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The Evolution of Caterina Sforza’s Renaissance Patronage
Deepa Kylasam Iyer
November 2012
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Introduction
The visual and material culture of Europe from the middle of the 13th century to the 16th
century is marked by a remarkable amount of activity that portrays both continuity of
tradition, and exploration of new ideas. This period that is termed as ‘Renaissance’, was
shaped by artists, patrons, donors, connoisseurs and the audience alike. But mainstream
historical narrative has largely been masculine; the word ‘patron’ has its linguistic origin in
the Latin terms, pater and paternitas, and the terminology ‘Old Master’ does not have a
feminine equivalent (Crum, 2001).
It was men born into royal, noble and wealthy merchant families and those that belonged to
the guilds or the church who commissioned large public works. The patrons commissioned
art work that was religious and secular, collected artefacts, and funded the art projects.
Women were not expected or encouraged to have an active public life independent of their
male counterparts; nor did they have the financial means to do so. Even then, women
assumed the roles of regents and absentee rulers, appreciated the value of art through
custodianship, and directed the ceremonial display of art work.
From the letters of Fra Giovanni Dominici to Bartholomea degli Alberti, it is clear that
women from wealthy families were encouraged to use religious portraits and statuettes to
instruct the Dukes and Duchesses-in-waiting (Crum, 2001). They were in possession of
exquisite bridal wealth that included cassones, masserizia and objets d’arts. Women like
Isabella d’Este commissioned projects on their own, gave exacting instructions to the
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This essay was written for the Italian Renaissance Art History credit course at the University of Oxford in
2012. I thank my tutor Dr. Emma Rose Barber for her kind encouragement and insightful comments. All errors
are mine.
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craftsmen, and raised the necessary funding (Miller-Lawrence, 1997). As Carolyn Valone
remarked, ‘Patronage was an extremely public act that determined the expression of ideas,
motives, taste, wealth and status besides constructing a public persona’ (Valone, 2001).
Beyond conjugal devotion and dynastic promotion, patronage was a political statement and
creative outlet for self-expression for women just as it was for men. This essay seeks to
explore the role of Caterina Riario Sforza de’ Medici, Countess of Imola and Forli, and how
she ‘harnessed the power of images and objects, rituals and ceremonies, and spirituality and
intellect’ to emerge as an important patron (De Vries, 2010).
The Many Selves of Sforza
‘Often the unconventional is the collage of familiar notions merged in unfamiliar ways.’
Jo Burr Margadant (De Vries, 2010)
Every person is an uneasy mix of fragmentary and sometimes contradictory ‘selves’. In the
case of Caterina Sforza, these ‘selves’ competed in how she was portrayed in the historical
narrative. She was brought to prominence by Niccolo Machiavelli in his Discoursi as a
ruthless politician; but she was much admired by her contemporaries for other reasons. Her
biography was included in Filippo Foresti’s Lives of Illustrious Women. Sandro Botticelli
fondly portrayed her in the panels of the Sistine Chapel.
Born as an illegitimate daughter of the Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza of Milan, she was
brought up in clausura, but Caterina immensely benefitted under the tutelage of a humanist
poet, an education in Latin and Greek classics and Christian doctrine, besides outdoor
activities like hunting and the chase. This holistic development of her vita activa and vita
contemplativa was to serve her in an incredible life of political intrigue, military adventures,
grand soirées and domestic life.
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An Unconventional Patron
Caterina Sforza was as unconventional in her patronage as she was in her other roles. She
was with limited financial resources and under constant political threat, residing far away
from any dominant centre of art. The renaissance patronage studies that has largely focussed
on painting, sculpture and architecture executed by well-known artists have relegated
decorative art including fine clothing, jewellery, silver plates and tapestries as ‘minor arts’.
But this was a major component of the visual culture of the time, fundamental to both
princely interiors and élite commissions. In Caterina’s case, most of her architectural projects
have been dramatically altered, and the art work she possessed were pawned or sold in her
life time or lost. Yet it is undisputable that she was involved in different levels of artistic and
literary patronage as confirmed by her contemporaries through letters and documents.
a. Architectural Projects
Primarily, Caterina undertook large architectural projects during her regency of Riario
including urban improvements, military architecture and residential refurbishments. The
Rocca di Ravaldino was renovated with improved living quarters, enclosed gardens, large
parks and hunting grounds. Caterina modelled her palace on Medici Casa Vécchia and
ordered Majolica tiles from Florence. Elizabeth Lev describes that she transformed the
gloomy fortress into a magnificent castle with the square belt of the ramparts, high vaulted
ceilings, richly carved columns, and delicate ceramic tiles of red and yellow- the hallmarks of
Romagnole architecture (Lev, 2011). The military housing on the fortress provided her
protection. The inner sanctum Il Paradiso was her personal retreat with open loggias and
frescoed wines.
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True to the tradition of a widow, Caterina commissioned a marble tomb with the Riario court
of arms at San Francesco for her husband
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. She also undertook the execution of the shrine of
Madonna de Piratello
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. Besides generous endowments to convents, she reserved a cell within
a convent for personal retreat.
b. Portrait Medals
Caterina is also well known for her innovative use of portrait medals that were politically
effective and far less expensive than other artefacts of power. In the first series issued as a
regent, she comes across dressed in an embellished gown, her uncovered hair decorated with
a diadem of pearls with the inscription tibi et virtuiti (De Vries, 2010). In the series of 1493,
the stoic figure of Caterina is complemented on the obverse by winged victory- a masculine
symbol of power- with the inscription victoriam fama se-quetar (Lev, 2011). To coincide
with her son Ottaviano’s Pisa campaign, another series of portrait medal was issued
illustrating Caterina cloaked in a widow’s veil with her son on the obverse. Overt political
statement with gendered iconography was the hallmark of Caterina’s portrait medals.
c. Costumes and Jewellery
Caterina was also a fashion icon of her time whose ‘carefully chosen clothing, elaborate
embellished living and reception areas, commissions of art, support of intellectuals and
participation in public events’
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was well remarked. Always the one for political pageants, the
Countess dazzled the indifferent public of Imola with her first entry as ‘she was decked in a
gold brocade dress of pearls, heavy cape of black silk trimmed with gems, heavy veil and
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“To you and to virtue”. Niccolo Fiorentino, circa. 1488, Portrait Medal of Caterina Sforza, Bronze, London,
British Museum.
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“Fame follows victory”. Niccolo Fiorentino, circa. 1498, Portrait Medal of Caterina Sforza, Bronze, London,
British Museum.
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Tomb of Girolamo Riario, Chapel San Francesco, Imola.
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jewelled silk hair net’
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. She also ordered serially manufactured goods from artistic centres, an
important and widespread component of Renaissance visual and material culture. The
countess’s unusual sponsorship of experiments in alchemy and botany yielded Experimenti-
her notebook of 454 recipes on medicine, health and beauty.
Conclusion
Caterina Sforza was an astute and resourceful patron who continued traditions, constantly
foraying into the unchartered territories of the male prerogative. Her only surviving portrait is
a three-quarter view of the countess in her Riario castle
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- an unusually bold posture for a
Renaissance woman. Incidentally, this portrait symbolizes the very essence of both Caterina
and Renaissance- change in keeping with the tradition and the unconventional with the
humanist touch of splendore.
References
Crum, R.J. (2001). “Controlling women or women controlled? Suggestions for gender roles
and visual culture in Italian Renaissance Palace”. In S.E. Reiss & D.G. Wilkins (eds),
Beyond Isabella. Truman State University Press, Kirksville.
De Vries, J. (2010). Caterina Sforza and the Art of Appearances: Gender, Art and Culture in
Early Modern Italy. Ashgate Publishing, Surrey.
Lev, E., (2011). The Tigress of Forli: Renaissance Italy’s Most Courageous and Notorious
Countess, Caterina Riario Sforza de’ Medici. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing
Company, New York.
Miller-Lawrence, C. (ed.) (1997). Women and Art in Early Modern Europe: Patrons,
Collectors and Connoisseurs. Pennsylvania State University Press, Pennsylvania.
Valone, C. (2001). “Matrons and Motives: Why women built in Early Modern Rome?”. In S>
E. Reiss & D. G. Wilkins (eds), Beyond Isabella. Truman State University Press, Kirksville.
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Santa Maria del Piratello, Imola.
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Fra Filippo da Bergamo, 1497, Portrait of Caterina Sforza, Woodcut, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University,
Houghton Library.
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Further Reading
Long, K.P. (ed.) (2010). Gender and Scientific Discourse in Early Modern Culture. Ashgate
Publishing, Surrey.
Mary, A.L, (2003). Widowhood and Visual Culture in Early Modern Europe. Ashgate
Publishing, Surrey.
McIver, K. (ed.), (2012). Wives, Widows, Mistresses and Nuns in Early Modern Italy. Ashgate
Publishing, Surrey.
Reiss, S.E., & Wilkins D.G. (ed.) (2001). Beyond Isabella. Truman State University Press,
Kirksville.
Welch E. (2000). Art in Renaissance Italy: 1350-1500. Oxford University Press, New York.