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Teaching and Learning with ICT
in the Primary School
This new edition of Teaching and Learning with ICT in the Primary School introduces
practising and student teachers to the range of ways in which ICT can be used to
support and extend teaching and learning opportunities in their classrooms. In an
increasingly technological world, it offers teachers a toolset to help children develop
openness to learning about new technologies and awareness of how to use them effectively
for a wide range of purposes throughout their lives.
Fully updated and expanded, with new chapters reflecting the abundant changes in
the field, this timely and engaging book offers practical guidance underpinned by the
latest research and teaching. It is illustrated throughout with case studies and examples,
and focuses on how technology-based practices can support the teaching of individual
subjects, as well as a range of teaching and learning styles. Key topics covered include:
• ICT to enhance the teaching of literacy and numeracy
• effective technologies for teaching and learning science
• understanding visual literacy
• computer programming in the classroom
• developing assessment with technologies
• e-safety
• ICT in Modern Foreign Language teaching
• nurturing developing musicians through technology
• special educational needs and technology
• ICT in the Early Years
• using mobile technologies for authentic learning
• multi-play digital games and online virtual worlds.
Written for training primary teachers, as well as more experienced teachers and ICT
co-ordinators looking for guidance on the latest innovative practice, Teaching and
Learning with ICT in the Primary School offers advice and ideas for creative, engaging
and successful teaching and learning.
Sarah Younie is MA Programme Leader and Principal Lecturer in Education Studies
at De Montfort University, UK.
Marilyn Leask is Professor of Educational Knowledge Management at the University
of Bedfordshire, UK.
Kevin Burden is Course Leader for the Advanced Certificate in Sustained Professional
Development at the University of Hull, UK.
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Teaching and Learning
with ICT in the
Primary School
Second edition
Edited by
Sarah Younie, Marilyn Leask
and Kevin Burden
Second edition published 2015
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2015 Sarah Younie, Marilyn Leask and Kevin Burden
The right of the editors to be identified as the authors of the editorial
material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted
in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
First edition published 2000 by Routledge
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Teaching and learning with ICT in the primary school/edited by Sarah
Younie, Marilyn Leask, Kevin Burden. – 2nd edition.
pages cm
Previous edition edited by Marilyn Leask and John Meadows.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Education, Elementary – Great Britain – Computer-assisted
instruction. 2. Internet in education – Great Britain.
3. Telecommunication in education – Great Britain. I. Younie, Sarah,
1967– II. Leask, Marilyn, 1950– III. Burden, Kevin.
LB1028.5.T382 2015
372.133′40941 – dc23
2014012535
ISBN: 978-1-138-78314-0 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-78315-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-76882-3 (ebk)
Typeset in Galliard and Helvetica Neue
by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
Contents
List of illustrations vii
Notes on contributors xi
Preface xv
1 Learning in the Digital Age: developing critical, creative
and collaborative skills 1
MARIAN HENRY
2 Digital story telling 13
HELEN BOULTON
3 Blogging to support digital literacy in schools and universities 24
HELEN CALDWELL AND GARETH HONEYFORD
4 Being creative with technology: using ICT to enhance
the teaching of literacy and numeracy 39
DAVID MORRIS, GURMIT UPPAL AND DANIEL AYRES
5 Visual literacy for all teachers and learners: essential knowledge
and skills to create, use and assess concept maps and graphic
organizers 54
JEFF BEAUDRY
6 Delivering the mathematics curriculum through technology-
enhanced learning 71
ANDREA HOLLOWAY
7 e-Learning and mathematics: a blended learning approach 80
MICHAEL JAMES MALONE AND JOHN O’SHEA
8 Using technology in primary science 91
PAUL HOPKINS
vi Contents
9 ICT in Modern Foreign Language teaching 106
MONIKA PAZIO (with additional case study from Patrick Carroll)
10 Nurturing the developing musician through the use of technology 120
JON AUDAIN
11 Teachers and pupils incorporated: developing a co-constructed
classroom 130
GINA BLACKBERRY AND DEB WOODS
12 Education in an interconnected global space 142
SHARON TONNER
13 Special educational needs and technology 156
CHRISTINA KUEGEL
14 Games and learning: using multi-play digital games and online
virtual worlds 164
NIC CROWE AND SARA FLYNN
15 Mobile technologies and authentic learning in the primary
school classroom 171
KEVIN BURDEN AND DAMIAN MAHER
16 Web 2.0 and classrooms 183
MANDY PEACE
17 Computer programming in the primary school: an introduction 198
RORY MCGANN AND AISLING LEAVY
18 ICT and assessment 210
GARY BEAUCHAMP
19 Developing e-safety in the primary school 225
TIM PINTO AND SARAH YOUNIE
20 ICT in the Early Years: do young children need access to
computers as much as they need to play with sand and water? 238
CHRISTINA PRESTON AND MARION SCOTT BAKER
Index 249
Illustrations
Figures
2.1 Pupils from Eureka Primary School developing their digital story 17
2.2 Storyboard developed by a pupil at Whitemoor Primary School 21
3.1 Examples of student teachers’ blogs 28
3.2 Example of a vision statement post 29
3.3 Screen shot from Science Concept Maps blog 32
3.4 Blogging to promote learning dialogues 34
4.1 Student teachers and pupils engaging with mobile technologies
at Scargill Junior School 43
4.2 A QR code linking to plain text 44
4.3 A QR code linking to a QR code generator website 44
5.1 Elements of visual literacy system 55
5.2 Sinatra’s conception of visual literacy (1986) 57
5.3 Phases of visual thinking and concept mapping 60
5.4 Hand-drawn, radiating concept map of bats 62
5.5 Map of bats re-drawn with visual mapping software, with the
original spelling preserved 62
5.6 Concepts of ‘things we eat’ arranged in a chain of ideas 64
5.7 Concept map with new concepts, linking words, and cross-links
of concepts arranged as a network 65
5.8 Venn diagram as a template for comparison of volcanoes and
earthquakes 66
5.9 Double bubble map as a template for comparison of volcanoes
and earthquakes 66
5.10 Comparison concept map of volcanoes and earthquakes 67
6.1 Mathematics ITP: measuring cylinder 73
6.2 The impact of multimodal learning in comparison to traditional,
unimodal learning 74
8.1 (a) and (b) A fruit olympics 95
8.2 (a) and (b) Year 5 children investigate friction 98
8.3 Deep learning 100
9.1 Adapted from the SAMR model 108
9.2 Aurasma vocabulary activity 111
10.1 Developing rhythm patterns using the shape and line tools 121
10.2 Four examples of taking a line on a walk 121
viii Illustrations
10.3 An example of a graphic score created using the interactive
whiteboard shapes and lines 122
12.1 Global citizenship at the centre of the Scottish Curriculum for
Excellence 144
12.2 The Scottish Government’s wider perspective to developing
global citizens 146
16.1 Bloom’s Taxonomy in relation to acquiring information from
the Internet 190
16.2 Forms of knowledge 191
16.3 Davitt’s Learning Events Generator 192
17.1 Introducing programming in schools: project overview 201
17.2 Two-player maze game 202
17.3 Girls find treasure 202
18.1 Audiences for assessed work 218
Tables
1.1 Findings from interviews with stakeholders 5
3.1 Blogging – selected questionnaire items completed by 78 Year 3 students 31
3.2 Pros and cons of blogging 35
8.1 Frameworks for change 93
8.2 Data capture via applications 96
10.1 How technology can support music making 121
10.2 Mobile apps to support composition work 124
10.3 Curriculum software to support composition work 125
10.4 Software to support general music education 125
12.1 Examples of learning in a global space 149
16.1 The power of social collaboration tools in the primary setting:
examples of blogging, wikis and podcasts 186
18.1 Characteristic differences between formative and summative
assessment 212
19.1 e-Safety resources to use with pupils 231
19.2 A framework for e-safety 233
Tasks
1.1 Creating a class blog 8
2.1 Introducing digital story telling into your classroom 14
2.2 e-Safety 17
2.3 Digital story telling – considering technologies 20
2.4 Using film to stimulate digital story telling 21
3.1 Which widget is which? 32
3.2 Pros and cons of blogging 35
4.1 Exploring online tools that promote creativity and collaboration 42
4.2 Using QR codes to create a mathematics-based treasure hunt 46
4.3 Using digital video 47
4.4 Learning in literacy and numeracy using ICTs (M-level task) 49
5.1 Am I a visual learner? 61
Illustrations ix
6.1 Self-evaluation against competencies 72
6.2 Contingency planning 75
6.3 Implementing learning theories 75
6.4 To what degree can voting technology impact on learning? 77
7.1 Evaluating e-learning environments 82
7.2 Models of e-learning 83
8.1 Where are we at? 94
8.2 Using video to capture pupils’ thinking 95
8.3 The affordances of the tablet in the classroom 97
8.4 It’s more than just recording the data 98
9.1 Reflecting upon effective MFL teaching 108
9.2 Understanding the SAMR model 109
9.3 Reinforcing communication and developing speaking skills 110
9.4 Evaluating eTwinning projects 113
9.5 Evaluating projects and their learning potential 116
9.6 Developing your skills in using augmented reality software 118
10.1 Using technology to support assessment in music 123
10.2 Building a portfolio of musical composition 123
11.1 Learning about action research 131
11.2 Reflecting on your current pedagogical practice 132
11.3 Conduct a self-audit of your thoughts, feelings and obstructive
elements 133
11.4 Planning your change 136
12.1 Learning about global spaces 145
12.2 Examples of global projects 148
12.3 Reviewing eTwinning projects 151
12.4 Explaining your culture project using Animoto 153
13.1 Defining inclusion 157
13.2 Understanding your views 158
14.1 Identifying pupils’ experience of online games 166
14.2 Ethics, barriers and educational benefits 168
15.1 Surveying the pupils 173
15.2 Developing your own model of m-learning 174
15.3 Developing a class-based scenario 175
15.4 Designing a mobile learning activity 179
16.1 Developing respectful relationships 188
16.3 Davitt’s Learning Events Generator 193
17.1 Developing programming in your setting 200
17.2 Creating algorithms 203
17.3 Self-assessment 207
18.1 Formative assessment and the affordances of ICT 212
18.2 Establishing assessment criteria 213
18.3 Audiences for assessed work 218
19.1 Understanding e-safety 226
19.2 School policies on e-safety 229
19.3 e-Safety and teachers’ responsibilities 233
19.4 School and parent e-safety events 234
19.5 Developing an e-safety section on your school’s website 235
xIllustrations
20.1 Your view – the place for ICT in the Early Years 244
20.2 Supporting changes of practice 246
Case studies
2.1 Digital story telling at Eureka Primary School with Years 4 and 5 16
2.2 Whitemoor Academy’s use of digital story telling in the classroom 20
4.1 Extra-curricular example (1) 41
4.2 Using ICT to promote creativity in the core subjects in
Key Stage 2 41
4.3 Extra-curricular example (2) 48
5.1 Creating concept maps as multimedia 65
6.1 The use of technology in delivering the EYFS curriculum 74
6.2 Colley Lane Primary School: the use of voting technology in
Year 1 and Year 6 75
6.3 Lord Scudamore Academy: the use of Scratch to deliver the
geometry element of the mathematics curriculum, 2014 77
8.1 A fruit olympics 94
8.2 Using a spreadsheet when investigating friction 97
10.1 Developing iPod/iPad bands to foster performance and group work 124
12.1 Schoolovision 148
12.2 Digital diary dialogues 151
15.1 Strategies to achieve learning outcomes using mobile technologies 174
17.1 Girl coding group in school 1 201
18.1 Use of iPads for assessment 219
18.2 e-Portfolios 220
Notes on contributors
Jon Audain is a Senior Lecturer in Primary ICT and Music at the University of
Winchester. Jon previously worked as a primary school teacher and as a county-based
Advanced Skills Teacher. He also works as a freelance musician, Apple Distinguished
Educator and conductor and has worked for both Hampshire and Portsmouth Music
Services.
Daniel Ayres is a Senior Lecturer in Initial Teacher Education at the University of East
London. Before joining UEL he taught children across the primary age range, at
schools in the London Boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Newham and Redbridge.
Gary Beauchamp is a Professor of Education and Associate Dean (Research) in the
School of Education at Cardiff Metropolitan University. He worked for many years
as a primary school teacher, before moving into higher education where he has led
undergraduate and postgraduate courses in education. His research interests focus
on ICT in education, particularly the use of interactive technologies in learning and
teaching.
Jeff Beaudry is an Associate Professor in the Department of Professional Education at
the University of Southern Maine, USA. He teaches courses online and in blended
media formats with webinars and video networks and has produced numerous Web
2.0 multimedia, such as podcasts and interactive videos, for the University of Southern
Maine. His research interests include exploring issues relating to visual learning.
Gina Blackberry is a Research Fellow at the Australian Catholic University in Brisbane,
Queensland. Prior to completing her doctorate, she worked as a high school teacher
and journalist. Her research interests include teachers’ professional learning, ICT
integration and pupils’ disengagement from reading.
Helen Boulton is a Reader in Technology Enhanced Learning and Teaching at
Nottingham Trent University and a National Teaching Fellow. Helen’s work is
published nationally and internationally and she is Vice-Chair of the Association for
Information Technology in Teacher Education.
Kevin Burden is a Senior Lecturer and Researcher in Augmented and Mobile
Technologies at the University of Hull, where he is the Director for postgraduate
teaching across the Faculty of Education. He was previously a school teacher and
has worked in the higher education sector for fifteen years. Kevin is on the editorial
board for MESH guides on ICT (see www.MESHguides.org).
Helen Caldwell is a Senior Lecturer in Teacher Education at the University of
Northampton, where she is curriculum leader for Computing. Prior to this, she was
an assistive technology adviser for Milton Keynes Council, a regional manager for
the Open University Vital programme and an ICT coordinator across the 5–16 age
range.
Patrick Carroll is an ICT Coordinator and British Council Ambassador at Shaw Wood
Academy, Doncaster. Patrick has taught in Key Stage 2 for the last ten years and is
continuing his research into the uses of augmented reality within education.
Nic Crowe is the Programme Leader for Contemporary Education at Brunel University.
He is an experienced Education Practitioner with a background in technology and
cultural studies. His research considers the educational opportunities offered by
digital games.
Sara Flynn is a teacher undertaking a PhD at Brunel University with a focus on digital
technologies and learning.
Marian Henry is a teacher, with a Doctorate in Education, a Masters in Media Studies
and a Bachelor of Education, who has taught at all levels of education in Dublin,
Ireland. She is committed to informing her classroom practice with relevant theory
and research and is particularly interested in fostering children’s critical literacy,
learning and citizenship in the Digital Age.
Andrea Holloway is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Worcester, teaching maths
and computing on both the undergraduate and postgraduate programmes at Worcester.
She was also a Sandwell Leading Maths Teacher and Dudley Maths Coach, supporting
colleagues in delivering the primary maths curriculum.
Gareth Honeyford is the Strategic Lead for Initial Teacher Training (Primary) for
Essex Teacher Training. Previously he ran the PGCE Programme at the University
of Northampton where he was also a teaching fellow and subject lead for ICT in
Education. He has taught pupils from reception to post 16, worked for Becta and
various governement-funded initiatives, including Excellence in Cities, City Learning
Centres and Education Action Zones. He has written and researched many aspects
of ICT including Web 2.0 and digital video.
Paul Hopkins has taught in a number of schools and universities in a range of roles.
He now works at the University of Hull, leading the primary science PGCE
programme. His research interests are around technology enhanced learning.
Christina Kuegel is a Senior Lecturer and Course Co-ordinator for Education Studies
at the University of Bedfordshire, UK. She originally trained to be a teacher in the
USA and then worked in the UK at a special school for children with severe learning
difficulties before moving into higher education. Her research interests include
technology to support children with severe learning difficulties and development of
play skills for pupils with autism.
Marilyn Leask is a Professor in Educational Knowledge Management at the University
of Bedfordshire, UK following a career as a teacher, assistant headteacher, local
authority officer/public servant responsible for developing online communities of
practice for local government and online resources for teacher training. Her research
xii Notes on contributors
interests are in harnessing the power of digital technologies to support professional
development (see for example MESH on www.MESHguides.org).
Aisling Leavy lectures in mathematics education. She has an interest in technology and
mathematics, statistical thinking and reasoning, pre-service teachers’ teacher education
and children’s mathematical thinking.
Damian Maher is a Lecturer in the School of Education at the University of Technology,
Sydney (UTS) Australia. Damian teaches in the primary undergraduate programme
with one of the subjects focusing on ICT in schools. He also conducts research in
schools exploring how technologies can support learning.
Michael James Malone is a primary school teacher in Clarecastle National School and
works as an adviser with the Professional Development Service for Teachers, Ireland.
His research interests are the use of ICT for teaching and learning and e-learning
environments.
Rory McGann lectures in ICT/Digital Learning at Mary Immaculate College, Limerick.
Particular interests include ICT-related policy in education, programming in the
primary classroom, online applications, digital content creation and ICT leadership.
David Morris is a Senior Lecturer in Initial Teacher Education at the University of
East London. As a specialist ICT teacher, he has taught pupils in every year group
from nursery through to Year 11.
John O’Shea worked as a primary school teacher prior to his appointment as Lecturer
in Educational Methodology in Mary Immaculate College. His research interests
are mathematical problem-solving, mathematics teacher education and teaching
methodologies that support student understanding from a constructivist perspective.
Monika Pazio is currently reading for a PhD in Education at the University of
Bedfordshire, specialising in technology application in early language learning. She
also works as a Lecturer in Education Technology at the University of Greenwich.
Prior to that she had taught languages across the different age groups and levels.
Mandy Peace is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Wales, Trinity Saint David,
Swansea. Mandy initially taught in the primary sector, and later in university on a
range of undergraduate and postgraduate programmes, with the emphasis on
technology enhanced learning. Research interests include the effect innovative
technologies have on learning and teaching.
Tim Pinto is the e-Safety Manager for Yorkshire and Humber Grid for Learning
(YHGfL). He was previously a Head of RE in Cottingham School, near Hull and
has worked extensively supporting the CPD of teachers in the use of IT, with particular
reference to e-safety.
Christina Preston is a Professor of Education Innovation at the University of
Bedfordshire. She founded the MirandaNet Fellowship in 1992, a professional
organisation where educators share their knowledge and experience about the value
of digital technologies in learning.
Marion Scott Baker has forty years’ experience in Foundation Stage and Key Stage
One in both the private and public sector, including twenty-four years in headship
Notes on contributors xiii
positions. Building on this experience and her qualifications in the field of Specific
Learning Difficulties she has managed projects and delivered consultancy across the
UK, USA and India. She now works as a freelance Educational Consultant in Berkshire.
Sharon Tonner is a Lecturer in Education at the University of Dundee where she
teaches ICT to primary and secondary student teachers. Her research interests are
the use of mobile technology in learning environments as well as the use of technology
to enhance teaching and learning. Sharon is also an eTwinning ambassador for the
British Council due to her extensive work in connecting schools around the world
through the use of technology.
Gurmit Uppal is a part-time Senior Lecturer at the University of East London. She
leads the primary computing and ICT element of the Primary PGCE Programme
and has conducted research into the impact of PGCE ICT programmes in relation
to trainee competence when using technology in the classroom.
Deb Woods is an Australian primary school teacher who has a demonstrated and
recognised passion and commitment to using ICT to enhance learning and to improve
the educational experiences and outcomes for students of all ages. Deb was the
recipient of the 2013 Queensland College of Teachers’ Excellence in Teaching
Award.
Sarah Younie is a Principal Lecturer at De Montfort University and Programme Leader
for the MA in Education Practice. Sarah is also a Senior Research Fellow at the
University of Bedfordshire. She has experience of leading international and national
research projects with ICT. She was Chair of the Association for Information
Technology in Teacher Education and is the Lead Editor for MESH guides on ICT,
see www.MESHguides.org.
xiv Notes on contributors
* Dewey, J. (1944) Democracy and education. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Preface
If we teach today as we taught yesterday,
we rob our children of tomorrow
(Dewey, 1944, p. 167)*
You will be teaching young people, many of whom can expect to be alive in the twenty-
second century. The changes they will face in their lifetime are unimaginable so it is
essential that pupils are prepared to be resilient and adaptable. An openness to learning
about new technologies and an awareness of how to use technologies effectively for a
wide range of purposes are part of the toolset they will need to be effective citizens,
family members and employees over their lifetime.
We would like to thank Paul Hopkins and Mandy Peace, authors in this book, who
drew our attention to the saying above. During your career you can expect to find that
education attracts a lot of attention from politicians and in some countries, there are
no checks and balances to protect educators from politicians keen to create a headline
by imposing change, but who have no long-term responsibility for educational outcomes
in the way that educators do.
So depending on the context in which you work you may find you have to
accommodate political objectives in your professional practice, which may be contrary
to the professional values and knowledge about effective teaching outlined in this book.
There is, however, a worldwide collaboration of educators building an evidence base
for practice that we are part of and which we hope will provide you with evidence-
informed professional support during your teaching career – see MESH Guides on
www.MESHguides.org. These guides will in due course present research that outlines
the value to learners of the technology tools that are mentioned in this book. If you
register to receive the MESH Guides newsletter you will be kept abreast of new
developments.
We would like to thank all the authors who have shared their research and their ideas
through this book. We hope you find the ideas stimulating and that your pupils learn
more than they would do otherwise from your implementation of at least some of the
suggestions outlined.
Marilyn Leask, Sarah Younie and Kevin Burden
March 2014
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1 Learning in the Digital Age
Developing critical, creative and
collaborative skills
Marian Henry
Introduction
There are many compelling reasons to use ICT in our classrooms, from motivating
students and enhancing the learning experience to facilitating planning and the
organisational elements of education. All of these are significant but the focus of this
chapter is broader and deals with the complex relationship between education, changes
in society and children’s lives. It is inspired by doctoral research that asked: ‘Is learning
changing in the Digital Age?’ where I looked at how society and children’s lives
were changing outside of school and how education was responding to this. The chapter
is in four parts. The first is an overview of literature and research relating to the concept
of the Digital Age and education. We will then look at how children are understood
within the Digital Age, their informal engagement with ICT outside of school and how
this relates to ICT use in school. The third section presents some of the key findings
from the empirical research that I conducted with education stakeholders and children.
One of the most prominent findings was the importance of fostering children’s critical,
creative and collaborative abilities, as these are seen as crucial in ensuring that children
can flourish in the Digital Age. The final section explores how you can do this in your
teaching.
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
• critically reflect on literature and research relating to the Digital Age, technology
and education;
• think in a deeper way about the digital generation and how we understand their
existing ICT skills;
• recognise the importance of fostering children’s critical, creative and collaborative
skills;
• develop strategies for putting this knowledge into practice in your classroom.
The Digital Age, technology and education
The term ‘Digital Age’ describes how society, culture, politics and economics are increas -
ingly suffused with digital technologies. In this way, the term is closely linked to other
popular concepts such as the ‘Information Society’ or ‘Knowledge Society’. What these
titles have in common is that they place information at the heart of contemporary life.
In Theories of the Information Society (2006) Frank Webster highlights that ‘information’
has become a distinguishing feature in discussions of the modern world over the past
2Marian Henry
thirty years. He points out that while theorists and scholars take many different views
on how our world is changing and developing, there is some level of consensus about
the salience of ‘information’ in contemporary society. The centrality of information is
closely linked to the continuing development of digital technologies. It is against this
backdrop of the growing significance of information, and the tools that promote and
sustain it, that twenty-first century education finds itself.
Education and society have a dynamic and interactive relationship. This means that
they influence each other. What happens in education has an impact on how society,
the economy, culture and politics develop. The reverse is also true because changes in
society, culture and politics have a bearing on what is expected of education. ICT in
education is a clear example of this interactive relationship. The significant investment
in, and promotion of, technology in education is not limited to particular schools, or
districts or countries. At present, nearly every country in the world, regardless of
geopolitical, economic or social circumstance, has implemented an educational technology
strategy (Selwyn, 2011). Towards the late 1990s in many Western countries, the industry
around information and communication was seen to have taken over from the more
traditional manufacture of goods (Webster, 2006; Selwyn, 2011). This shift was
perpetuated by the development of digital technologies and the use of these technologies
in education was important in developing the information economy within a country.
What is common among these policies is a close interlinking of education with
employability, productivity and the wealth of the nation. Investing in ICT use in education
is a core element in investing in the future of the national economy (Ball, 1999). This
is especially important in a global competitive economy.
Not surprisingly, the attitudes to ICT in education policies tend to be enthusiastic.
In Ireland, the promotion of ICT is enthused about and described as ‘a pivotal force’
in changing learning (DES, 2008a). However, to say that ICT changes or revolutionises
learning is technological determinism – meaning that we see technology as causing
change. ICT may play a role in change, but technologies can’t have an impact without
people to use them and to appropriate them into their lives. It is easy to get swept up
in the idea that technology will or has changed learning, but this attitude is ultimately
disempowering to teachers. As was found in a recent NESTA report ‘Technology has
no impact on its own – it all depends how we use it’ (Stokes, 2012: 8). Technology is
part of the story, but in order for ICT to have a positive impact on learning, we need
teachers to be informed users of it in the classroom.
Children in the Digital Age
Good pedagogy builds from what children already know and understand. When it comes
to the children we are now teaching do we see them as digital natives or digital novices?
The concept of the ‘digital native’ was introduced by Marc Prensky to describe children
who have spent their ‘entire lives’ surrounded by ICT. He claims that due to their
interaction with ICT they ‘think and process information fundamentally differently from
their predecessors’ – digital immigrants (2001: 1–2). While digital immigrants may learn
and use new technologies they tend to retain their ‘accent’. The problem for education
then, according to Prensky, is that digital immigrant teachers are trying to teach digital
natives in an outdated language. According to Prensky, these students are wired differently
and learn differently, and therefore both the methodology and the content of our
teaching need to change.
Learning in the Digital Age 3
Don Tapscott writes about the ‘digital generation’ (1998). He distinguishes between
how different technologies enable different forms of engagement – contrasting the
‘television generation’ with the ‘net generation’. Television is a push medium where ‘a
relatively select band of producers (broadcasters) decide what content is to be created,
create it and then push it down analogue or digital channels at audiences, which are
assumed to consist of essentially passive recipients’ (Naughton, 2012: 142). The net,
on the other hand, is a pull medium where the consumer can actively choose what
information they want to access and ‘pull’ it down to their computer, television,
smartphone or tablet. This encourages more active, open and democratic engagement.
Where television could be seen to dumb down its users, use of the net could be seen
to raise their intelligence. What both Prensky and Tapscott do is equate technological
change with enabling children to think, learn and engage with society in new and better
ways. The job of education is to catch up with the children and use ICT more. While
their assertions are popular, there are elements to their claims that are problematic.
Digital divides
The ‘digital native’ argument assumes that all children grow up surrounded by
technologies, but to what extent can we be sure this is the case? Children have different
levels of access to, and use of, ICT depending on their socioeconomic status, their parents’
attitudes to the use of technology (Livingstone and Boville, 2001) and their own
preferences (Livingstone and Helsper, 2007a). This gap between children’s use of ICT
is referred to as the ‘digital divide’ and giving children access to ICT in schools and
libraries is presented as an answer to bridging the divide. This assumes that access to
technology solves the problem, but research has shown that there are very few children
who do not use the Internet, in contrast to adult populations, undermining an
understanding of a clear divide between users and non-users. The digital divide in relation
to children is less about if they use the ICT and more about how they use it. Livingstone
and Helsper (2007b) argue that there is a ‘continuum of digital inclusion’. This describes
children’s use of ICT from basic activities such as information-seeking to more sophis -
ticated uses such as interactive and creative activities. They point out that there is not
one digital divide but a number of divides that are based on gradations of inclusion.
There can be divides between children of different age groups, genders and socioeconomic
classes, and these divides are evolving over time (Tsatsou, 2011). Furthermore, research
shows that children with access to computers and the Internet at home gain more
from their experiences of ICT when they are in school and so instead of ameliorating
a divide, schools may exacerbate it (Suss, 2001; Meneses and Mominó, 2010). Rather
than assuming that all children are digital natives and ‘wired differently’, we need to
think more rationally about the range of skills that children come to school with and
how we can help each child develop and build on their existing skills.
Digital natives or digital novices?
Discussions of children engaging with media have long been polarised into those who
champion it and those who are concerned about it, and this was the case long before
digital technologies. David Buckingham (2000) writes that the media have frequently
been blamed for provoking indiscipline and aggressive behaviour, for inflaming precocious
sexuality and for destroying healthy social bonds. The online environment serves to
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reignite and add to the list of concerns that parents, adults and policymakers may have
in relation to children (Buckingham, 2011). Technological prowess can be seen as
bringing young people into the adult world and ‘threatening the still powerful
construction of childhood as a space of innocence and imagination’ (Facer and Furlong,
2001: 452). There are many books that present childhood as being under attack from
advertisers and marketers (Mayo and Nairn, 2009), online bullies and predators, and
that the use of ICT encourages sedentary lifestyles, withdrawal, isolation, reduced
attention spans, increased anxiety and pressure (Palmer, 2006). On the other hand, in
recent years there has been a move towards seeing children as heterogeneous, non-
passive, autonomous, diverse and versatile agents actively appropriating the Internet in
meaningful contexts of their everyday lives (Meneses and Mominó, 2010). Buckingham
argues that children are presented in oppositional ways depending on who is making
the point and what they wish to gain from it on behalf of children. ‘The campaigners
who purport to be speaking on behalf of children and defending their interests tend to
present them as powerless while the marketers, who might be seen as attempting to
manipulate them, present them as powerful’ (2011: 21). Within education the digital
environment presents a number of challenges in relation to protecting children from
inappropriate content, sharing of personal information, online bullying and predators.
The reaction to this might be to encourage children to avoid the digital world or to
be cynical of it. However, recent research found that in the context of young people’s
online activities opportunities and risks are related (Livingstone and Brake, 2010). This
means that the more skilled users experience both more opportunities and more risks.
Also risk does not necessarily lead to harm. Therefore, policies that seek to limit children’s
risk may also limit their opportunities. While we may wish to protect children from
harm, the emphasis may be better placed on preparation – giving children the tools
with which to navigate the digital realm safely, responsibly and in ways that are rewarding
and enriching.
How we in education can prepare children to participate in a Digital Age was one
of the main areas I explored through interviews with stakeholders in the education
process and the findings of this are presented below. I also wanted to hear from children
about their attitudes, opinions and experiences with digital media both at home and in
school to see how this might inform how we can make meaningful changes in learning
in the Digital Age.
Research findings
Stakeholders
The stakeholders in education who contributed to this discussion ranged from third
level lecturers and an IBM executive to teachers and a parent. The stakeholders were
asked questions about their view of the Digital Age and how education is and should
be responding to it. They were enthusiastic about the opportunities that ICT could
afford education, but also saw a number of challenges to how we use ICT in schools.
While technical skills and the use of ICT were seen as important, a key element that
emerged from the interviews was the bigger question of educating children to live
and learn in a digital world both as children now and also as future workers and citizens.
I have summarized three of the relevant findings and the suggested implications for
education in the table below.
Table 1.1 Findings from interviews with stakeholders
Finding Implication for education
The Digital Age is a time of information Children need to develop critical skills to
abundance but information is not the same access, analyse and evaluate digital texts so
as knowledge. that they are informed and competent
communicators.
The Digital Age represents opportunities to Children need to develop their creative skills
engage with and participate in society and in relation to the full range of media so that
culture in new ways. they can find their voice and express
themselves in the digital environment.
In the Digital Age, there is a great emphasis Children need to learn to work
on the ‘collective’ both in relation to working collaboratively – sharing with, and learning
with people in different geographic locations from, others.
and pursuing interests and friendships.
Learning in the Digital Age 5
Children
When I spoke to children, it was clear that their engagement with ICT outside school
is about more than an interaction with a machine. It was a prominent element of their
interactions with their family, friends and the wider world. Children spoke fondly of
family time spent watching movies or playing imaginative games with friends based on
their favourite TV shows. Their taste in content was a significant motivator for ICT use
and ‘transmedia consumption’. This means that they follow content across media; if
they like a TV show they will look up the website. It is this pursuit of interests that
motivates children to broaden their ICT use and experience new media rather than a
desire to improve their technical skills. Their taste was also central in asserting their
identities. For example, to show how grown up they are, they might declare that a
particular website was for babies. In this way, children using technology outside of
school is not so much about technology – it is about culture (Buckingham, 2007).
There is a tendency in policies to acknowledge children’s use of technology outside
of school and see education improvement as being based on incorporating this into
formal learning. For example, in Ireland one report stated that children engage in
information learning in ‘ingenious and impressive ways’ and that we need to ‘incorporate
these new skills’ (DES, 2008b) into the formal learning environment. This may not be
as easy at it first appears, however. In my own research with children, they saw ICT in
school as being different to at home. Home use was characterised by fun, freedom and
autonomy while in school they spoke of using the Internet to look up information but
only being allowed some freedom when their “work” was done. In the Irish context,
these findings were verified by both the PISA 2009 (Cosgrove et al., 2011) and EU
Kidsonline (O’Neill et al., 2011) reports that showed very little overlap between children’s
use of ICT in school and at home. Furthermore, studies such as Livingstone et al.
(2005) indicate that children’s everyday interactions with technology are not necessarily
ingenious and innovative; rather they are relatively banal and focused mostly on
information retrieval, communicating with friends and general entertainment.
The combination of the conclusions of the literature and research and the findings
from the stakeholders and children indicate that the world outside of school is changing,
both with respect to children’s lives now and also in relation to their employment and
6Marian Henry
social participation in the future. ICT represents ways to enhance our existing pedagogies
and it also represents new lessons for children to learn. Rather than hoping that their
home skills will seamlessly transition to the school environment, we should begin from
children’s existing knowledge and skills and where possible interests. The stakeholders
felt that using technology to enhance curricular areas and develop technical skills was
important but not enough. Children also need to be taught to be critical, creative and
collaborative learners in order to be prepared to participate in the Digital Age. The final
section explores each of these skills and outlines some tips for how you can foster them
with the children in your classroom.
Fostering critical, creative and collaborative skills
Critical skills
ICT is often presented as a ‘tool’ for learning – a technology. What we have to remember
is that these are information and communication technologies. These technologies
shape how we access and share information and how we communicate. As such, they
are more than simply tools; they are media. As David Buckingham writes, media do
not “. . . offer a transparent window on the world. . . . media intervene: they provide us
with selective versions of the world, rather than direct access to it” (2003: 3). When
we interact with media – from websites and YouTube to newspapers and books – we
are not looking through a transparent lens; the information has been selected and edited.
The information has been mediated. As children navigate the World Wide Web they
are interacting with ‘digital texts’. Enabling them to interpret and create meaning in
relation to these digital texts is closely related to the teaching of literacy and the
following sections essentially are about how we can apply the deep engagement with
text that you are encouraged to have in relation to books and print and to apply it to
the full range of digital media.
Children need to learn with and through technology, but they also need learn about
ICT. This enables them to develop the critical, higher-order thinking skills to engage
with the full range of media they encounter both in school and at home. The extent
to which they are encouraged to develop these critical skills through using media as a
teaching aid – i.e., using a website about animals in a science lesson – is questionable.
This is because when media are an aid to learning, the focus is on the animal content
as opposed to developing the child’s understanding of who made the website, who
funds its development, how certain animals or issues are presented, etc. Learning about
digital media develops critical skills because children are encouraged to question and
make judgements about the quality and trustworthiness of the information they are
accessing. In this way they are learning how to be discerning and judicious digital media
users. While children may come to school with confidence and competence in using
technologies, they do not necessarily come with fully developed analytic and evaluative
skills. In an era where there is an abundance of information, one of the most important
things we can do in education is develop these critical skills.
A good way for children to learn to be critical is through small group interaction
with a teacher guiding the process. Reflecting on her own experiences of fostering critical
literacy in primary school pupils, Swain reflects ‘I would argue that in order for pupils
to adopt critical perspectives independently, they first need opportunities to explore this
Learning in the Digital Age 7
with an experienced reader, so that they can understand the principles involved.’ (2010:
135). In relation to still images, moving images, sounds and websites children can be
asked to discuss the authorial intent, to develop an alternative perspective, or to read
against the given interpretation. The discussion should be open-ended and while the
teacher can lead the discussion, it is best if the children discuss the topic without feeling
that the teacher has an ultimate ‘right answer’ in mind. The teacher’s questioning style
is therefore very important. Questions should be open and begin with statements such
as ‘I wonder why the author said . . .’ Space needs to be made for deliberation and
discussion. The challenge for you as a teacher is that you have to have some sense of
where the discussion may go, but at the same time, if you steer it in that direction, you
are stopping the children from having their own authentic reactions. Through critical
discussion, children learn to listen to their own interpretations and they also learn to
listen to others.
Content creation
We would never teach children to read but not to write. Teaching children to ‘write’
across a range of digital media, is an integral part of helping them to learn in a Digital
Age. It is important for a number of reasons. First, creating their own content enables
them to see themselves as creators of content and not just consumers. Creating content
in the form of a digital video, a photograph with a caption or contributing to a class
wiki is empowering for children as it lets them be in control of the production process.
It gives them a sense of agency also as they can represent their views, experiences,
concerns and interests. In essence, giving children the opportunity to create content is
about encouraging them to find their voice in the Digital Age. I have worked with
children creating short movies and there is a tendency for groups of boys to want to
make extended fight scenes with zombies and ninjas. My role as their educator is not
to pass judgement on their taste or interests, rather I can help them define the narrative
and tell the story in a way that makes sense to the audience.
How do I enable children to learn critically and creatively?
When you want to foster children’s critical and creative abilities in relation to their use
of ICT there are two key things to remember. The first is that critical and creative
activities are closely related. As children analyse digital texts, it helps them understand
the choices they make when creating their own digital texts. Similarly, when children
are creating content, they learn about how to communicate with their audience and
about the vast range of choices made by producers of content they enjoy. Second,
developing critical and creative abilities is not about having a body of information you
want children to learn. Nor is it about a list of skills or tasks you want them to complete.
It is about developing their undertanding. We want children to understand the digital
world, how it works and how they can engage with it in ways that are rewarding and
fulfilling for them. For this, you want them to develop understanding of four key concepts
– production, language, representation and audience (Buckingham, 2003). Each of these
concepts is described below and strategies that you can use are outlined.
Task 1.1 Creating a class blog (see also Chapter 3)
Creating a class blog is a large-scale and ongoing task. It will develop as you and
the children learn more and add and take from the content they present. The
emphasis here is on the process of working critically, creatively and collaboratively.
Encouraging the children to reflect on their work and to improve it is an important
part of the process. Over time, you want to ensure that you are addressing each
of the four concepts. Also the critical and creative processes do not need to be
limited to the class blog or Internet, they can also be developed in relation to
other curricular areas such as visual arts, music and civic and ethical education.
Production
Studying production with children involves helping them to under stand that there
are many interests at stake in media production such as understand ing the role
of public service broadcasters, private companies, the use of advertising and media
regulation.
Critical
• Look at other class blogs or children’s websites and ask the children ‘Who
made this?’, ‘Why did they make it?’, ‘What information do they want the
reader to gain?’, ‘Have they left out any information?’, ‘Why would they do
that?’
• You can also get the children to see if there are any advertisements. They
could discuss why this is and how the ads are chosen for the medium or
content.
Creative
• When you begin to create a class blog with the children, encourage them to
think about what their key message(s) are, how much information they want
to communicate and what the best way is to communicate it. As children
discuss their choices and reasons for these, you can ancourage them to reflect
on the choices made by other producers of media. Children should also have
plenty of time to edit and rework their ideas over time.
Language
Different media and different genres use different forms of language. Each language
has its own codes and conventions. For example, a television programme makes
use of certain conventions in relation to the opening credits, the types of camera
shots, or music used. A soap opera will have slightly different codes and conventions
to a sitcom or current affairs programme.
Critical
• In the case of a class blog, the languages we have are print, sound, still images
and moving images. Children can decide what is best for the information they
want to impart.
8Marian Henry
• Encourage the children to look carefully at other blogs and at the images or
text used.
Creative
• Children also need to decide if they want the content to be funny, serious,
emotive, etc., and how different modes of communication may help this.
• They can choose fonts and colours and discuss their choices.
Representation
Media products invite us to see the world in particular ways and not others.
Studying representation may prompt questions about postive or negative images,
bias, stereotyping and realism. The children could be asked how a blog depicts
the topics that are shown. How are the female/male, young/old, good/bad
characters portrayed?
Critical
• Compare two versions of the same story.
Creative
• When children have some experience of creating digital content, you can ask
them to represent it for two different audiences. This helps them to think
about how different people have different perspectives. Media content is not
a ‘transparent window on the world’.
• Ask children to tell a well-known fairy tale from the perspective of another
character.
Audiences
Studying audiences means looking at how audiences are targeted and addressed.
Critical
• Children can discuss what they think the target audiences for different websites
are. Would they choose to look at this website? What do they think of the
content and who it is aimed at? Advertising is also relevant for discussion in
relation to audiences.
• Considering audience also involves reflecting on one’s own media use, habits
and patterns of use in everyday life. What or who influences their choice of
media? What do they really enjoy, or not enjoy? How do they find out about
new content – websites, films, television shows?
Creative
• Creating content for two different audiences (as above).
Learning in the Digital Age 9
10 Marian Henry
Collaborative learning
The critical and creative ideas above require that children work well together. It is
important as teachers that we don’t assume that children can collaborate. Group work,
even for adults, can be challenging. Therefore, as part of your planning, you will need
to have some strategies to help the children to work together, such as assigning clear
roles. Learning to collaborate is about more than just working with others: it is about
seeing others as a source of knowledge, as people we can learn from and also as the
sum of the parts being greater than each individual (Poore, 2011).
One of the key elements of Web 2.0 is the idea of many people working together
to create something. A good example of this is Wikipedia. Children need to be taught
and guided through content creation using digital tools. Creating a class wiki, or engaging
with social media through a service such as Edmodo, can give the opportunity to discuss
and discover the advantages and disadvantages of communicating through these media.
In this way children learn how to share information in a responsible way. It may also
be upsetting for children if someone edits or changes what they have written on a class
wiki but this provides an opportunity to introduce the idea that even experienced
authors produce many drafts before their work is ready for publication. Working on
collaborative projects can be challenging, but these are important lessons for children
to learn as they are relevant to the Digital Age. Teaching and reflecting on these
challenges with children is valuable in enabling them to participate in the digital
environment.
Summary and key points
The overall aim of this chapter was to broaden your understanding of learning with
and about ICT. It is important to teach children about, with and through ICT not
simply because it ‘enchants the disenchanted’ child or because it makes learning ‘more
fun’ (even though these are important), but because the children we teach live in an
age where ICT is a core element of how we learn, work, play and connect with and
contribute to society. The sections above challenge some of the ‘common sense’ attitudes
to the use of ICT in education. The aim is not to undermine the use of ICT or to say
that it is not necessary or relevant. My aim is to inspire a deeper and more critical
perspective on the role of ICT within our society and how we can enable children to
use ICT within their learning.
In the empirical research with stakeholders in education it was felt that developing
children’s technical skills is not enough for education to do; we must also prepare
children to flourish in this new information and communication environment. This
means giving them the opportunity to develop critical, creative and collaborative skills.
I outlined why and how these skills can be fostered in the primary classroom, and hope
that you will be inspired to incorporate these suggestions into your teaching.
If you are a student teacher check which requirements for your course you have
addressed through this chapter.
Further reading
Bazalgette, C. (ed.) (2010) Teaching media in primary schools. London: Sage.
This is a great book about how to teach children about media in primary schools. It
has chapters relating to research and lesson plans.
