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ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
At the Heart of Virtue Growth: ‘Self-of-virtue’
and ‘Virtue identity’*
En el corazón del crecimiento en virtud:
el ‘yo de virtud’ y la ‘identidad de virtud’
MANUEL JOAQUÍN FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ
University of Latvia
manuels.fernandezs@lu.lv
ORCID: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7088-672X
Resumen: Este artículo explora los conceptos de
‘yo-de-virtud’ e ‘identidad de virtud’ en perspectiva
aristotélico realista. Distinguiendo la ‘disposición fun-
damental’ de crecer en virtud, que defi ne al ‘yo-de-
virtud’, de las disposiciones particulares de las virtudes,
se conceptualiza el crecimiento en virtud como reali-
dad ‘integradora’ y ‘sistema abierto y libre’, basado en
la acción guiada por la frónesis. Se describe la dimen-
sión moral y cognitivo-afectiva del yo, así como la di-
ferencia radical entre ‘identidad de virtud’ e ‘identidad
moral’, proponiendo un modelo para el desarrollo del
‘yo-de-virtud’, con sus aspectos pedagógicos. Procu-
rar desarrollar el ‘yo-de-virtud’ evitaría la atomización
de la educación en virtudes.
Palabras clave: ‘Yo-de-virtud’, Identidad de virtud,
Crecimiento en virtud, Identidad.
Abstract: Within a realist Aristotelian paradigm, this
paper explores the concepts of ‘self-of-virtue’ and
‘virtue identity’, its correspondent self-concept. Dis-
tinguishing the ‘fundamental disposition’ to virtue
growth, which defi nes a self-of-virtue, from the par-
ticular dispositions of virtues, we conceptualize virtue
growth as an ‘integrative’ and ‘open free systemic’
reality based on phronesis-guided action, and we de-
scribe the ‘unifi ed moral self of rationally grounded
emotions’. We address the radical difference between
virtue identity and moral identity, and we propose a
processual model for self-of-virtue development, un-
folding its pedagogical aspects and suggesting that re-
focussing on the development of self-of-virtue would
help to avoid atomized virtue education.
Keywords: Self-of-virtue, Virtue identity, Virtue
growth, Selfhood, Identity.
DOI: 10.15581/004.36.9-29
* Project fi nanced by the European Regional Development Fund. Project number 1.1.1.2/VIAA/1/16/071.
MANUEL JOAQUÍN FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ
10 ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
INTRODUCTION
O ne of the fundamental problems of virtue education and virtue research
is the variety of virtues and the multifaceted nature of virtue. “Evaluat-
ing character is currently one of the biggest challenges facing researchers
working in the fi eld, partly because ‘character’ and ‘virtues’ are such complex con-
structs” (Harrison, Arthur and Burn, n.d., p. 19). This study presents an alterna-
tive for addressing the “character education’s profoundest problem” (Kristjánsson,
2015, p. 60), based on the concepts of ‘self-of-virtue’ and its concomitant ‘virtue
identity’. Instead of using the widely spread analytical approach, which looks at dif-
ferent kinds of virtues and virtue components (emotional, cognitive, behavioural,
etc.), we adopt an original synthetic approach, a sort of ‘wisdom inquiry’ (Maxwell,
2009), looking at the depths of person’s self from the lens of virtue development.
The underlying conviction of this approach is that the person’s ‘deep disposition’
to grow in virtue is the corner stone on which a virtuous life is built. “Human de-
velopment towards virtue is a key premise for the Aristotelian telos of happiness,
or eudaimonia” (Akrivou and Orón , 2016, p. 231).
Other alternatives to the modernist analytical view of moral development
are being developed successfully. For example, within a personalist virtue eth-
ics framework, the inter-processual self (IPS) theory (Akrivou and Orón, 2016;
Akrivou, Orón and Scalzo, 2018) is a radical new way of understanding the inte-
gration of self and action, as well as personal, relational, and systemic growth. In
this study, from an Aristotelian perspective, we will address in detail the concept
of ‘self-of-virtue’, its relationship with virtue growth, and the making process of
such self. We address also the formation of the self-concept of a self-of-virtue,
that we called ‘virtue identity’.
Before formulating the research question, we will clarify the philosophical
and ethical perspective of this work. Philosophically, we adopt a realist perspective
of the self, instead of the dominant self-antirealism. “According to the anti-realist
stance pervading contemporary self research, there is no useful distinction between
selfhood and identity/self-concept… The realist alternative is to suppose that one’s
identity or self-concept has actual selfhood – one’s de facto states of character – as
its cognitive object, and that when it gets things right, one’s identity corresponds
with one’s selfhood” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 20). In coherence with this realist per-
spective, and in line with a long tradition of moral objectivism theories, we em-
brace “the psychological assumption” of moral objectivism (Kristjánsson, 2010, p.
128): that a person can opt for objective moral values, which are independent of
personal points of view, and acquire virtues.
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The research questions can be formulated as follows: what is a ‘self-of-vi rtue’
and how is it situated in the theories of selfhood? What is virtue identity and how
it is related to a self-of-virtue? How these two concepts are interconnected? And,
from a practical point of view: what are the components of a model for the develop-
ment of a self-of-virtue and virtue identity? What are the pedagogical implications
of this model? For addressing these questions, we structured this study in four
main sections: ‘the self’, ‘the self-of-virtue’, ‘self-concept, moral identity and virtue
identity’ and ‘the development of the self-of-virtue’.
THE SELF
In this sec tion we address briefl y the nature of self and the evolution of self
theory, and we discuss the moral and emotional dimensions of self.
The person and the se lf
When addressing the nature of the self, Kristjánsson opts for a ‘Humean soft self-
realism’ and focusses on our “everyday, emotion-grounded selfhood” (2010, p. 47),
avoiding the discussion of its ontological status. The ‘everyday self’ may be ap-
propriate for addressing the everyday display of virtue. However, the self-of-virtue
is characterized by a profound disposition to virtue growth which is situated at a
deeper ontological level and needs a sounder anthropology.
Leonardo Polo’s anthropology (Polo and Corazón, 2005) acknowledges the
relevance of the self and integrates it in a wider understanding of the human be-
ings as possessing three different complementary dimensions, which are called
‘radicals’: ‘a received nature’ (the ‘classic radical’, which recognizes that actions
affect the self), ‘subjectivity’ or interiority (the ‘modern radical’, that stress the
importance of freedom and is the locus of self), and ‘relation’ or ‘co-existence’
(the ‘Christian radical’, which underlines the person’s uniqueness and her tran-
scendence to her actions). In this perspective, the virtues (operative habits) per-
fection the natural radical (Akrivou and Orón, 2016) and enrich the interiority
of self of the modern radical. And the ‘deep disposition’ to virtue growth of a
self-of-virtue sees as a virtue-oriented feature of the self. Here it may be useful
to note that, in this paper, the focus is on the relationship between the Greek and
the modern radical. As an alternative, the IPS chooses the Christian radical as
starting point for moral refl ection, and it presents itself as a way of integrating
all the three radicals (Akrivou, Orón and Scalzo, 2018). Keeping this in mind, we
will retain Kristjánsson defi nition of the self as “set of a person’s core commit-
MANUEL JOAQUÍN FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ
12 ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
ments, traits, aspirations and ideals: the characteristics that are most central to
him or her” (2010, p. 5).
Theories of self
A brief account of the evolution of self theory could be useful to situate historically
the concept of ‘self-of-virtue’. During the 18th and 19th century, the modern no-
tion of selfhood was prominent, but at the end of 19th century the interest in self
research dwindled. This tendency continued during the so called ‘behaviourism
period’ (fi rst half of 20th century), but in the 1960s, with the expansion of humanis-
tic psychology, the concerns about ‘fi nding’ and ‘actualising’ one’s true self became
topical. The positive psychology trend enhanced this interest, and some decades
after that, Charles Taylor (1989) could speak of the ‘inward turn’ that leaded to
‘the age of self’. Relevant sociologists of modernity (e.g., Beck, Giddens, Ziehe),
were interested in self research and education. Philosophy also increasingly dealt
with self research, but it seems that “philosophers theorising about the self have
historically and with rare exception turned a blind eye to empirical evidence about
self-beliefs as gathered by social scientists” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 16).
As regards the moral dimension of self, the relation between moral philoso-
phy and moral psychology (“the most natural provinces of self research” (Kristjáns-
son, 2010, p. 7)) followed a different path: it moved from mutual indifference dur-
ing the behaviourist years, to active appropriation of ethical theory by develop-
mental science during the Kohlbergian period, to the present active collaboration
(Lapsley, 2016, p. 36), which produced a large amount of academic research about
the psychological foundations of moral behaviour (e.g., Aquino and Reed, 2002;
Blasi, 1980, 1984; Kohlberg, 1981; Nucci and Narváez, 2008; Lickona, 1994). In
the realist paradigm adopted in this paper, the concept of ‘self-of-virtue’ is at the
crossroad of morality, psychology and sociology. It addresses the moral dimension
of self from the perspective of virtue growth and recognizes the social dimension
of its development. We will now describe the moral core of self and its relationship
with the emotional life of the person.
The moral core of self and self-relevant emotions
The distinction between personality traits, character and self helps to grasp the
moral nature of self. “Personality traits involve our temperaments, moods, habits,
skills and dispositions, not all of which are reason-responsive or identity confer-
ring… Character traits penetrate deeper to the core of a person’s self” (Kristjánsson,
AT THE HEART OF VIRTUE GROWTH: ‘SELF-OF-VIRTUE’ AND ‘VIRTUE IDENTITY’
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ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
2008, p. 60), a nd they distinguish themselves from other personality traits in “being
potentially reason-responsive and having to do with a person’s moral worth… (The
self) encompasses those and only those character traits that are literally speaking
self-shaping… (core commitments, traits, aspirations and ideals)” (Kristjánsson,
2010, p. 27). In this understanding, the self cannot be separated from morality:
“the way we think morally about other people is predominantly in terms of what
kind of person they are, and only secondarily about their actions in abstract” (Fatic,
2016, p. xi). The ‘moral self’ is “the self as the subject of moral agency and the
object of moral evaluation” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 5). However, it should be noted
that, for Aristotle, moral virtue is a superior superordinate aspect of personhood,
not a reduced or collateral aspect of it.
In an Aristotelian understanding, the organismic way in which a virtuous per-
son displays virtue requires the integration and mutual support between moral
knowledge and moral emotions. Moral emotions are cognitively imbued, because
they have at their origin a kind of moral cognition (a judgement or a belief) about
the reality provoking it. Moreover, “on Hume’s account, the moral self is not only
constituted, but also originally created, by emotion” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 21).
However, the self is not constituted only by emotions, even if they are a signifi cant
aspect of it (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 76).
Some emotions are particularly relevant for the self. Among them, ‘self-con-
stituting emotions’ (which defi ne who we are, and fl ow from deep commitments
and aspirations) are particularly important in the perspective of the theory of the
self-of-virtue: the desire of growing in virtue is a self-constituting emotion, a consti-
tutive part of the fundamental disposition to grow in virtue that characterises a self-
of-virtue. Another kind of self-relevant emotions, namely, self-conscious emotions, are
closely related to self-concept and will be discussed in the third section.
Based on this realist understanding of a “unifi ed moral self of rationally
grounded emotion” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 97) we will unfold in the next section
the concept of ‘self-of-virtue’.
THE SELF-OF-VIRTUE
The key feature of a self-of-virtue is its deep disposition to virtue growth. In this
section we unfold this concept addressing three questions: 1) on which grounds
‘self’ and ‘virtue’ can be considered as conceptually compatible realities? 2) how
virtue growth can be conceptualized? and 3) what is the scope of the fundamental
disposition that that characterises a self-of-virtue?
MANUEL JOAQUÍN FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ
14 ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
The self and the virtue
It seems that ‘self’ and ‘virtue’ might be conceptually opposed: on the one hand,
virtue is a ‘stable disposition’ enrooted in the ‘classical radical’; and, on the other
hand, we situated the self within the ‘modern radical’, where humans experience
freedom and subjectivity. Exploring the nature of virtue may help to fi nd out on
which grounds ‘self’ and ‘virtue’ can be integrated.
Is virtue a ‘dynamic’ or a ‘stable’ concept? In other words, does a virtuous
person display ‘standardized’ responses, or, on the contrary, is virtue respon-
sive to situations? Personality psychologists stress the stable character of human
traits. But “social psychologists are famously sceptical of the conceptual reper-
toire of personality psychologists, especially with respect to ‘static’ human traits”
(Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 9). Without embracing the moral relativism of radical
situationism, relevant virtue ethicists have also argued that virtue is a contextu-
ally responsive construct. For example, Koehn stated that virtue ethics, in its
present form, is not “suffi ciently nuanced” and that “the theory overlooks how
politicized our perceptions of situations frequently are” (1998, p. 509). More
recently, Hartman has argued that habituation will not create virtues that carry
over from one sort of situation to another, because not all instances of a virtue are
psychologically similar (2013, p. 142).
Aristotle, who uses the term hexis (‘state of character’) to point to the stabil-
ity of virtue, stresses that phronesis is the key for maintaining the unity of virtue in
response to various situations and to act taking carefully into consideration the par-
ticulars. Phronesis is the point of articulation between virtue stability and dynamic-
ity. Thanks to phronesis, a virtuous character maintains the ‘unity of virtue’ in new,
unforeseen situations. Phronesis is like the door through which the ‘stable virtue’
can enter the realm of the ‘dynamic self’ and originate a self-of-virtue.
The stability of virtue and virtue growth
Aristotelian virtues are stable, robust dispositions that are neither easy to acquire
nor easily transformable. To understand nature of virtue growth, which central in
the defi nition of a self-of-virtue, the concepts of ‘integration’ and ‘system’, as ex-
plained Leonardo Polo (2007), can be useful.
An integrative reality (as opposed to a relational reality) belongs to the order
of what is provoked (not necessary). It is optional (not compulsory) and possible,
but not automatic, and it preserves unity in diversity (Orón, 2015, p. 116). Virtue
conceived as an integrative reality allows to understand that growing in virtue is
AT THE HEART OF VIRTUE GROWTH: ‘SELF-OF-VIRTUE’ AND ‘VIRTUE IDENTITY’
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ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
a personal decision, it is not compulsory. Virtue growth is not automatic, but it is
attainable with effort, and it preserves the unity of virtue.
Polo conceives human reality is an ‘open free system’. In an open system,
“the relations between its elements are ever more intense and integrated… and its
growth can be unrestricted” (Polo, 2007, p. 123). In a free system “the direction
of growth is not predetermined… Positive growth is an integrating growth; nega-
tive growth is disintegrating” (Orón, 2015, p. 119). Virtue can be understood as
an open free system, in which different virtues are systemically interconnected and
can develop organically without restriction, but in a non-necessary, unpredictable
way.
The scope of the ‘deep disposition’ of a self-of-virtue
The concept of ‘self-of-virtue’ captures a kind of fundamental disposition that is
different from the ‘states of character’ of the different virtues. It is the person’s
‘deep disposition’ to acquire and develop all these tendencies or virtues, and it
could be called a meta-disposition: the ‘fundamental disposition to acquire virtuous
dispositions’.
The phenomenology, within the limits of its methodology, provides insights
for understanding the scope of this fundamental disposition. Scheler spoke of ‘dis-
position of the spirit’ or ‘spiritual posture’ (Gesinnung), which defi nes the person
most radically and it has a marked moral character (Sánchez-León, 2009, p. 210).
It is situated “at a more profound level than mere intentions, resolutions and deci-
sions” (p. 149), making an action predictable without denying freedom.
What makes the Gesinnung conceptually close to the fundamental disposition
of a self-of-virtue is that, for Scheler, the Gesinnung is a ‘direction to the value’,
but it does not possess a representative content (Sánchez-León, 2009, p. 225).
Similarly, the deep disposition of a self-of-virtue is a general orientation to virtue
growth as a fundamental value, whereas the tendencies that characterize the differ-
ent virtues have their own ‘representative content’ delimited by the object of the
concrete virtue.
Summarizing, a self-of-virtue is defi ned by its free fundamental orientation
to virtue growth. This disposition implies the correspondent rational emotions,
knowledge, commitment and phronesis guided behaviour leading to a life of virtue.
The self-of-virtue is the self of someone who is ‘on his/her way’ to acquire a virtu-
ous life, not of the (ideal) person who possesses already all the virtues. We address
below the self-concept corresponding to a self-of-virtue.
MANUEL JOAQUÍN FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ
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SELF-CONCEPT, MORAL IDENTITY AND VIRTUE IDENTITY
In this section we will unfold the concept of virtue identity. After a description
of the understanding of identity and self-concept in the antirealist and realist self
paradigms respectively, we address the relationship between moral ide ntity and
virtue identity and we propose a defi nition of virtue identity.
Self-concept and identity: two different paradigms
For situating Aristotelian virtue identity, background knowledge about the recent
evolution of the concept of identity may be useful. In industrial society, identity
was conceived as identifi cation with social models, but in the post-modern society
(Lyotard, 1979) “as an individual process” (Keupp, 2002). Later, radical postmod-
ern philosophers (Derrida, Foucault, Bauman) denied the existence of a person’s
inner essence and conceived identity as a fl uid and evolutionary psychological
construct which is communicated through social interactions. In this ‘dominant
paradigm’, identity is socially constructed, the social excludes the personal, and the
personal is seen as merely inner psychological.
In contrast, the ‘alternative realist paradigm’ adopted in this paper acknowl-
edges both the social and the personal and claims an ontological status for the
personal (Baker, 2002). The personalist philosopher Mounier stated that “my
person is not the consciousness that I have of it” (Mounier, 1936, p. 51). For Fla-
nagan (1991), whereas ‘represented identity’ is a construction, the ‘actual self’ is
not; and for Kristjánsson, “self-concept… when it gets things right, has an actual
self as its cognitive object: the referent to which it corresponds” (2010, p. 29). In
this paper, ‘self-concept’ is understood as “the set of a person’s self-conceptions
or beliefs about his or her self” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 5), which could be true
or not; and we reserve the word ‘identity’ to capture the antirealist position that
considers the self and self-concept as being basically the same and thus self-con-
cept being ‘necessarily true’.
Self-concept matters epistemologically for the defi nition of the self-of-virtue,
because it can be considered also as a part of the actual full self: “Watching and
trying (successfully or not) to know oneself –and the conclusions of that watch-
ing– become, in part, constitutive elements of selfhood” (Joplin, 2000, p. 65). For
Kristjánsson, “one’s self-concept forms part of one’s self, if perhaps not… its most
signifi cant part” (2010, p. 32). Realistic self-understanding matters also pedagogi-
cally, because it provides fi rst-hand knowledge about human nature and enhances
eudaimonia (Badhwar, 2014).
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The explanations of the making of self-concept differ in the ‘dominant’ and
‘alternative’ paradigms. If the self as such does not exist, as posited by radical post-
modern philosophy, then acquiring self-knowledge means constructing ‘knowl-
edge’ about the self, adopting a subjective ‘self-theory’ (a process called ‘selving’), or
even ‘deciding’ about what self is (self-knowledge as rationalization of self-choice).
In the alternative realist paradigm, the self-concept is formed by ‘watching’ at the
actual self: “The self is not only the stage; it is on stage” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 77).
Capturing one’s self is not a purely cognitive activity, but an emotionally
grounded process, which provokes ‘se lf-conscious emotions’, such as hubristic
pride (about the self as excellent) and shame (about the imperfect self), which “are
simultaneously part of the actual full self… and about the self” (Kr istjánsson, 2010,
p. 233). The cognitive-emotional dimension of the self is refl ected in self-con-
scious emotions. Similarly, the moral dimension of self impregnates self-concept
with morality. In the next section we address moral identity theory and its position
in the dialogue between ethics and psychology.
Moral identity and virtue identity
Historically, moral identity theory enhanced the dialogue between ethics and
psychology (outlined in the second section), particularly since the moral psy-
chologist Blasi, detecting a gap between moral cognition and moral behaviour,
argued that the moral self is even more important for understanding moral be-
haviour than moral emotions and moral understanding (Blasi, 1980, 1984, 2005).
The problem is that Blasi’s moral-self solution “is really just a moral-identity
solution. Although Blasi and his colleagues prefer, for some reason, to use the
former term, they mean the latter” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 94). This confusion
between ‘self’ and ‘self-concept’ is typical of the antirealist self paradigm. As a re-
sult, even if Blasi was not radically antirealist, his terminological ambiguity popu-
larized a constructivist (Hardy and Carlo, 2005) and social cognitive (Lapsley,
2016) understanding of moral identity which obliterates the difference between
the moral self and moral identity.
In this context, when virtue ethics theory become one of the major players
in the dialogue between ethics and psychology (Lapsley, 2016, p. 38), efforts were
done to close the gap between Aristotelian research and moral identity theory. For
example, Jeong and Han, after a theoretical review of the relationship between
virtue ethics and moral identity, concluded that they “can be characterized as ‘co-
constructive,’ ‘interactive,’ and ‘interdependent’ ” (2013, p. 53). However, these
efforts risk to conceptualize virtue identity as a sub-construct of moral identity, and
MANUEL JOAQUÍN FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ
18 ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
to bring about a view of virtue identity close to the post-modern paradigm. But is
virtue identity a sub-construct of moral identity or a stand-alone concept?
The construct of moral identity has a number of assumptions that seem to
make it irreconcilable with Aristotelian virtue theory and therefore with virtue
identity. Postmodern ‘moral identity’ is part of a subjectively constructed ‘self-the-
ory’ (or ‘self-decision’) without reference to an actual moral self. It assumes moral
relativism, where the individual chooses autonomously a subjective understanding
of happiness (as subjective well-being, self-enhancement, self-expansion, etc.) and
the moral values leading to it. Virtue identity is conceptually distinct from the mor-
al identity construct: it is based on virtue ethics, which embraces the existence of an
actual moral self and moral objectivism (eudaimonia as the ideal of happiness), and
considers virtues as constitutive of and conducive to it through phronesis-guided
action (Kristjánsson, 2015, pp. 24-33).
In addition to these fundamental disagreements, other differences can be
mentioned: moral identity looks for retaining consistency between self-concept and
thoughts, feelings and behaviour… (and) enhances resistance to situational factors
that encourage immoral behaviours” (Morgan, Fowers and Kristjánsson, 2017, p.
7), while Aristotelian virtue identity leads to strive for cultivating thoughts, feel-
ings and behaviours leading to virtue, and disposes the person to take advantage
of situational factors that challenge virtue for growing in virtue. In addition, moral
identity is formed through inner coordination of personal and moral goals (Colby
and Damon, 1993), while virtue identity is formed by ‘watching’ emotionally at the
actual self-of-virtue.
Therefore, if moral identity is understood in a postmodern sense, then Aristo-
telian virtue ethics and moral identity theory are not compatible, and Aristotelian
virtue identity should be considered as a conceptually distinct, stand-alone con-
cept, not a sub-construct of moral identity.
Defi nition of virtue identity
Virtue identity captures the ‘self-concept’ of a self-of-virtue disposed to grow in vir-
tue. In the expression ‘virtue identity’, we use the word ‘identity’ in the realist sense
of ‘personal identifi cation with a value or ideal’, commonly used in everyday lan-
guage (as in ‘professional identity’, ‘national identity’, ‘ethnic identity’ etc.), not in
the antirealist sense. Therefore, ‘virtue identity’ is defi ned as the deep-down under-
standing of self as profoundly disposed (emotionally, cognitively and conatively) to
virtue growth. Based on this understanding, we present in the next section a proces-
sual model for the development of a self-of-virtue and its concomitant virtue identity.
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THE DE VELOPMENT OF THE SELF-OF-VIRTUE: A PROCESSUAL MODEL1
Among the different conceptualizations of the development of selfhood, Taylor’s
approach can be useful for understanding the making of Aristotelian self-of-virtue.
Charles Taylor’s anthropology of the self (Taylor, 1989) is based on the concept of
‘meaningful values’ that can be taken as a life goal and thus orient the defi nition of a
person’s selfhood and a concrete lifestyle. While he acknowledges the socio-cultural
sources of self (Taylor, 1991), he argues that personal agency and freedom are the
crucial elements in this process: this ‘socially situated freedom’ (Taylor, 1997) allows
one to critically assess his/her assumptions, transform them, and hence, reconfi gure
his/her own selfhood. Based on previous work (Fernández González, 2010, 2018),
we build on Taylors’ conception for proposing a processual model for developing an
Aristotelian self-of-virtue. This model aims to cover in particular the integration of
Aristotelian and modern radicals while recognizing the relational aspect of the devel-
opment of the moral self. It intends to be a useful support for other moral education
models integrating the three human radicals (Akrivou, Orón and Scalzo, 2018).
The components of the model can be synthetized as follows: (1) shaping of a
cognitive-emotional ideal self-of-virtue; (2) committing to virtue development; (3)
phronesis-guided involvement in virtue growth; and (4) developing virtue identity.
We address below each element, including its relational and pedagogical aspects.
1) Shapin g an emotional and cognitive image of an ideal virtuous person
Moral education involves “sensitisation to and instillation of the correct habits in
the young: teaching them how to act and how to feel” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 16).
The development of a self-of-virtue starts with a feeling of admiration. For Annas,
“virtues are dispositions worthy of a distinct kind of admiration, which inspire us
to aspire to them as ideals” (Annas, 2011, p. 6). This is the ‘enchanted version’ of
Aristotelian fl ourishing (Kristjánsson, 2016). The image of a self-of-virtue has also
concrete cognitive contents (JCCV, 2017, p. 7): knowing how virtue develops, and
the belief that virtue growth is possible (having a ‘virtue growth mindset’, in refer-
ence to Dweck’s (2000) ‘growth mindset’).
Relational and pedagogical aspects: Internalization and personalization of the
cognitive-emotional image of virtue self happen through active critical assessment
1 This model addresses a different process (the making of a self-of-virtue) than the ‘A Neo-Aristotelian
Model of Moral Development’ (JCCV, 2017, p. 6), which describes different pathways of moral
development in a broader sense.
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20 ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
of other’s “systems of signifi cance” (Taylor, 1989), because children “are likely pre-
sented with confl icting value messages depending on context and relationship (i.e.,
parent-child; teacher-child; peer group etc.) ... and negotiate, reject or accept them”
(Morgan, Fowers and Kristjánsson, 2017, p. 17). At school, direct teach ing of the
cognitive contents of a self-of-virtue is most important to avoid a distorted and in-
complete understanding and the rejection of virtue as an ideal (Annas, 2011, p. 119).
But the emotional aspect should not be neglected. Contact with real role models of
virtue growth (teachers, parents, siblings) help to ‘catch’ emotionally what is a self-
of-virtue at school and in the family. Inspiring ideal heroes from literature or cin-
ema can spark interest and mimetic admiration, and moral exemplars of conversion
after moral failure are particularly important because the essence of a self-of-virtue
is the disposition to grow in virtue, not the actual possession of virtue.
2) Commitmen t to virtue development
This component captures personal agency as the central element of the making of an
Aristotelian self-of-virtue. Admiration can lead to aspiration to virtue growth (Annas,
2011, p. 6), and to the decision of living a virtuous life. There is a general agreement
among virtue scholars on the relevance of commitment (not fi ckleness or whim) to
virtue growth. For Peterson and Seligman, “the good life refl ects choice and will”
(2004, p. 10). Annas states that “a virtue requires a commitment to value” (Annas,
2011, p. 6). And the JCCV acknowledges that “self-determination is foundational to
the development of good character.” (JCCV, 2017, p. 8). This decision and commit-
ment are emotionally laden and spring from (and perfection) the person’s fundamen-
tal disposition (Gesinnung) to virtue growth. “Only the person who is able to decide
to live a particular way of life, whatever it is, would be able to produce authentic
deliberate decisions about a particular course of action” (Vigo, 2008, p. 61).
Relational and pedagogical aspects. Taylors’ ‘socially situated freedom’ (Taylor,
1997) captures the relational dimension of personal choices. From the perspective
of the human ‘Christian radical’, commitment to virtue growth can fi nd in others
a ‘transcendental motivation’, realizing that the most important thing in the action
is not even its relation to virtue but to the others (Polo and Corazón, 2005, p. 52).
In an integrative view of virtue growth, this commitment is not compulsory.
However, respecting personal freedom, it can be facilitated at school and in the
family. Educational programs such as UpToYou (Orón, 2016)2 are working in the
sense of the integration of emotions and decisions in an interpersonal perspective.
2 http://www.uptoyoueducacion.com/en/
AT THE HEART OF VIRTUE GROWTH: ‘SELF-OF-VIRTUE’ AND ‘VIRTUE IDENTITY’
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ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
Scheler believed that the Gesinnung cannot be educated, but that it develops by
‘following a prototype’ (Sánchez-León, 2009, p. 376), a moral exemplar which can
be proposed to youngsters and adults. Personal friendly conversations with young-
sters about growing in virtue is another direction for refl ection: one-time interview
about purpose has been proved to have long-term positive impact on youngsters’
self-determination (Wandeler and Bundick, 2011).
3) Involving in virtue growth through phronesis-guided actions
The fundamental disposition that characterizes a self-of-virtue is not created just
by a voluntarist decision, but through an organismic acquisition based on action
and habituation: “one’s action returns to affect the core of the self: a person can
become what his/her actions are” (Akrivou and Orón, 2016, p. 232). Phronesis is
crucial for choosing and using the appropriate means for growing in virtue: virtue
growth “in volves ongoing selective and differential engagement with the world,
not a repetition of a routine once learned and then safely relied on” (Annas, 2011,
pp. 73-74). In this path, failures are also important, because, faced with them, the
self-of-virtue ca n reactivate his/her deep disposition to virtue growth to fi nd there
the necessary emotional and psychological resources for recommencing the strug-
gle for a virtuous life without discouragement.
Relational and pedagogical aspects. Gee has stressed the importance of the inter-
action with others within ‘affi nity groups’ (Gee, 2000, p. 3) for developing the self.
The school and the family can be ‘communities of virtue’ which provide challeng-
ing opportunities for developing virtue in a refl ective, phronimous way. Schools
could address the ‘transcendent motivation’ for virtue growth by including service
learning and creating a culture of service and care for each person, instead of focus-
sing only on knowledge transfer or development of professional competences. In
this perspective, the work of initiatives integrating the personal-Christian radical
in their character education programs (Church of England, 2015; Devanny, 2018)
should be celebrated. Nevertheless, a qualitative teaching and learning process it-
self is the natural context in which students can fi nd many opportunities to grow in
virtue. The JCCV project “Teaching character through subjects”3 is an example of
good practice in this direction.
3 https://www.jubileecentre.ac.uk/1676/character-education/resources/teaching-character-through-
subjects
MANUEL JOAQUÍN FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ
22 ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
4) Developing an Aristotelian virtue identity
This component of the model captures the importance of self-concept in the mak-
ing of a self-of-virtue. Virtue identity integrates a cognitive-evaluative and an emo-
tional-reactive component. The evaluative component should look at the increase
(or decrease) of the disposition to grow in virtue, instead of assessing the attained
level of fl ourishing. It should be note d that the realistic perception of our self-of-
virtue, including acceptance of our (moral) limits, can be endangered by self-de-
ception, a “falsifi cation of the memory” (Pieper, 1965, pp. 14-15). The emotional
aspect of virtue identity includes “the reactive attitudes the person experiences
after the decision (to act or not to act) has been made” (Kristjánsson, 2008, p. 75).
In particular, some self-conscious emotions, such as shame and guilt, include in
themselves a motivation to self-change.
Relational and pedagogical aspects of virtue identity. “A social dimension is built
into the very mechanism for forming self-conceptions; how others understand me
is central to how I do and should understand myself” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 48).
Positive social recognition includes ‘good reputation’ and feedback and support
from signifi cant others, including parents, teachers and friends (JCCV, 2017, 9).
Pedagogically, although realistic self-understanding is not necessarily pleas-
ant, it is highly valuable. One of the purposes of a legitimate evaluation of character
education should be “the self-refl ection on ‘personal’ character and virtues under-
taken by students themselves” (JCCV, 2017, p. 9). Annas explains that, “How I
progress, or regress, to or away from being a virtuous person will depend… on the
frequency and depth with which I examine myself and ask about the way I am liv-
ing” (Annas, 2011, pp. 150-151). At school, students can learn “to view themselves
from the outside, as it were: to observe their own emotions and behaviour and
make reasoned inferences about its sources” (Kristjánsson, 2010, p. 51).
However, encouraging self-refl ection can sometimes lessen accuracy in self-
understanding by prompting rationalisation (Gasper and Robinson, 2004, p. 147).
According to Aristotle, sustained serious engagement with others is most appropri-
ate for gaining self-understanding. Educators, paraphrasing Dweck (2000), should
praise effort for gr owing in virtue, rather than praising virtuous behaviour. And a
family and school culture of understanding, patience, ‘second chances’ and forgive-
ness strengthens children readiness to develop virtue despite diffi culties.
The personal and relational aspects of virtue identity feed and refi ne the mak-
ing process of an Aristotelian self-of-virtue: cognition and emotions about virtue
growth are re-questioned and integrated deeper; commitment to virtue growth is
refuelled; and self-shaping phronesis-guided action receives internal and external
AT THE HEART OF VIRTUE GROWTH: ‘SELF-OF-VIRTUE’ AND ‘VIRTUE IDENTITY’
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ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
recognition. (See in Figure 1 a visualization of the model and its relational and
pedagogical dimensions).
Figure 1: The building process of on Aristotelian self-of-virtue and virtue education
Source: The author
DISCUSSION
In the two fi rst sections of this essay, based on an Aristotelian understanding of
virtue, we developed the concept of ‘self-of-virtue’, which captures the dynamic,
agentic aspect of selfhood, and the developmental aspect of virtue. In the third
section we explored the concept of ‘virtue identity’ and its radical difference with
moral identity theory. In the last section, we presented a processual model for
developing an Aristotelian self-of-virtue and virtue identity, and described the per-
MANUEL JOAQUÍN FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ
24 ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
sonal, interpersonal and pedagogical aspects of each component. In this discussion
we address the Aristotelian character of the model and some of its limits.
Can this account of a self-of-virtue be considered as an Aristotelian one? Two
diffi culties (historical and conceptual) could be argued: fi rst, the concern about a
person’s self and self-concept started with the modern philosophy, and the explora-
tion of the relations between ethics and psychology is even more recent. Neverthe-
less, the strong relation of this account with many features of Aristotelian virtue
(e.g., ontological realism, eudaimonia as ideal, virtues as constitutive of and con-
ducive to it, the role of emotions and phronesis, the relational dimension of virtue,
and an interest in how virtue arises; see Kristjánsson, 2015, p p. 24-33) points to its
Aristotelian affi liation. For Aristotle there is always room for improvement since
the interior growth of each individual that enables one to live well can always be
perfected (Naval and Bernal, 2001).
A conceptual difference of this account of self-of-virtue with Aristotelian
fl ourishing theory is that, even if it acknowledges the necessity of phronesis-guided
virtuous action, the central role is given to the person’s fundamental disposition
to virtue growth. This feature of the model might be infl uenced by the author’s
Christian (catholic) background and understanding of moral life, in which deep
dispositions (authentic desire and commitment manifested by efforts for growing
in virtue) and permanent conversion have the priority over irreproachable moral
behaviour, because God looks at the heart of the person, knows her weakness, and
will recompense her good will (Council, 1994, nº 2016). Anyhow, the version of
self-of-virtue presented at this stage is intentionally more Aristotelian than Chris-
tian: a Christian understanding of a self-of virtue should include also God’s agency,
for avoiding falling into Pelagianism (Council, 1994, nº 406); and the description
of its building process would recognize, to mention only some aspects, that God’s
universal call to sanctity (Council, 1994, nº 2013) shapes the ideal of an eudemonic
life, and that charity, rather than phronesis, is crucial both in the commitment to vir-
tuous life as a response to God’s call (Council, 1994, nº 1742), and in giving virtues
their highest form (Council, 1994, nº 1827), as well as God’s help in the struggle
for virtue (Council, 1994, nº 2013).
This account of the self-of-virtue and virtue identity has several limits. It does
not address the issue that human perfectibility does not necessarily enforce virtue
growth. If virtue growth (as an integrative concept) is optional, why should one
engage in virtue growth? In a Christian perspective, a direction for answering to
this question is the understanding of the ‘desire of sanctity’ (not a whim, but a fun-
damental disposition) as a possible and free loving answer to God’s ‘call to sanctity’.
Both (call and answer) are framed in the view that, on earth, the person is in a status
AT THE HEART OF VIRTUE GROWTH: ‘SELF-OF-VIRTUE’ AND ‘VIRTUE IDENTITY’
25
ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
viatoris (Pieper, 2011, p. 91), on the way to a kind of excellence (sanctity) that gives
a subjective and objective sense to existence, because we are “created for greatness”
(Havard, 2017).
Another limitation is that the developmental model of a self-of-virtue does
not explain radical conversions, sudden changes in the disposition to virtue growth.
Certainly, the development of the moral self is most often a gradual process, but it
can also be provoked by triggering events (e.g., intense aesthetic, traumatic, or re-
ligious experiences) that push to re-questioning one’s life goals (Colby and Damon,
1993, p. 354). Similarly, the arising of a self-of-virtue may also be provoked by a
specifi c kind of triggering event (e.g., experiencing a moral failure or the positive
infl uence of someone’s virtues in our lives), which help to grasp or actualize the
necessity (or enlightens the desire) of growing in virtue.
Finally, this conceptualization of an Aristotelian self-of-virtue integrates the
classic and modern radical or human beings but does not address in-depth the
Christian radical (co-existence), even if it acknowledges the person's relational di-
mension. The model presented here could be improved further in relation with
IPS theory (Akrivou and Orón, 2016), for example, by developing the concept of
“relational-self-of-virtue” which could capture the centrality of interpersonal rela-
tions for developing the person’s deep disposition to virtue growth, which charac-
terizes the self-of-virtue.
CONCLUSION
Why the concept of ‘self-of-virtue’ matters? Several reasons can be put forward.
First, conceptually, this model of developing a self-of-virtue “promotes the unity
of virtue”: it integrates (at the level of the deep disposition of the person) ration-
ally grounded moral emotions, personal and socially situated commitment to vir-
tue growth, virtuous behaviour guided by situation-responsive phronesis, and virtue
identity, a self-knowledge about the self-of-virtue which is acquired through re-
fl ection and social interaction.
The concept of a ‘self-of-virtue’ is an original contribution to the theory of
virtue. It captures h ow the ‘classical radical’ and the ‘modern radical’ interact in a
life of virtue: the ‘virtue’ perspective of moral life (classical radical) stresses dispo-
sitional stability without denying freedom and growth; and the ‘self’ perspective
(modern radical) stresses the person’s agency and freedom, recognizing the stabil-
ity of the fundamental disposition to grow in virtue.
The concept of ‘self-of-virtue’ is particularly relevant in the fi eld of education.
Virtue is a free open system which, “if it disintegrates or dissipates, is disoriented
MANUEL JOAQUÍN FERNÁNDEZ GONZÁLEZ
26 ESTUDIOS SOBRE EDUCACIÓN / VOL. 36 / 2019 / 9-29
and acts in a random and capricious way” (Polo 2007, p. 124). This observation
describes well the inner situation of many youngsters nowadays. A moral educa-
tion that addresses particular character strengths or virtues in a random way, would
probably not bear long-lasting fruits. It seems necessary to avoid dispersion in
different atomized virtues and to r efocus moral education on the making of a fun-
damental disposition to grow in virtue. Educating a self-of-virtue is a long-term
process that demands a patient dedication, but it is worthy to work on this deep
disposition from where all virtues spring at their time, giving youngsters’ inner
harmony and unity and sense of purpose in life. The educational proposal pre-
sented here could be developed further in the light of IPS pedagogical insights
(Akrivou, Orón and Scalzo, 2018, pp. 194-236). It could be argued that developing
students’ self-of-virtue might be a step forward towards the development of an
inter-processual self. But more research is needed to explore this hypothesis.
Many questions remain open for further inquiry, such as the temporization of
the making of an Aristotelian self-of-virtue and a virtue identity through the life
span, or the operationalization of these concepts for virtue research. It can be ex-
pected that, through this work, the importance of ‘lifelong growing’ in virtue will
became widely recognized in society, as it already happens for lifelong learning.
Fecha de recepción del original: 23 de febrero 2018
Fecha de aceptación de la versión defi nitiva: 23 de enero 2019
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