by Weitz et al. (2002) for assessing the less harmful WM scheme for Lebanon, Turkey, Spain and USA, respectively. By the way, even if from one hand the figures returned by these studies resulted scientifically correct, from the other hand they resulted contradictory because of the different assumptions made and contexts in which these studies were performed. ...
... By the way, even if from one hand the figures returned by these studies resulted scientifically correct, from the other hand they resulted contradictory because of the different assumptions made and contexts in which these studies were performed. In fact, per each tonne of waste managed both Maalouf et al. (2019) and Di Maria and Micale (2014) reported from −100 kgCO 2eq to −500 kg CO 2eq (i.e. avoided emission) as the percentage of waste recycled and recovered rises. ...
The present study was developed on the following evidence: “what is considered to be environmentally sustainable in the technosphere has to be in compliance with the development tendency of the ecosphere”. Starting from this hypothesis, two entropy-based indicators were proposed: the specific entropy per amount of exergy gained (SEEG); the specific entropy per amount of exergy exploitable in the technosphere (SEEE). These were retrieved from the specific entropy (SE) indicator largely exploited for assessing the health status and the development tendency of ecosystems. Entropy based indicators SEEG and SEEE were used for assessing the environmental sustainability of incineration, anaerobic digestion and composting of waste. The aim of these indicators was to support already available methodologies for environmental impact assessment for better understating the intrinsic sustainability of specific processes, since the only quantification of the emission appears not enough informative for this goal. Concerning the ecosphere, SE minimization follows the Darwinian principle “survival of the fittest”, being the fittest ecosystems those able to make the most efficient and effective use and storage of energy and materials, at the lower relative entropy generation. Consequently, the lower are SEEG and SEEE the fittest is the analysed system (i.e. sustainable). Main findings indicate SEEG ranging from 2.471 to 3.705, for incinerator, from 0.007 to 0.106 for anaerobic digestion whereas resulted constant = 0.266 for composting. The SEEE ranged from 0.433 to 0.484 for incinerator, from <0.001 to 0.008 for anaerobic digestion and resulted constant = 0.014 for composting. These preliminary results indicates that processes and system able to return chemicals and materials exploitable at technosphere level were characterized by higher ability in returning exergy flows at the lower entropy increase compared to hose returning only energy.
... The problem was exacerbated following the Beirut explosion which generated large quantities of debris and demolition waste and affected severely damaged two key sorting, recycling, and composting facilities that were helping in reducing the amount of MSW that goes to landfills. It should be noted that in Lebanon estimates on amount of household infectious waste being generated related to COVID-19 is lacking as there is no MSW separation at source (Maalouf, Di Maria, & El-Fadel, 2019). ...
There is a challenging time to adopt the “New Normal” of living for the survival of humanity to fight against the pandemic of COVID-19. The new emerging infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) leads to serious public health risk that resulting to damage immune function within a host. Body has a specific and nonspecific immune mechanism to recognize and eliminate the viral infection. Since it is difficult to avoid completely from being in contact with those who are asymptomatic with positive (active infection), indispensably the host defense mechanism has to be strengthened enough to get optimum functional health by enhancing the body’s natural immunity in the population.Regular moderate exercise possibly has the potential to play a significant role in immune health care in terms of devising policies of prevention, management, and rehabilitation to deal with the deadly virus. Several studies proved the efficacy of moderate physical exercise in control and management of some lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, hypertension, lung disease, cardiac disease, obesity, cancer, etc., which are also co-morbid conditions in patients with COVID-19. Exercise seems a strong relevance to be useful in vulnerable population such as children, elderly, and immunocompromised persons. Exercise favorably could be a powerful tool of healthy living when people apparently is becoming re-infected and there is no evidence around how long people might remain immune protected after exposure to COVID-19 for which herd immunity has not been achieved by the recovered population.An ideal moderate exercises program has a great impact on the normal functioning of the immune system for supporting a strong resistance to fight infections against any virus and if infected recover quicker. Exercise is not an alternative to medicines but as supplementary, preventive, therapeutic, and rehabilitative measures to keep COVID-19 type of viral diseases away when vaccine immunity is known very little and while there is a possibility of both recovered and vaccinated persons may later become infected again.KeywordsModerate exerciseImmune healthCOVID-19
Starting from the specific entropy (SE) indicator, which is well exploited by ecologists for investigating the status of health and the development tendency of ecosystems, a specific entropy per amount of exergy gained (SEEG) was proposed in this study for assessing the intrinsic sustainability of systems in the technosphere. According to the SE, the lower the SEEG indicator, the higher the intrinsic sustainability of the investigated system. This indicator was used for assessing the intrinsic sustainability of the main waste management (WM) systems of the different EU27 member states (MS). The main findings demonstrate average values of SEEG of about 0.0026 and 0.009 for composting and recycling, respectively. For incineration and landfilling, SEEG was 1.310 and 1.333, respectively. This indicates that incineration activity has a lower intrinsic sustainability. Concerning WM systems, lower values of SEEG were detected for EU 27 MS with recycling and composting percentages of waste >55%. Therefore, the maximization of percentages of waste recycled and composted, as well as solid recovered fuel production, are preferred over incineration.
Lebanon recorded 552,871 of COVID-19 cases and 7,889 deaths as of July 23, 2021. Worldwide, there are thousands of new COVID-19 cases being reported every day. The rise in the amount of medical/healthcare waste generated was expected due to the extreme large number of infections worldwide and nationally. In this context, there are growing concerns about the negative effects of healthcare waste produced in hospitals worldwide, particularly in developing countries. Hazardous healthcare waste, due to its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, has great potential to cause damage to public health and the environment. Therefore, this chapter aims to provide an overview of healthcare waste generation rate and management in Lebanon and an analysis of existing waste management policies and regulations. The estimated generation of healthcare waste ranges 1.0–1.5 kg/bed/day corresponding to about 9.2–13.8 tons of risk healthcare waste daily (about 3358–5037 tons per year). The estimated average of COVID-19 related infectious healthcare waste per month is 39,035 kg or 1.3 tons/day, which constitute between 5% and 20% of total infectious healthcare waste in Lebanon. The current practice of infectious healthcare waste management due to COVID-19 related cases follows the existing policy and legislation such as the Decree 13389/2004 amended through decree 8006/2002, and with the standard operating procedure provided by the Ministry of Public Health and the Ministry of Environment, Lebanon. This chapter illuminates on the impact of COVID-19 on the existing challenges of waste management in Lebanon.
Worldwide, there is a growing concern about the negative effects of infectious medical waste produced during the COVID-19 pandemic and the contamination risks associated with waste management. Therefore, measures to ensure that medical waste is managed safely and in an environmentally sound manner will avoid negative health and environmental effects from such waste, thus protecting the health of patients, health workers and the public in general. Despite that infectious medical waste generation rate is important for management planning and policy development, there is a limitation on national data availability and its accuracy, particularly in developing economies. This study analyses the infectious healthcare waste generation rates and management patterns in Lebanon before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The estimated average of COVID-19-related infectious healthcare waste generation in this study is 39,035 kg per month or 1.3 tonnes per day, which constitute between 5% and 20% of total infectious healthcare waste in Lebanon. This study illuminates on the impact of COVID-19 on the existing challenges of waste management in Lebanon. It highlights the need for proper management and disposal of the amounts of medical waste generated to reduce contamination risks or related environmental threats, particularly during the pandemic. It also shows that Lebanon has a defective system for monitoring of waste from healthcare institutions and gaps in waste statistics. Finally, the study summarizes recommendations related to medical waste management, which can provide valuable insight for policymakers.
Increasing amounts of municipal solid waste (MSW) has gained widely concern on reduction, utilization and minimizing environmental impacts associated with waste management. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been used to evaluate total environmental impact of municipal waste management (MSWM) options in strategy-planning and decision-making process. The exiting LCA studies have covered a large range of detailed focus from waste treatment technology to applied modelling methods in LCA of MSWM, yet an important concern for stakeholders, the relationship between practical management strategies and their LCA results, has not been comprehensively summarized. This paper reviews recent LCA studies focusing on MSWM system in 45 cases from both developing and developed regions to promote evolution of the MSWM system through modification of waste management strategies. Selected literatures conducted LCA with system boundary covering the whole MSWM system rather than single treatment process or specific type of waste. This review has explored distribution and evolution of LCA studies in waste management field and summarized critical parameters (system boundary, functional unit, assessment approach and data uncertainty) for conducting LCA of MSWM system. Comparison results from 45 worldwide cases indicated 33%–154% environmental benefit in Global warming potential (GWP) impact with implement of integrated solid waste management system to replace single landfill, incineration, or open dumping treatment. Key issues with upgrading of MSWM system have been highlighted to raise concern, i.e., the importance of targeted management strategy on organic and recyclable waste, the growing contribution of waste collection and transportation to the total environmental impact, as well as promoting multi-impacts assessment for MSWM system to achieve environmentally effective, economically affordable, and socially acceptable. Rather than focus on technical factors, results from this study indicated the key influences from understanding local limitation, environmental concern, management chain and comprehensive impact, providing useful strategies on improving MSWM with generalization results of LCA studies.
Proper management and treatment of municipal solid waste (MSW) plays a central role towards the reduction or elimination of uncontrolled disposal and the achievement of United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with the reduction of its vast adverse environmental and health impacts. Despite that, till now, there has never been a quantitative analysis of the progress in waste management infrastructure delivery worldwide. In this paper, we provide valuable insights regarding the progress in new MSW infrastructure delivery based on a dataset of 1764 projects from 156 countries, for the period 2014–2019. We also estimate the magnitude of uncontrolled waste disposal practices worldwide by estimating the gap between the current MSW infrastructure delivery and actual changes in MSW generation. Our results show that the new capacity delivered during the six years period amounted to 243 million metric tonnes (Mt) (40 million Mt per year), out of which 45% was delivered in high-income countries, 37.5% in the People’s Republic of China and 17.5% in the rest of the world, mainly through thermal treatment (~57%) and landfilling (8%). The average allocated per capita budget of these projects during this period is about US$14, equivalent to US$ 2.33 (cap*year) ⁻¹ . Our main conclusion is that the share of uncontrolled disposal will continue to rise at least until 2028, reaching almost 730 million Mt per year. Evidently, the global community continues to face a serious challenge towards the implementation of the UN SDG 12, target 12.4 by 2020. The analysis demonstrates that infrastructure delivery must increase by four folds to eliminate uncontrolled disposal practices.
A novel model/software that assesses emissions from integrated solid waste and wastewater, SWW, management systems is presented. The main objective of SWW is to optimize emissions and carbon credit of complex systems. Besides its general applicability, the software covers the lack of available tools applicable in the context of developing economies. It uses carbon credit as a measure of environmental valuation and provides a user-friendly platform supported with several tools for technical, economic, and policy analysis as well as optimization towards minimal total emissions or costs. Finally, it encompasses a sensitivity analysis with a built-in Monte Carlo simulation to check on the variability in emissions by varying key parameters. The model/software interface was tested in the context of developed and developing economies. The results showed that best practices through material recycling, biological treatment, food waste diverted and/or energy recovery can lead to substantial savings in emissions reaching 96% (under a developing economy) and 93% (under a developed economy), with cost savings (including carbon credit) reaching 26% (under a developing economy) and 4% (under a developed economy), depending on the system. In closure, the results demonstrated the model applicability as a credible decision-making tool to define economically viable management alternatives with minimal environmental externalities and optimal carbon credit.
A novel model/software that assesses emissions from integrated solid waste and wastewater, SWW, management systems is presented. The main objective of SWW is to optimize emissions and carbon credit of complex systems. Besides its general applicability, the software covers the lack of available tools applicable in the context of developing economies. It uses carbon credit as a measure of environmental valuation and provides a user-friendly platform supported with several tools for technical, economic, and policy analysis as well as optimization towards minimal total emissions or costs. Finally, it encompasses a sensitivity analysis with a built-in Monte Carlo simulation to check on the variability in emissions by varying key parameters. The model/software interface was tested in the context of developed and developing economies. The results showed that best practices through material recycling, biological treatment, food waste diverted and/or energy recovery can lead to substantial savings in emissions reaching 96% (under a developing economy) and 93% (under a developed economy), with cost savings (including carbon credit) reaching 26% (under a developing economy) and 4% (under a developed economy), depending on the system. In closure, the results demonstrated the model applicability as a credible decision-making tool to define economically viable management alternatives with minimal environmental externalities and optimal carbon credit.
Modern society produces an enormous quantity of wastes. No matter whether it is ordinary garbage (municipal solid waste), hazardous, medical, electronic, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, or nuclear waste, all have the potential to negatively impact human and ecological health, unless managed properly; which, unfortunately, has not been the case. Despite the large volume of published scientific studies on acute and chronic health problems and deaths caused by careless and uncontrolled disposal of wastes, open dumping of solid, hazardous, and other wastes is common in many countries even today. Of a total estimated quantity of over 2 billion metric tons of municipal solid waste, generated globally in 2016, nearly 0.7 billion tons, or 33%, ended up as dumps, mostly in developing countries-and in low-income African countries 93% of the waste was deposited at dump sites 1. These dumps are frequented by the socially-and economically-disadvantaged people of the society who make their living by picking up any and every marketable material, even food for subsistence. These workers include children and women who sift through the garbage pile, spending long hours without any protection from heat, cold, rain or toxic fumes and other dangerous substances. The unsanitary and hazardous conditions to which the 'garbage pickers' are exposed to on a regular basis, result in disease and chronic health problems, in addition to impairment of air, soil, surface and groundwater quality; and harming plants and wildlife in the region. Fires, floods, and landslides that often occur at these dump sites cause additional deaths and injuries. Recycling of electronic wastes and large ships-that is being carried out in several developing countries of the world-has brought to fore yet another serious health and ecological problem, including workers morbidity and mortality, that needs attention. Solution to health problems associated with waste management requires a multidisciplinary approach by earth and environmental scientists, health care professionals, social and behavioral experts, administrators, politicians, and legal professionals. The presentation aims at initiating scientific discourse on this important topic that has not been adequately addressed, and to find ways to solve the problem. The presentation also provides an overview of the universe of waste generated in modern society, their potential to cause adverse impact on human and ecological health; along with case studies to highlight the urgent need for serious discussion by medical geology and health science professionals in collaboration with administrators and policy makers to develop workable solutions.
Solid waste management has witnessed much progress in recent years with considerable efforts targeting the reduction of associated impacts and carbon emissions. Such efforts remain relatively limited in developing economies due to inefficient management practices. In this study, a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach is adopted to identify integrated systems with minimal impacts and reduced emissions in a developing context coupled with an economic valuation and sensitivity analysis to assess the effect of varying influencing parameters individually. The results showed that the highest impact arises from landfilling with minimal material recovery for recycling and composting, while incineration coupled with energy recovery contributed to the least equivalent emissions (–111% with respect to baseline scenario) at a varying cost of −70% to +93% depending on the selected technology and the value of carbon credit. Optimizing material recycling, composting and landfilling with energy recovery contributed to 98% savings in emissions (with respect to baseline scenario) and remained economically attractive irrespective of the carbon credit exchange rate of 0.5–50 US$/MTCO2E. The sensitivity analysis showed that an improvement in landfill gas collection efficiency (up to 60%) can contribute to major savings in emissions (58%). The application of the LCA-based approach supports the development of integrated viable plans while quantifying advantages and disadvantages towards decision-making and policy-planning.
The European Commission (EC) recently introduced a 'Circular Economy Package', setting ambitious recycling targets and identifying waste plastics as a priority sector where major improvements are necessary. Here, the authors explain how different collection modalities affect the quantity and quality of recycling, using recent empirical data on household (HH) post-consumer plastic packaging waste (PCPP) collected for recycling in the devolved administration of England over the quarterly period July-September 2014. Three main collection schemes, as currently implemented in England, were taken into account: (i) kerbside collection (KS), (ii) household waste recycling centres (HWRCs) (also known as 'civic amenity sites'), and (iii) bring sites/banks (BSs). The results indicated that: (a) the contribution of KS collection scheme in recovering packaging plastics is higher than HWRCs and BBs, with respective percentages by weight (wt %) 90%, 9% and 1%; (b) alternate weekly collection (AWC) of plastic recyclables in wheeled bins, when collected commingled, demonstrated higher yield in KS collection; (c) only a small percentage (16%) of the total amount of post-consumer plastics collected in the examined period (141 kt) was finally sent to reprocessors (22 kt); (c) nearly a third of Local Authorities (LAs) reported insufficient or poor data; and (d) the most abundant fractions of plastics that finally reached the reprocessors were mixed plastic bottles and mixed plastics.
Source separation for recycling has been recognized as a way to achieve sustainable municipal solid waste (MSW) management. However, most developing countries including Thailand have been facing with lack of recycling facilities and low level of source separation practice. By employing questionnaire surveys, this study investigated Bangkok residents' source separation intention and willingness to pay (WTP) for improving MSW service and recycling facilities (n = 1076). This research extended the theory of planned behavior to explore the effects of both internal and external factors. The survey highlighted perceived inconvenience and mistrust on MSW collection being major barriers to carrying out source separation in Bangkok. Promoting source separation at workplace may possibly create spill-over effect to people's intention to recycle their waste at home. Both subjective norms and knowledge on MSW situation were found to be a positive correlation with Bangkok residents' source separation intention and WTP (p < 0.001). Besides, the average WTP values are higher than the existing rate of waste collection service, which shows that Bangkok residents have preference for recycling programs. However, the WTP figures are still much lower than the average MSW management cost. These findings suggest that Bangkok Metropolitan Administration targets improving people knowledge on waste problems that could have adverse impact on the economy and well-being of Bangkok residents and improve its MSW collection service as these factors have positive influence on residents' WTP.
The present study measures the participation of households in a source separation scheme and, in particular, if the household's application of the scheme improved after two interventions: (a) shorter distance to the drop-off point and (b) easy access to correct sorting information. The effect of these interventions was quantified and, as far as possible, isolated from other factors that can influence the recycling behaviour. The study was based on households located in an urban residential area in Sweden, where waste composition studies were performed before and after the interventions by manual sorting (pick analysis). Statistical analyses of the results indicated a significant decrease (28%) of packaging and newsprint in the residual waste after establishing a property close collection system (intervention (a)), as well as significant decrease (70%) of the miss-sorted fraction in bags intended for food waste after new information stickers were introduced (intervention (b)). Providing a property close collection system to collect more waste fractions as well as finding new communication channels for information about sorting can be used as tools to increase the source separation ratio. This contribution also highlights the need to evaluate the effects of different types of information and communication concerning sorting instructions in a property close collection system.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This paper presents a mathematical model that can be used to estimate the time required to collect recyclable material (route time) by simulating the activities of a collection vehicle driving over its route. Data obtained by observing the collection of recyclable material in The Village, OK, were used to determine parameters for the model. The validity and robustness of the model were tested by comparing model-predicted route time to observed route time. The model was able to predict route time within 8%.Simulation procedures are presented that can be used to estimate route time under conditions not actually ob-served—for instance, very low or high rates of material being set out for collection. The simulation procedures, incorporating randomly assigned set-out distributions, indicate that set-out distribution (proximity of houses setting out materials) has little effect on route time. Vehicle and labor needs for the curbside collection of recyclable material in a hypothetical town are estimated to demonstrate a practical application of the simulation procedure. The results indicate that if set-out rate were to increase from 20% to 30%, labor needs would increase by 34% and an additional vehicle would be needed to serve the same number of households. Increasing set-out rate from 20% to 40% would result in a labor requirement increase of 68%. Calculations such as these are particularly significant if a program to increase participation is being considered
Curbside collection of yard waste material is costly because the amounts collected per residence are small compared to the total waste stream and time is wasted driving by non-setting-out residences. In this paper, mathematical models are presented capable of estimating route time based on the distribution and amount of materials collected, and route and collection method characteristics. A method is presented that uses route time, set-out rate, and average set-out amount to estimate vehicle and labor requirements for compost curbside collection programs. The effect of collection practice on vehicle and labor needs is also explored. © 1997 ISWA
In low- and middle-income developing countries, the informal (collection and) recycling sector (here abbreviated IRS) is an important, but often unrecognised, part of a city's solid waste and resources management system. Recent evidence shows recycling rates of 20-30% achieved by IRS systems, reducing collection and disposal costs. They play a vital role in the value chain by reprocessing waste into secondary raw materials, providing a livelihood to around 0.5% of urban populations. However, persisting factual and perceived problems are associated with IRS (waste-picking): occupational and public health and safety (H&S), child labour, uncontrolled pollution, untaxed activities, crime and political collusion. Increasingly, incorporating IRS as a legitimate stakeholder and functional part of solid waste management (SWM) is attempted, further building recycling rates in an affordable way while also addressing the negatives. Based on a literature review and a practitioner's workshop, here we develop a systematic framework-or typology-for classifying and analysing possible interventions to promote the integration of IRS in a city's SWM system. Three primary interfaces are identified: between the IRS and the SWM system, the materials and value chain, and society as a whole; underlain by a fourth, which is focused on organisation and empowerment. To maximise the potential for success, IRS integration/inclusion/formalisation initiatives should consider all four categories in a balanced way and pay increased attention to their interdependencies, which are central to success, including specific actions, such as the IRS having access to source separated waste. A novel rapid evaluation and visualisation tool is presented-integration radar (diagram) or InterRa-aimed at illustrating the degree to which a planned or existing intervention considers each of the four categories. The tool is further demonstrated by application to 10 cases around the world, including a step-by-step guide.
Use of diesel in collection trucks is presumably the most important environmental burden from waste collection because of the emission of exhaust gases from the combustion process. The environmental impact depends not only on the amount of diesel used, but also the on the cleanness of the exhaust gas that is regulated by emission standards. We measured the diesel consumption for 14 different collection schemes in two municipalities in Denmark, yielding a total of 254 measurements. Collection was defined as driving and loading of waste from the first to the final stop on the collection route. All other distances covered were defined as transport of waste, which was modelled in generic transport simulation models. The diesel consumption per tonne of waste in the specified collection schemes turned out to be related to the type of housing and to the amount of waste collected per stop. The observations showed a considerable variation between different collection schemes, ranging from 1.4- 10.1 L diesel tonne(- 1) of waste. Assessment of the potential environmental impact by a life-cycle-assessment method showed a substantial decrease over the last decade because of implementation of European emissions standard for diesel trucks. The paper also discusses the importance of energy used for collection and transport in relation to the potential energy savings from waste treatment. In many cases, the net savings exceed significantly the use of diesel.
This study examines the variability in estimating aggregated and disaggregated emissions from the solid
waste sector using worldwide adopted methods for country accounting, life cycle assessment modelling,
and corporate reporting. Disaggregation of emissions was conducted by source (waste management
process from collection to disposal), gas (CO2, CH4, N2O) or type (direct and indirect) to identify processes
contributing most to potential variability in estimated emissions. While similar operational data were
introduced in all methods, significant variability in estimated emissions were evident across methods.
The variability in aggregated emissions ranged from 3 to 65% that dropped to 2 and 17% when default
parameters were standardized across methods. At the disaggregated level, a wider variability was discerned
reaching several folds depending on the source, gas or type of emissions. The observed variability
can be attributed to differences between methods in approaches and default parameters. These differences
can affect emissions mitigation measures/reduction targets or influence investments in carbon
credit to meet countries’ Nationally Determined Contributions under the Paris Agreement. The study
concludes with a framework to address limitations in existing methods with emphasis on increased
flexibility in allowing the user to modify default approaches and parameters.
Material recycling often leads to environmental benefits when compared to thermal treatments or landfilling and is therefore positioned in the waste hierarchy as the third priority after waste prevention and reuse. To assess the environmental impacts of recycling and the related substitution of primary material, linear steady-state models of physical flows are typically used. In reality, the environmental burdens of collection and recycling are likely to be a non-linear function of the collection rate. This short communication aims at raising awareness of the non-linear effects in separate collection systems and presents the first non-linear quantitative model for PET bottle recycling. The influence of collection rates on the material quality and the transport network is analyzed based on the data collected from industrial partners. The results highlight that in the present Swiss recycling system a very high collection rate close to 100% yields optimum environmental benefits with respect to global warming. The empirical data, however, provided indications for a decrease in the marginal environmental benefit of recycling. This can be seen as an indication that tipping points may exist for other recycling systems, in which the environmental benefits from substituting primary materials are less pronounced than they are for PET.
The aim of this study is to analyse the evolution of the municipal solid waste management system of João Pessoa (Brazil), which was one of the Brazilian pioneers cities in implementing door-to-door selective collection programmes, in order to analyse the effect of policy decisions adopted in last decade with regard to selective collection. To do it, this study focuses on analysing the evolution, from 2005 to 2015, of the environmental performance of the municipal solid waste management (MSWM) system implemented in different sorting units with selective collection programmes by applying the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology and using as a starting point data collected directly from the different stakeholders involved in the MSWM system.
This article presents the temporal evolution of environmental indicators measuring the environmental performance of the MSWM system implemented in João Pessoa by sorting unit, for each stage of the life cycle of the waste (collection, classification, intermediate transports, recycling and landfilling), for each waste fraction and for each collection method (selective collection or mixed collection), with the aim of identifying the key aspects with the greatest environmental impact and their causes.
Results show on one hand, that environmental behaviour of waste management in a door-to-door selective collection programme significantly improves the behaviour of the overall waste management system. Consequently, the potential to reduce the existing environmental impact based on citizens' increased participation in selective collection is evidenced, so the implementation of awareness-raising campaigns should be one of the main issues of the next policies on solid waste. On the other hand, increasing the amount of recyclable wastes collected selectively, implementing alternative methods for valorising the organic fraction (compost/biomethanization) and improving the efficiency of the transportation stage by means of optimizing vehicles or routes, are essential actions to reduce the overall net environmental impact generated by the MSWM system.
Separate collection of packaging waste (glass; plastic/metals; paper/cardboard), is currently a widespread practice throughout Europe. It enables the recovery of good quality recyclable materials. However, separate collection performance are quite heterogeneous, with some countries reaching higher levels than others. In the present work, separate collection of packaging waste has been evaluated in a low-performance recycling region in Portugal in order to investigate which factors are most affecting the performance in bring-bank collection system.
The effects of two common systems of waste separation such as drop-off sites collection and kerbside collection, and the addition of an incentive program in small communities of the Czech Republic were investigated. Our findings suggest that the paper and plastics separation rates of total municipal solid waste are 7.7% for drop-off sites and 9.7% for kerbside collection system. If we add an incentive program, the separated paper and plastics rate can reach more than 17%, which represents a significant increase of the separation rate. Additionally, higher density of drop-off sites can also increase separation rate, but the effect is relatively low, and this approach is often not economical.
Municipal solid waste collection is a public service with an impact on the environment, public health, and the appearance of a municipal area. The standard of efficiency achieved in providing this service has a direct impact on household expenditure, since the costs of collection are recovered through citizens' taxes. The failure to consider relevant performance drivers recently led some Italian waste utilities into bankruptcy and financial collapse. Following prior research to identify the environmental and operational variables affecting the
efficiency and quality of waste collection services, this study applies a more suitable and robust non-parametric method based on conditional order-m efficiency to identify the performance drivers of the waste
collection services in 40 municipalities in Verona province, Italy. The exogenous variables studied could be clustered as 1) customer features (size of population served, population density, tourist flows, and
percentage of non-residential customers; 2) household features, measured by number of inhabitants per house; and 3) operational features, represented by tons of waste collected for each load, method adopted
(curbside or street bin), and maturity achieved with a given method. The study demonstrates that all variables affect the cost efficiency of waste collection with different intensity and direction. The results might be
useful to support decision making in Italy and elsewhere in the world, due to the practical implications that can be derived from them.
This paper describes a research project carried out to investigate the public use of waste recycling banks in Glasgow, U.K. The objective was to find out who was using the banks, and why, and to suggest ways of encouraging more people to use them. Interviews were conducted, with both users and non-users of the banks, at a number of sites in the north-west of the city. The results provided an insight into how the banks were used, what type of people were involved in recycling and what they thought about the operation of the scheme. The reasons given for non-participation were also obtained. A number of conclusions were drawn and recommendations were then made on how to encourage more people to use the banks.
A crucial prerequisite for recycling forming an integral part of municipal solid waste (MSW) management is sorting of useful materials from source-separated MSW. Researchers have been exploring automated sorting techniques to improve the overall efficiency of recycling process. This paper reviews recent advances in physical processes, sensors, and actuators used as well as control and autonomy related issues in the area of automated sorting and recycling of source-separated MSW. We believe that this paper will provide a comprehensive overview of the state of the art and will help future system designers in the area. In this paper, we also present research challenges in the field of automated waste sorting and recycling.
Waste collection systems have been assessed to understand their performance, but most indicators used are related to economic and environmental aspects and omit indicators related to the technology aspects of containers and vehicles. In this study, 12 indicators were developed to characterize the technological aspect of 22 waste collection systems divided into three groups: container design, container capacity, and operation. Indicators were tested for a case study of packaging source-separated waste collection systems operating in the Greater Lisbon area, Portugal. The methods used to characterize waste collection systems were based on data collection from suppliers as well measurements in the field. The results indicate that underground containers presented the lowest disposal height and highest net capacity with full volume available and maximum waste weight. Small surface containers allowed the highest volume weight because users can compress the waste inside the container. The most efficient waste collection systems were automated collection systems, those with the highest volume and amount of packaging waste collected per time. Packaging waste also influenced the indicators of the opening of the disposal section and maximum waste weight based on waste shape and density. The developed indicators were based on container–vehicle components capable of supporting the planning of waste collection systems and provide benchmarks to help container and vehicle producers innovate the waste collection components.
The Waste Framework Directive obliged European Union Member States to set up separate collection systems to promote high quality recycling for at least paper, metal, plastic and glass by 2015. As implementation of the requirement varies across European Union Member States, the European Commission contracted BiPRO GmbH/Copenhagen Resource Institute to assess the separate collection schemes in the 28 European Union Member States, focusing on capital cities and on metal, plastic, glass (with packaging as the main source), paper/cardboard and bio-waste. The study includes an assessment of the legal framework for, and the practical implementation of, collection systems in the European Union-28 Member States and an in depth-analysis of systems applied in all capital cities. It covers collection systems that collect one or more of the five waste streams separately from residual waste/mixed municipal waste at source (including strict separation, co-mingled systems, door-to-door, bring-point collection and civic amenity sites). A scoreboard including 13 indicators is elaborated in order to measure the performance of the systems with the capture rates as key indicators to identify best performers. Best performance are by the cities of Ljubljana, Helsinki and Tallinn, leading to the key conclusion that door-to-door collection, at least for paper and bio-waste, and the implementation of pay-as-you-throw schemes results in high capture and thus high recycling rates of packaging and other municipal waste.
Municipal solid waste has been considered as one of the most immediate and serious problems confronting urban government in most developing and transitional economies. Providing solid waste performance highly depends on the effectiveness of waste collection and transportation process. Generally, this process involves a large amount of expenditures and has very complex and dynamic operational problems. Source separation has a major impact on effectiveness of waste management system as it causes significant changes in quantity and quality of waste reaching final disposal. To evaluate the impact of effective source separation on waste collection and transportation, this study adopts a decision support tool to comprehend cause-and-effect interactions of different variables in waste management system. A system dynamics model that envisages the relationships of source separation and effectiveness of waste management in Bangkok, Thailand is presented. Influential factors that affect waste separation attitudes are addressed; and the result of change in perception on waste separation is explained. The impacts of different separation rates on effectiveness of provided collection service are compared in six scenarios. 'Scenario 5' gives the most promising opportunities as 40% of residents are willing to conduct organic and recyclable waste separation. The results show that better service of waste collection and transportation, less monthly expense, extended landfill life, and satisfactory efficiency of the provided service at 60.48% will be achieved at the end of the simulation period. Implications of how to get public involved and conducted source separation are proposed.
A process model was developed using a lifecycle approach to estimate the cost and energy use associated with municipal solid waste collection, which is the most fuel-intensive and often the most costly aspect of solid waste management. The model divides collection service areas into single-family residential, multi-family residential, and commercial sectors with sector-specific, user-defined characteristics, including population, waste generation, and waste composition. Waste is collected by a set of processes (e.g., residual waste, recyclables collection) defined by costs, collection activity parameters, and energy use. The model overpredicted fuel use by ∼25% compared with data obtained from actual single-family residential collection routes and their average fuel efficiencies, but was within 10% when modal fuel efficiencies (e.g., driving, idling) were considered. Adding recyclables or yard waste collection to a mixed waste collection program increased fuel consumption by approximately 75% per metric ton (Mg) and doubled cost, whereas adding both services more than doubled fuel use and tripled cost. Increasing recyclables and residual collection frequency from biweekly to weekly resulted in a predicted 53% increase in fuel consumption and 39% increase in cost. Sensitivity analysis illustrated the relative impact of changing individual parameters (e.g., route to disposal facility distance, average time at each stop) and highlighted the need for a mechanistic model that is responsive to variations in input values.
Having accurate data of municipal solid waste generation amount is an indispensable factor for effective planning of a waste management system. However, to have accurate estimation, significant waste generation factors have to be identified. In this study, Bangkok is selected as representative of urban cities in developing countries. The city has coped with consequences of a vast amount of waste generation and ineffective waste management system for years. The study aims to examine influential variables affecting generation amount and management problems in Bangkok based on people’s attitudes. Questionnaire surveys and interviews are methods of acquiring primary data. To verify reliability of obtained data, statistical analyses are conducted using the methods of descriptive analysis, hypothesis test, and Pearson correlation. The study shows seven influential waste generation variables. In addition, to learn the exact situation of waste management system, interview results are qualitatively evaluated using stakeholder analysis and TOWS matrix. Stakeholders’ points of concerns and suggested waste management solutions are identified for using in the formulation of waste management plan. The results of this study can facilitate a thorough evaluation as inputs of future research for sustainable waste management system.
Life cycle analysis of several waste management scenarios for an Italian urban area was performed on the basis of different source segregation collection (SS) intensities from 0% up to 52%. Source segregated waste was recycled and or/recovered by composting. Residual waste management options were by landfilling, incineration with energy recovery or solid recovered fuel (SRF) production to substitute for coal. The increase in fuel and materials consumption due to increase in SS had negligible influence on the environmental impact of the system. Recycling operations such as incineration and SRF were always advantageous for impact reduction. There was lower impact for an SS of 52% even though the difference with the SS intensity of 35% was quite limited, about 15%. In all the configurations analyzed, the best environmental performance was achieved for the management system producing SRF by the biodrying process.
A new model for the environmental assessment of environmental technologies, EASETECH, has been developed. The primary aim of EASETECH is to perform life-cycle assessment (LCA) of complex systems handling heterogeneous material flows. The objectives of this paper are to describe the EASETECH framework and the calculation structure. The main novelties compared to other LCA software are as follows. First, the focus is put on material flow modelling, as each flow is characterised as a mix of material fractions with different properties and flow compositions are computed as a basis for the LCA calculations. Second, the tool has been designed to allow for the easy set-up of scenarios by using a toolbox, the processes within which can handle heterogeneous material flows in different ways and have different emission calculations. Finally, tools for uncertainty analysis are provided, enabling the user to parameterise systems fully and propagate probability distributions through Monte Carlo analysis.
This paper describes a research project carried out to investigate the public use of waste recycling banks in Glasgow, U.K. The objective was to find out who was using the banks, and why, and to suggest ways of encouraging more people to use them. Interviews were conducted, with both users and non-users of the banks, at a number of sites in the north-west of the city. The results provided an insight into how the banks were used, what type of people were involved in recycling and what they thought about the operation of the scheme. The reasons given for non-participation were also obtained. A number of conclusions were drawn and recommendations were then made on how to encourage more people to use the banks.
Consumers and organizations worldwide are searching for low-carbon alternatives to conventional gasoline and diesel vehicles to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and their impact on the environment. A comprehensive technique used to estimate overall cost and environmental impact of vehicles is known as life cycle assessment (LCA). In this article, a comparative LCA of diesel and compressed natural gas (CNG) powered heavy duty refuse collection vehicles (RCVs) is conducted. The analysis utilizes real-time operational data obtained from the City of Surrey in British Columbia, Canada. The impact of the two alternative vehicles is assessed from various points in their life. No net gain in energy use is found when a diesel powered RCV is replaced by a CNG powered RCV. However, significant reductions (approximately 24% CO2-equivalent) in GHG and criteria air contaminant (CAC) emissions are obtained. Moreover, fuel cost estimations based on 2011 price levels and a 5-year lifetime for both RCVs reveal that considerable cost savings may be achieved by switching to CNG vehicles. Thus, CNG RCVs are not only favorable in terms of reduced climate change impact but also cost effective compared to conventional diesel RCVs, and provide a viable and realistic near-term strategy for cities and municipalities to reduce GHG emissions.
Fuel consumption and collection costs of solid waste were evaluated by the aid of a simulation model for a given collection area of a medium-sized Italian city. Using the model it is possible to calculate time, collected waste and fuel consumption for a given waste collection route. Starting from the data for the current waste collection scenario with a Source Segregated (SS) intensity of 25%, all the main model error evaluated was ⩽1.2. SS intensity scenarios of 25%, 30%, 35% and 52% were simulated. Results showed an increase in the average fuel consumed by the collection vehicles that went from about 3.3L/tonne for 25% SS intensity to about 3.8L/tonne for a SS intensity of 52%. Direct collection costs, including crews and vehicle purchase, ranged from about 40€/tonne to about 70€/tonne, respectively, for 25% and 52% SS intensity. The increase in fuel consumption and collection costs depends on the density of the waste collected, on the collection vehicle compaction ratio and on the waste collection vehicle utilization factor (WCVUF). In particular a reduction of about 50% of the WCVUF can lead to an average increase of about 80% in fuel consumption and 100% in collection costs.
Purpose
Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is a field of active development. The last decade has seen prolific publication of new impact assessment methods covering many different impact categories and providing characterization factors that often deviate from each other for the same substance and impact. The LCA standard ISO 14044 is rather general and unspecific in its requirements and offers little help to the LCA practitioner who needs to make a choice. With the aim to identify the best among existing characterization models and provide recommendations to the LCA practitioner, a study was performed for the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC).
Methods
Existing LCIA methods were collected and their individual characterization models identified at both midpoint and endpoint levels and supplemented with other environmental models of potential use for LCIA. No new developments of characterization models or factors were done in the project. From a total of 156 models, 91 were short listed as possible candidates for a recommendation within their impact category. Criteria were developed for analyzing the models within each impact category. The criteria addressed both scientific qualities and stakeholder acceptance. The criteria were reviewed by external experts and stakeholders and applied in a comprehensive analysis of the short-listed characterization models (the total number of criteria varied between 35 and 50 per impact category). For each impact category, the analysis concluded with identification of the best among the existing characterization models. If the identified model was of sufficient quality, it was recommended by the JRC. Analysis and recommendation process involved hearing of both scientific experts and stakeholders.
Results and recommendations
Recommendations were developed for 14 impact categories at midpoint level, and among these recommendations, three were classified as “satisfactory” while ten were “in need of some improvements” and one was so weak that it has “to be applied with caution.” For some of the impact categories, the classification of the recommended model varied with the type of substance. At endpoint level, recommendations were only found relevant for three impact categories. For the rest, the quality of the existing methods was too weak, and the methods that came out best in the analysis were classified as “interim,” i.e., not recommended by the JRC but suitable to provide an initial basis for further development.
Discussion, conclusions, and outlook
The level of characterization modeling at midpoint level has improved considerably over the last decade and now also considers important aspects like geographical differentiation and combination of midpoint and endpoint characterization, although the latter is in clear need for further development. With the realization of the potential importance of geographical differentiation comes the need for characterization models that are able to produce characterization factors that are representative for different continents and still support aggregation of impact scores over the whole life cycle. For the impact categories human toxicity and ecotoxicity, we are now able to recommend a model, but the number of chemical substances in common use is so high that there is a need to address the substance data shortage and calculate characterization factors for many new substances. Another unresolved issue is the need for quantitative information about the uncertainties that accompany the characterization factors. This is still only adequately addressed for one or two impact categories at midpoint, and this should be a focus point in future research. The dynamic character of LCIA research means that what is best practice will change quickly in time. The characterization methods presented in this paper represent what was best practice in 2008–2009.
A model for calculating time and energy consumption during the collection of waste with compacting trucks is presented. The model uses common statistics from a number of households in three different categories of residential area: the average distance from the residential area to treatment facility/transfer station, fuel consumption per km for the truck and average load and speed. This common and easily accessible information is completed with figures for time and energy consumption related to the extra work that is performed on account of stopping and emptying bins. Default values for those parameters are presented in this paper, estimated using data from a Swedish municipality. Data from four areas in Sweden were used for verification. The model predicts the real outcome relatively well: between 5 and 14% deviation for energy consumption and between 10 and 24% deviation for time consumption.
This work analyses the separate collection systems used in Spanish towns with between 5000 and 50,000 inhabitants. The study looks at the systems and their efficiency by means of the indicators fractioning rate, quality in container rate and separation rate. The results obtained are compared with those from a similar study conducted earlier that was applied to towns and cities with populations over 50,000. It can be concluded that the most widely implemented system in Spain involves the collection of mixed waste from kerbside bins and picking up paper/cardboard, glass and lightweight packaging from drop-off points. Findings show that the best system is the one that collects mixed waste, organic material and multiproduct waste door-to-door, and glass from drop-off points. The indicator separation rate made it possible to establish beta regression models to analyse the influence of the following logistic variables: inhabitants per point (people/pt), time (years) and frequency of collection (freq). From these models it can be seen that people/pt has a negative effect on all the fractions, while freq and years have a positive effect in the case of paper.
In the present paper, the validity of the waste hierarchy for treatment of solid waste is tested. This is done by using the tool life cycle assessment on recycling, incineration with heat recovery and landfilling of recyclable waste for Swedish conditions. A waste hierarchy suggesting the environmental preference of recycling over incineration over landfilling is found to be valid as a rule of thumb. There are however assumptions and value choices that can be made that make landfilling more preferable. This is the case for some waste fractions and for some of the environmental impacts studied when only a limited time period is considered. When transportation of waste by passenger car from the households is assumed for the other treatment options but not for landfilling, landfilling also gains in preference in some cases. The paper concludes that assumptions made including value choices with ethical aspects are of importance when ranking waste treatment options. Uncertainties related to the assessment of toxicological impacts can also influence the conclusions.
Curbside collection of recyclable material can be expensive because the inherent costs of curbside collection are high, but also because amounts collected per residence are small compared to the total waste stream, and extra activity may be required, such as sorting. In this paper, a model is presented capable of estimating route time based on route and collection method characteristics. The time spent traveling over the route, between stops is estimated using the distance between stops. The time spent collecting materials is estimated using the distance walked by the collector(s) and the mass of material collected at each set-out. Time at stop signs and traffic lights is estimated using the average observed stop time. The model is tested for one and two-person collection methods used in the City of the Village, OK. It is capable of estimating route time within 10%, on average.
Curbside collection of recyclable material can be expensive because the inherent costs of curbside collection are high, but also because amounts collected per residence are small compared to the total waste stream, and extra activity may be required, such as sorting. In this paper a simulation model is used to investigate the effect of collection method and route characteristics on route time. The simulation models presented calculate set-out amount based on route characteristics, set-out rate (SOR), and participation rate (PR). Route times are estimated for various conditions: constant SOR, constant PR, and constant set-out amount. Furthermore, a method for using route time to estimate vehicle and labor needs is presented, and used to estimate economic costs for one and two-person crew collection methods for the three simulation conditions mentioned above. The two-person crew is found to cost less than the one-person crew, for most simulated conditions.
This paper presents research concerning the environmental analysis of the selective collection management of municipal solid waste. The main goal of this study is to quantify and to compare, by means of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), the potential environmental impacts of three selective collection systems modelled on densely populated urban areas. These systems are: the mobile pneumatic, the multi-container and the door-to-door. Impact assessment method based on CML 2 baseline 2000 is applied to the different systems. The study separates and analyzes the collection systems in substages: two urban substages and one inter-city substage. At the urban level, the multi-container system has the least environmental impact of all systems. The mobile pneumatic system has greater environmental impacts in terms of global warming, fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, acidification and eutrophication. In this system, the pipes and the pneumatic transport have the greatest impacts. The door-to-door system has a greatest environmental impact in terms of abiotic depletion, ozone layer depletion and human toxicity. An overall evaluation of the three substages, with a sensitivity analysis, indicates that the mobile pneumatic system at an inter-city distance of 20 km shows the greatest environmental impacts and the greatest energy demand. Inter-city transport is key; the results show that from an inter-city distance of 11 km onwards, this becomes the substage which most contributes to global warming impact and energy demand, in all the systems.
A pilot program focusing on municipal solid waste (MSW) source-separated collection was launched in eight major cities throughout China in 2000. Detailed investigations were carried out and a comprehensive system was constructed to evaluate the effects of the eight-year implementation in those cities. This paper provides an overview of different methods of collection, transportation, and treatment of MSW in the eight cities; as well as making a comparative analysis of MSW source-separated collection in China. Information about the quantity and composition of MSW shows that the characteristics of MSW are similar, which are low calorific value, high moisture content and high proportion of organisms. Differences which exist among the eight cities in municipal solid waste management (MSWM) are presented in this paper. Only Beijing and Shanghai demonstrated a relatively effective result in the implementation of MSW source-separated collection. While the six remaining cities result in poor performance. Considering the current status of MSWM, source-separated collection should be a key priority. Thus, a wider range of cities should participate in this program instead of merely the eight pilot cities. It is evident that an integrated MSWM system is urgently needed. Kitchen waste and recyclables are encouraged to be separated at the source. Stakeholders involved play an important role in MSWM, thus their responsibilities should be clearly identified. Improvement in legislation, coordination mechanisms and public education are problematic issues that need to be addressed.
The purpose of this study was to identify the different selective collection systems implemented in Spanish cities and to analyse the efficiency and extent to which the targets proposed by current law are met in each case. After defining the indicators to be used to quantify the efficiency of a selective collection system, a survey was designed to gather the information needed to calculate them. This survey was sent out to all Spanish cities with a population of over 50,000 inhabitants. Four different selective collection systems were also identified. For each of the four cases the indicators were calculated and analyzed to determine which one was the best system. The best values were obtained from the system with separation in five fractions: paper/cardboard, glass and lightweight packaging at drop-off points, organic waste and mixed waste in kerbside bins. Two regression models (linear and exponential) were developed in systems with enough data to explain and predict the variation in the amounts of materials that were separated correctly into containers, depending on the distance between containers and citizens. Nevertheless, the percentages of separation at source of paper/cardboard and lightweight packaging are still far from reaching the targets set by law.
The municipal solid waste management significantly contributes to the emission in the atmosphere of greenhouse gases (e.g. CO(2), CH(4), N(2)O) and therefore the management process from collection to treatment and disposal has to be optimized in order to reduce these emissions. In this paper, starting from the average composition of undifferentiated municipal solid waste in Italy, the effect of separate collection on greenhouse gases emissions from municipal waste management has been assessed. Different combinations of separate collection scenarios and disposal options (i.e. landfilling and incineration) have been considered. The effect of energy recovery from waste both in landfills and incinerators has also been addressed. The results outline how a separate collection approach can have a significant effect on the emission of greenhouse gases and how wise municipal solid waste management, implying the adoption of Best Available Technologies (i.e. biogas recovery and exploitation system in landfills and energy recovery system in Waste to Energy plants), can not only significantly reduce greenhouse gases emissions but, in certain cases, can also make the overall process a carbon sink. Moreover it has been shown that separate collection of plastic is a major issue when dealing with global warming relevant emissions from municipal solid waste management.
This life cycle assessment study analyses material and energy recovery within integrated municipal solid waste (MSW) management systems, and, in particular, the recovery of the source-separated materials (packaging and organic waste) and the energy recovery from the residual waste. The recovery of materials and energy are analysed together, with the final aim to evaluate possible optimum levels of source-separated collection that lead to the most favourable energetic and environmental results; this method allows identification of an optimum configuration of the MSW management system. The results show that the optimum level of source-separated collection is about 60%, when all the materials are recovered with high efficiency; it decreases to about 50%, when the 60% level is reached as a result of a very high recovery efficiency for organic fractions at the expense of the packaging materials, or when this implies an appreciable reduction of the quality of collected materials. The optimum MSW management system is thus characterized by source-separated collection levels as included in the above indicated range, with subsequent recycling of the separated materials and energy recovery of the residual waste in a large-scale incinerator operating in combined heat and power mode.
Solid waste collection and hauling account for the greater part of the total cost in modern solid waste management systems. In a recent initiative, 3300 Swedish recycling containers have been fitted with level sensors and wireless communication equipment, thereby giving waste collection operators access to real-time information on the status of each container. In this study, analytical modeling and discrete-event simulation have been used to evaluate different scheduling and routing policies utilizing the real-time data. In addition to the general models developed, an empirical simulation study has been performed on the downtown recycling station system in Malmoe, Sweden. From the study, it can be concluded that dynamic scheduling and routing policies exist that have lower operating costs, shorter collection and hauling distances, and reduced labor hours compared to the static policy with fixed routes and pre-determined pick-up frequencies employed by many waste collection operators today. The results of the analytical model and the simulation models are coherent, and consistent with experiences of the waste collection operators.
This study presents the conception, modeling, and implementation of a decision support system applied to the operational planning of solid waste collection systems, called SCOLDSS. The main functionality of the system is the generation of alternatives to the decision processes concerning: (a) the allocation of separate collection vehicles, as well as the determination of their routes and (b) the determination of the daily amount of solid waste to be sent to each sorting unit, in order to avoid waste of labor force and to reduce the amount of waste sent to the landfills. To develop the computer system, a combination of quantitative techniques was used, such as: simulation of discrete events and algorithms/heuristics for vehicle allocation and routing. The system was developed using the Borland Delphi environment and the commercial software Arena to carry out the simulations. We also present a computational study with real-life data from the solid waste collection in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in which we show that the results provided by the computational system outperform the operation planning currently adopted.
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