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Abstract
Oil-shale deposits are found in many parts of the world. They range in age from Cambrian to Tertiary and were formed in a variety of marine, continental, and lacustine depositional environments. The largest known deposit is the Green River oil shale in western United States. It contains an estimated 215 billion tons of in-place shale oil (1.5 trillion U.S. barrels). Total resources of a selected group of oil-shale deposits in 33 countries is estimated at 411 billion tons of in-place shale oil which is equivalent to 2.9 trillion U.S. barrels of shale oil. This figure is very conservative because several deposits mentioned herein have not been explored sufficiently to make accurate estimates and other deposits were not included in this survey.
... Estimating oil shale reserves is an important topic for the oil industry as it affects the future global energy balance, pricing, and energy security. The estimation of oil shale reserves has become a topic of significant interest in recent years due to the increasing demand for energy [1]. However, there are many uncertainties regarding reserve estimation for many oil shale deposits. ...
... However, there are many uncertainties regarding reserve estimation for many oil shale deposits. Until now, all attempts to estimate the world oil shale resources have been based on numerically insignificant facts, and estimations of the grade and tonnage of many of these materials were, at best, guesswork [1,2]. Stephen et al. presented some methods for the calculation and reporting of oil shale resources. ...
... Oil shale deposits may also contain metals, which could add some byproducts such as alum [KAl (SO 4 ) 2 ·12H 2 O], nahcolite (NaHCO 3 ), dawsonite [Na(Al(OH) 2 CO 3 ], sulfur, ammonium sulfate, vanadium, zinc, copper, and uranium, and others [1]. ...
The amount if oil shale resources throughout the world has been roughly estimated in accordance with various resource estimation methods. However, in some instances, detailed and comprehensive supporting methodologies for the estimation of commercial shale oil reserves have not been presented. The goal of this study is to develop a comprehensive method for the modified estimation of oil shale mineable reserves for shale oil projects. The methodology characterises oil shale according to its calorific value, oil content, conditional organic mass, and ash content by utilising a Monte Carlo simulation. Based on the results of the case study, the developed method proposes considering the relationships of the in situ oil shale grade and tonnage material (oil shale + limestone) to the oil retorting feed material grade and tonnage by taking into account the retorting plant oil recovery. For this purpose, a Monte Carlo stochastic modelling algorithm was developed. Based on the data analysis, a modifying factor to convert mineral reserves to petroleum reserves was produced. The results of this study are useful for feasibility studies that estimate oil shale reserves in relation to justifying their utilisation fields. Some oil shale deposits have good potential for development but need to be re-estimated in accordance with the most sophisticated extraction and processing technologies.
... Next to coal, organic content in black shales is more enriched in hydrogen and therefore is comparatively more liable to produce oil (Lille, 2003). Unlike lignite and bituminous coal, the organic matter of black shales has a higher hydrogen and lower oxygen content (Dyni, 2003). In black shales, organic matter degradation is incomplete due to oxygen depletion or even lack of oxygen. ...
... In black shales, organic matter degradation is incomplete due to oxygen depletion or even lack of oxygen. Such situations cause enrichment of organic matter in black shales (Dyni, 2003). Hence, preservation of organic matter in black shales is excellent. ...
... During the twentieth century, black shales processing started in China. Nowadays, significant quantities of black shales are mined in Estonia, Russia, China, Brazil, and Germany (Dyni, 2003). Black shales act as source rocks for oil and gas that will cover the most of energy needs in modern societies. ...
Oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) are considered as periods
of oxygen deficiency in many oceans; accompanied by
accumulation of organic-rich black shales. Mesozoic
anoxic events were recognized based on the presence of
black shales that are rich in organic matter. The most
significant anoxic events during the Mesozoic are the
Early Toarcian, the Early Aptian, and the Cenomanian–
Turonian. The less significant events are the Valanginian-
Hauterivian, the Hauterivian-Barremian, the Aptian-
Albian, the Late Albian, the Albian-Cenomanian, and
the Coniacian-Santonian. The recognized OAEs in Egypt
are the Early Aptian (OAE 1a), the Aptian-Albian (OAE
1b), the Late Albian (OAE 1c), the Albian-Cenomanian
(Breistroffer, OAE 1d), and the Cenomanian–Turonian
(Bonarelli Event, OAE 2). However, the most widely
recoded event is the OAE 2. The Cretaceous oceans
hosted huge amounts of organic-rich black shales that
sufficient to source all of the hydrocarbons. Black shales
are considered as the most important source of hydrocarbons.
The exploitation of black shales to generate
hydrocarbons becomes a vital substitutional resource for
energy. Such utilization of black shales may compensate
the shortage of hydrocarbons in Egypt. Detailed filed
work and analytical data are required before final
estimation of black shale resources in Egypt.
... According to the authors' study, oil shale dust contains minerals such as quartz, gypsum, and mica, as well as various chemical compounds associated with oil and gas production processes (kerogen, lead, cadmium, etc.). Typical oil shale mineral parts chemical composition consists of SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , CaO, MgO, SO 3 , K 2 O, Na 2 O, P 2 O 5 , and kerogen oil with an elemental composition H, C, S, N, and O [36,37]. As an unconventional resource, oil shale is widely distributed around the world and has a very high potential; however, industrial mining produces it only in China, Estonia, and Brazil [36,37]. ...
... Typical oil shale mineral parts chemical composition consists of SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 , TiO 2 , CaO, MgO, SO 3 , K 2 O, Na 2 O, P 2 O 5 , and kerogen oil with an elemental composition H, C, S, N, and O [36,37]. As an unconventional resource, oil shale is widely distributed around the world and has a very high potential; however, industrial mining produces it only in China, Estonia, and Brazil [36,37]. For this reason, there are only a few studies related to oil shale dust compounds, and none about particulate matter or aerosol concentration and distribution in oil shale underground mines. ...
Particulate matter (PM) in the context of underground mining results from various operations such as rock drilling and blasting, ore loading, hauling, crushing, dumping, and from diesel exhaust gases as well. These operations result in the formation of fine particles that can accumulate in the lungs of mineworkers. The lung deposited surface area (LDSA) concentration is a variant solution to evaluate potential health impacts. The aim of this study is to analyse PM and LDSA concentrations in the operational workings of the oil shale underground mine. Experimental measurements were carried out by a direct-reading real-time PM monitor, Dusttrak DRX, and a multimetric fine particle detector, Naneous Partector 2, during the loading and dumping processes using the diesel engine loader. Consequently, the analysis was conducted on PM, LDSA, particle surface area concentration (SA), average particle diameter (d), particle number concentration (PNC), and particle mass (PM0.3), producing a few valuable correlation factors. Averaged LDSA was around 1433 μm2/cm3 and reached maximum peaks of 2140 μm2/cm3 during the loading, which was mostly related to diesel exhaust emissions, and within the dumping 730 μm2/cm3 and 1840 μm2/cm3, respectively. At the same time, average PM1 was about 300 μg/ m3 during the loading, but within the dumping peaks, it reached up to 10,900 μg/ m3. During the loading phase, particle diameter ranged from 30 to 90 nm, while during the dumping phase peaks, it varied from 90 to 160 nm. On this basis, a relationship between PNC and particle diameter has been produced to demonstrate an approximate split between diesel particulate matter (DPM) and oil shale dust diameters. This study offers important data on PM and LDSA concentration that can be used for estimating potential exposure to miners at various working operations in the oil shale underground mines, and will be used for air quality control in accordance with establishing toxic aerosol health effects.
... As an important unconventional oil and gas resource, oil shale is mainly distributed in the United States, Russia, Canada, China, Estonia, and other countries [1,2]. Its mineralization theory and comprehensive development research have attracted much attention [1,[3][4][5][6]. ...
... As an important unconventional oil and gas resource, oil shale is mainly distributed in the United States, Russia, Canada, China, Estonia, and other countries [1,2]. Its mineralization theory and comprehensive development research have attracted much attention [1,[3][4][5][6]. There is a large amount of oil shale as an associated mineral in the Dalianhe coal mining area, northeastern China. ...
Oil shale is an important unconventional oil and gas resource, but it is poorly utilized in the Dalianhe coal mining area, northeastern China. Systematic sampling and test analysis were used to evaluate the characteristics of oil shale quality. The research shows that the oil shale between the middle and lower coal seams in the coal-bearing member is a rich ore with a high oil content, medium calorific value, high ash content, medium volatile content, low moisture, and ultralow sulfur content. The oil shale has good quality and is suitable for low-temperature carbonization for oil refining or low-calorific fuel. The ash content is silicon-aluminum-rich, has low calcium-magnesium, is iron-poor, and has a high ash melting point. The middle oil shale member is a poor ore with low quality. However, there is a dense section of oil shale with a high organic matter content and good quality above the upper coal seam. It is recommended to implement combined mining of coal and oil shale in the mineshaft and to reasonably recover oil shale between the coal seams and oil shale above the upper coal seam to improve the resource utilization rate.
... According to incomplete statistics, the total amount of shale oil resources in the world is more than 50% of traditional oil resources [1,2], so research on shale and the oil and gas in shale has become a current research focus [3], and many emerging technologies are also being applied [4][5][6]. Among them, related disciplines, such as geochemistry [7][8][9][10], geophysics [11] and organic petrology [12], have successively developed related technologies in studies of shale depositional environments and have made great progress. ...
... (2). The sedimentary thickness of this set of high-quality shales gradually increases from the edge of the basin (5-10 m) to the center of the basin, among which the black shale of the Jiyuan-Huachi-Yijun line has the largest thickness (more than 30 m). ...
A set of high-quality lacustrine shales at the bottom of the Chang 7 member of the Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin is one of the main source rocks of tight oil and gas and shale oil in the Yanchang Formation. Based on outcrop, core, drilling and seismic data, by the quantitative characterization of outcrops, fine characterization of logging facies and seismic facies, and geochemical tests, the lithofacies types, geophysical response characteristics and organic geochemical characteristics of this high-quality shale are clarified, and the formation paleoenvironment, including redox conditions, paleoclimate, paleosalinity and paleowater depth, is analyzed. The high-quality shale at the bottom of the Chang 7 member is divided into three lithofacies types: black shale, dark massive mudstone and silty mudstone. The organic matter in black shale is mainly interbedded or stratified, the organic matter in dark massive mudstone is dispersed and the organic matter content in silty mudstone is lower. The shale shows high gamma (more than 260 API), a high acoustic time difference (more than 280 μs/m), a high resistivity (more than 330 Ω m) well-logging phase and strong-amplitude parallel–subparallel seismic phase characteristics. Based on the logging and seismic facies characteristics, the plane distribution range of this set of shales is defined. The sedimentary thickness gradually increases from the edge (5–10 m) to the center of the basin, among which the Jiyuan–Huachi–Yijun black shale has the largest thickness (more than 30 m). This set of high-quality shales was mainly formed under a warm and humid paleoclimate, in water depths of 60–120 m, and in an anaerobic reducing and continental freshwater paleoenvironment. The fine identification, distribution range and formation conditions of black shale lithofacies are of practical significance for predicting the distribution of favorable lithofacies of shale oil and gas and the deployment of horizontal wells.
... China's oil shale reserves are approximately 330 billion barrels, ranking second in the world. Therefore, there is a great potential for the exploitation and utilization of this energy in China [3]. ...
... Since the variation in K V is regular, it is fitted directly; the results are shown in Figure 6b. The corresponding functions are represented by Formula (2) and Formula (3), respectively: (2) ( 3) where K H is the thermal expansion coefficient in the direction of parallel bedding, 10 -5 /°C, K V is the thermal expansion coefficient in the direction of vertical bedding, 10 -5 /°C, and T is the temperature, °C. ...
... The organic matter, primarily composed of algae and other aquatic organisms, undergoes chemical and physical changes under high pressure and temperature, resulting in the formation of kerogen. According to a study by Dyni (2010), the organic content of oil shale can range from 3% to 60%, with higher organic content leading to greater potential for hydrocarbon production [7]. ...
... This resulted in oxygen deficiency at the bottom of the lake, facilitating the preservation of organic matter and the formation of the Jijuntun Formation's thick oil shale deposits. Conversely, the warm alkaline lake waters in the Green River Formation primarily supported the extensive growth of blue-green algae, which served as the main contributor to the organic content in the oil shale deposits [7]. ...
This comprehensive review presents a holistic examination of oil shale as a significant energy resource, focusing on its global reserves, extraction technologies, chemical characteristics, economic considerations, and environmental implications. Oil shale, boasting reserves equivalent to approximately 6 trillion barrels of shale oil worldwide, holds substantial potential to augment the global energy supply. Key extraction methods analyzed include surface mining, modified in situ, and true in situ conversion processes, each exhibiting distinct operational parameters and efficiencies. The review further delves into the chemical aspects of oil shale retorting and pyrolysis, highlighting the critical role of variables such as retorting temperature, residence time, particle size, and heating rate in determining the yield and composition of shale oil and byproducts. Economic analyses reveal that capital and operating costs, which vary according to the specific extraction and processing technologies implemented, are crucial in appraising the economic feasibility of oil shale projects. Lastly, the review acknowledges the potential environmental hazards linked with oil shale development, such as groundwater contamination and harmful emissions. It emphasizes the importance of rigorous monitoring programs, environmental impact assessments, sustainable technologies, and innovative strategies like co-combustion and comprehensive utilization systems in mitigating such impacts. The review underlines the need for a balanced approach that harmonizes technological advancement, economic viability, and environmental sustainability in oil shale exploitation.
... In addition, the resources of hard-to-recover oil in clay-bituminous sediments (shale oil) are enormous. For example, the Green River Formation (the Piceance Basin) geological resources of shale oil are estimated at 1.525157 trillion barrels [2], and similar deposits exist all over the world [3]. ...
... P is the reservoir pressure, T is the reservoir temperature, and ne is the stress state of reservoir system. 3 International Journal of Geophysics paramagnetic centers in organic matter (spin/g); 1 × 10 22 is the limiting concentration of paramagnetic centers in organic matter (spin/g); P is the pressure at which oil-gasforming processes are practically stopped (MPa); T is the temperature at which oil-gas-formation processes are practically stopped (°С); k is the coefficient of the electromagnetic field strength when the stressed state of rocks changes. ...
This review paper presents controversial issues on the formation of hydrocarbon deposits. We look into the geological contradictions of the abiogenic and biogenic theories of petroleum origin, indicating the connection between hydrocarbon deposits and disjunctive dislocations, as well as present disputes about the geological period over which hydrocarbon deposits have been formed. We further overviewed the radical chain mechanism of hydrocarbon generation from organic matter as proposed by Prof. Nesterov. It is noted that the petroleum generation process in reservoir conditions occurs almost instantly in the presence of discrete geomagnetic fields and does not require a long geological time. This is explained by spin magnetic effects (spin catalysis, magnetic isotope properties). We briefly highlight the effect of magnetic fields on chemical reactions involving organic compounds and the use of magnetic fields to enhance oil recovery. We also present the leading causes of discrete magnetic fields in the sedimentary cover: Earth’s geomagnetic reversals, generation of ferromagnetic minerals in oil deposits, electromechanical effects of rock friction near faults, and intermixing of reservoir waters with different mineralization (spontaneous ion polarization). Based on the material reported, we conclude that the radical chain mechanism of petroleum generation processes explains some contradictions of the abiogenic and biogenic theories of petroleum origin. Elaborating this research area has excellent prospects for developing new criteria for hydrocarbon prospecting and devising innovative methods to enhance the oil recovery for shale oil production.
... Pyrite is a naturally occurring material found in its concentrated form in nature and as an impurity in coal and many other minerals (shale, copper, limestone, uranium) [1,2]. The migration and transformation of sulfur in pyrite involves metallurgy, sulfuric acid preparation, coal burning, oil shale utilization and other industrial applications [3][4][5]. Most iron ore in China is rich in sulfur, and a series of physical and chemical transformations occur during the roasting process [6,7], which often leads to the high sulfur content of the iron concentrate produced and an excessive concentration of SO 2 in flue gas dispersed into the environment [8,9]. ...
In China, most of the high-sulfur iron ores have not been fully developed and utilized due to the lack of breakthrough progress in the research on the sulfur migration and the desulfurization mechanism during the roasting process. This study will focus on revealing the release and fixation mechanisms of sulfur during the roasting process to achieve the transformation of desulfurization from terminal treatment to process control. Experimental results show that as the roasting temperature increases, the release rate of SO2 also increases, reaching the maximum release rate at 900 °C. Simultaneously, it is found that at the same roasting temperature, the release rate and amount of SO2 under the O2/N2 atmosphere is significantly greater than that under the pure N2 and air atmospheres. Meanwhile, X-ray diffraction (XRD) is utilized to explore the phase composition of the roasted product and the sulfur release mechanism. In addition, the adsorption energy, stability and electron transfer of SO2 on the CaO surface are calculated through density functional theory (DFT), and the optimal adsorption active site perpendicular to the O atom (O-top) is also determined. Finally, the sulfur fixing agent CaO is used to study the SO2 fixation mechanism. When the concentration reaches 10%, the sulfur fixation efficiency reaches more than 80%. Therefore, this work will present basic knowledge and systematic guidance for the sulfur migration and release of high-sulfur iron ore under the oxidizing roasting process.
... With energy demand increasing and available conventional oil sources depleting, many have turned their attention to developing unconventional oil reservoirs [1][2][3]. Of all unconventional sources, shale/tight oils have become the primary plays for unconventional oil recovery due to their great potential, with over 2 trillion barrels of oil deposits in U.S. shale plays and over 30 billion barrels of total tight oil reserves estimated in 24 North American reservoirs [1,2,[4][5][6]. Through primary production techniques, less than 10% of the original oil in place is recovered from tight oil reservoirs, with some having recovery factors as low as 2%. Several additional factors can also hamper oil production, such as organic deposition, poor mobility control, inadequate fluid containment, and more [7][8][9]. ...
Gas-enhanced oil recovery (EOR) through huff-n-puff (HnP) is an important method of recovering oil from fracture-stimulated reservoirs. HnP productivity is hampered by fracture channeling, leading to early gas breakthroughs and gas losses. To mitigate these issues, foam-generating surfactants have been developed as a method of reducing injected gas phase mobility and increasing oil recovery. This work investigates foam generation and propagation by a proprietary surfactant blend in high-temperature, high-pressure, high-permeability, and high-shear conditions that simulate the environment of a proppant-packed fracture. Bulk foam tests confirmed the aqueous stability and foaming viability of the surfactant at the proposed conditions. Through several series of floods co-injecting methane gas and the surfactant solution through a proppant pack at residual oil saturation, the effects of several injection parameters on apparent foam viscosity were investigated. The foam exhibited an exceptionally high transition foam quality (>95%) and strong shear-thinning behavior. The foam viscosity also linearly decreased with increasing pressure. Another flood series conducted in an oil-free proppant pack showed that swelling of residual oil had no effect on the apparent foam viscosity and was not the reason for the inversely linear pressure dependency. An additional flood series with nitrogen as the injection gas was completed to see if the hydrophobic attraction between the methane and surfactant tail was responsible for the observed pressure trend, but the trend persisted even with nitrogen. In a previous study, the dependence of foam viscosity on pressure was found to be much weaker with a different foaming surfactant under similar conditions. Thus, a better understanding of this important phenomenon requires additional tests with a focus on the effect of pressure on interfacial surfactant adsorption.
... This evolution of early Eocene climate as well as tectonic adjustments during the Laramide orogeny are considered the main drivers of stratigraphic change in the Green River Formation (Johnson, 1985;Carroll and Bohacs, 1999;Carroll et al., 2006;Smith et al., 2008;Davis et al., 2008;Birgenheier et al., 2020). The unit is also of economic importance as it contains one of the largest known oil shale deposits (Dyni, 2006). Deposited in the eastern portion of the depocenter of the Uinta basin (Fig. 1b), the strata from the Coyote Wash core record the long-term evolution (>2 Myr; Smith et al., 2008) from open to closed hydrologic conditions with increasing salinity during the latter (Pitman, 1996;Davis et al., 2008Davis et al., , 2009). ...
... Estonian oil shale, named kukersite, is a sedimentary rock from the Ordovician era containing up to 50% of organic matter (kerogen) [1][2][3]. To produce oil and chemicals, the cross-linked macromolecular structure of kerogen must be partially decomposed to low molecular weight organic compounds. ...
... Shale oil (general definitions in [38,39]) can be obtained from oil shale through destructive distillation or underground in-situ cracking. As defined by Dyni [40], oil shale is a finegrained sedimentary rock containing organic matter that will yield substantial amounts of oil and combustible gas upon destructive distillation. A deposit of oil shale having economic potential is usually one that is at or near enough to the surface to be developed by open-cast or conventional underground mining or by in-situ methods. ...
... If oil shale is heated, it produces a fluid like a hydrocarbon [1] In fact, oil shale is defined as an unconventional reservoir of hydrocarbons, and it is predicted that the shale oil produced from these sources is more than four times the proven oil reserves in the whole world [2], Regardless of the production processes of shale oil, the properties of shale oil cannot be used in any industries for many reasons, including high viscosity, high amounts of impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, heavy metals, etc., and the high percentage of asphaltene compounds. In such a way, their extraction and transportation are challenging and complicated, and their price in world markets is much lower than light crude oil [3]. ...
... According to U.S. Department of Energy to Bazhenov is one of the largest oil shale deposits in the world and it is located in the Western Siberia in Russia (Kapustin and Grushevenko, 2018). Bazhenov oil shale represent hydrocarbons potential around 74.6 billion tons (Dyni, 2006;EIA, 2015). International Energy Agency (IEA) considers the Bazhenov formation as the world's largest source rock, with a bed of ancient organic matter dating back to the Jurassic period which has given rise to most of the crude oil produced from the fields of West Siberia (Kapustin and Grushevenko, 2018). ...
In this paper, an EOR technology was proposed, including a development of oil soluble catalytic compositions and their injection with sub- and supercritical water (sub- and SCW) for in-situ hydrothermal upgrading of oil shale and intensifies the generation of synthetic oil. The experiments were carried with the oil shale sample from the Bazhenov formation (Russia) with 9.13% of the total organic carbon (TOC) which 83% composed of kerogen, at the sub- and SCW conditions of 300-400°C taking into account of the reservoir pressure ≥ 250 bars and with time (6-24h) in the presence and absence of catalysts. Combined methods have been used to characterize the catalysts, oil shale and assess the composition of the reaction products, are illustrated in the experimental section. Additionally, simulation software (Hysys v.12) was also used to calculate the heat load. In this study, the designation of the Kat-1 and Kat-2 refers to Nickel (Ni2+) based catalysts with the «vegetable oil» and «tall oil» as organic ligands, and the Kat-3 and Kat-4 refers to Iron (Fe3+) based catalysts with similar above organic ligands, respectively. The results of injection of sub- and SCW without catalyst showed that the maximum oil shale conversion reaches 52.46% at 350°C and 24h. Consequently, the higher synthetic oil yields of 29.22%, 43.59% and 9.75 % have been obtained after the non-catalytic upgrading process at temperatures of 300°C, 350°C, 400°C and time 24h, 6h and 6h, respectively. It has been established that an increase in reservoir pressure can lead to a proportional increase in yield of gas up to 2.74% at 400°C. Injection of sub- and SCW with oil soluble catalysts at temperatures of 300°C - 400 °C improves the oil shale upgrading and it reveals that the maximum organic maters conversion of 76.67% at 350°C was obtained using the Kat-1. Particularly, it has been found that due to high activity of nickel and considerable amount of π bonds in the ligand the catalyst, the Kat-2 exhibits good performance for upgrading reactions and generate the synthetic oil. Consequently, at an identical temperature of 350°C the yield of synthetic oil increased from 29.22% for the absence of a catalyst to 39.1% using the Kat-2. That means that the Kat-2 can increase more additionally 9.88% of synthetic oil also reducing 4 times the necessary time for the non-catalytic upgrading process. Moreover, at conditions of 350°C and 24h, around 214.06 kg additional of synthetic oil can be produced from a ton organic using Kat-1. Overall, it found that the catalysts (Kat-2 and Kat-4) show appropriate ability for synthetic oil production, while the catalysts (Kat-1 and Kat-3) selectively improve the quality of synthetic oil and the gas yields. Thus, the reasons for good selectivity of Kat-2 and Kat-4 for the synthetic oil production is not only attributed to the metals (Ni2+ and Fe3+) activities, but more to the types of the used ligand. The greater the number of pi bonds in the organic ligands of catalysts, the faster the catalyst is activated. We also observed that at a high temperature of 400°C, a significant decrease in the synthetic oil yield is possible, due to fast decomposition of kerogen into gas and polymerization of intermediate products to coke. According to the results of GC the obtained synthetic oil at the optimal conditions of (350°C, 6h, 24h and the Kat-3) most composed of gasoline - 6.95%, kerosene - 16.88%. It is revealed that the required amount of catalyst to upgrade a ton of Bazhenov organic potential is 13.42 kg, and the amount of sub- and SCW for injection is (8-10:1). After calculation, optimal energy load to reach optimal conversions (46.5% - 50.7%) is 2833 - 4250 kW/h. Thus, use of oil soluble catalysts for the synthetic oil production from the Bazhenov formation is potentially recommended, due to its ecological and has perspective for the exploitation of oil shale in Russia.
... subbituminous coal and bituminous. Worldwide stratigraphic statistics show that multiple organic matter-related sedimentary energy systems can occur in lacustrine basins and that they experienced diagenesis at the same time during geological evolution from the Paleozoic to the Cenozoic (Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991;Cameron et al., 1994;Dyni, 2003). The oil shale in Cenozoic fault basins in China generally shows two modes of occurrence: thick oil shale layers that accumulated on the roof of coal seams, as found in the Fushun Basin, eastern China, where a single coal seam 120 m thick is overlain by 300 m of oil shale intervals (Meng, 2010); or oil shale layers interbedded with coal , such as in the Huangxian Basin, eastern China, where the coal intervals alternate with thick oil shale layers (Xu et al., 2006;Liu et al., 2009). ...
The environmental transformation mechanism of the coal- and oil shale-bearing interval in the Eocene Dalianhe Formation, Yilan Basin, Northeast China
... The Devonian also experienced several mass extinctions and radiations in the marine realm ( Fig. 1), four of which are consistently rated within the 10 worst mass extinctions of the post-Cambrian Phanerozoic at genus-level taxonomic loss (Sepkoski, 1996;Bambach et al., 2004;McGhee et al., 2013). Vigorous deposition of Devonian planktogenic organic carbon within shelfal seafloors created major oil and gas resources on different continents (Fig. 1B;North, 1988;Klemme and Ulmishek, 1991;Dyni, 2006), making this time period also one of significant economic interest. Stratified conditions with a chemocline at least intermittently above the seafloor were required for such high organic burial. ...
This paper reviews global records of anoxic events of the Middle Devonian – earliest Mississippian, as well as the possible triggers and controls of these events. These “anoxic events” are complex multistage paleoenvironmental disturbances manifested in multiple proxies, which we showcase with the Horn River Group (HRG) – a succession of basinal organic-rich shales and cherts deposited during the latest Eifelian – earliest Late Frasnian (∼386–373 My ago) on the western continental margin of Laurentia near the paleo-equator. Four major events imprinted in the HRG are the Kačák, Frasnes, basal punctata, and late punctata events, but positive δ13C excursions (measured on organic matter) are more numerous and can potentially be matched to other global events. The Kačák event in the base of the HRG manifests as a regional switch from carbonate-platform to anoxic sedimentation. Three major events of the latest Givetian – Middle Frasnian display repeating sequences characterized by: (1) an early shift to heavier δ13C values coupled with siliciclastic enrichment and mercury enrichment spikes of up to 0.48 ppm; (2) late-stage δ13C reversal to background values coincident with the onset of severe anoxia (buildup of authigenic U, Mo, V) and attenuation of siliciclastic supply. Devonian anoxic sediments, including HRG, display widespread presence of chlorobi biomarkers, which indicates episodes of photic-zone euxinia in the water column. Most of these sediments were deposited under open ocean conditions, precluding a Black Sea water-column stratification scenario. These observations indicate Devonian anoxic events are similar to classical Mesozoic oceanic anoxic events (OAEs), consistently with growing evidence for a volcanic trigger for these events (e.g. spikes in Hg and negative 187Os/188Os anomalies). Oxygen minimum zones in a greenhouse ocean, such as the one recorded in basinal HRG, were prone to expansion under volcanic CO2 reinforcement. This volcanic press-pulse also intensified the hydrological cycle, which resulted in a boost of weathering and eutrophication of shelfal seas. These factors, amplified by deoxygenation and acidification of the habitable upper ocean, drove extinctions of various magnitude. As a proxy for the input of land-plant detritus, the oxygen index from pyrolysis data shows zero response to anoxic events in the HRG, which aligns with broader evidence that counters expanding vascular vegetation to be the driver of the marine biotic crises. Finally, our review highlights how controversial the evidence of high-frequency (3rd to 5th orders) sea-level fluctuations is in the Devonian. In particular, none of the geochemical proxies usually employed to interpret sea-level changes translates unequivocally into transgressions and regressions in the greenhouse world. This sea-level puzzle clearly calls for new scrutiny and justifies scepticism in the validity of the classical “eustatic sea-level curve of the Devonian”, as well as estimates of eustatic amplitudes in excess of ∼25 m for 3rd and 4th order cycles.
... The pore structure histogram is shown in Figure 8, for each temperature, from left to right, the results of high-, medium-, and low-TOC immature shale at the corresponding temperature were obtained. The total pore volume of high-and medium-TOC immature shale increases with increasing temperature, and the total pore volume with the largest value is × · 35.99 10 cm g 3 3 1 ...
The pyrolysis process of source rock, especially organic-rich immature shale, is required for oil and gas extraction, during which the evolution of the pore structure system in the immature shale determines the heat conduction and fluid flow under the heating treatment. Although some sound achievements have been made regarding the pyrolysis of immature shale, the effect of the total organic carbon (TOC) content on the pore structure evolution of immature shale remains unclear. With respect to this issue, in this work, a series of N2 adsorption/desorption and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments were conducted, and fractal dimension theory was also introduced to analyze the pore structure evolution of immature shale subjected to heating treatment in a quantitative manner. The results indicate that the adsorption branch of the nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherm can be divided into three stages. The pore structure of different TOC immature shales does not change significantly, and they are all slit-shaped. In addition, immature shale with a higher organic content has a higher hydrocarbon expulsion strength and a higher pore volume growth rate, which indicate that the pyrolysis of organic matter greatly affects the pore structure of immature shale during heating. This phenomenon shows that the pyrolysis of organic matter greatly influences the pore structure of immature shale during the heating process. The pores of immature shale in the study area have significant fractal characteristics, the fractal dimension is between 2.397 and 2.636, the pore space of the sample is extremely small, the pore structure is extremely complex, and the heterogeneity is strong.
... Their organic matter is finely disseminated in the inorganic shale matrix [2,3]. They have economic importance since they may be a potential source of energy, including crude oil and gas through conversion their organic matter which called kerogen to synthetic oil or gas [4,5]. Kerogen can be converted into oil through retorting/pyrolysis or burned directly as fossil fuel to produce energy. ...
Oil shale beneficiation by froth flotation hasn't received enough attention in the last two decades. The reason was the economics of the process as well as its environmental impact. However, the recent surge in oil price and recent developments in fine grinding technologies may improve the efficiency of oil shale beneficiation by such process. In this work, oil shale concentration by froth flotation technique was critically reviewed. It was found that most of the work was conducted by conventional mechanical flotation using non-ionic collector such as kerosene. Flotation has more pronounced effect on flotation of low grade oil shale; Almost 95% of ash forming minerals were removed to enrich oil shale concentrate by factor of 2-4 with 60-95 % kerogen recovery and approximately 50-300 % increase in oil yield (L/tonne) .Oil shale retorting economics showed that beneficiation reduced the capital cost for pyrolysis and fractionation by 250 % and spent shale disposal by 270%. However, these saving are offset by the cost of beneficiation (grinding, flotation, and dewatering). Therefore, the key for economical oil shale concentration process is the reduction of fine grinding costs.
... Oil shale is a sedimentary rock with high ash contents and combustible organic matters. Shale oil and combustible gas can be obtained through dry distillation, and shale oil processed into a variety of refined oil [1][2][3]. China is a big energy consumer, but its conventional energy supply is still grim [4]. ...
... These can be converted into approximately 4,110 × 108 t shale oil, which is equivalent to 3.5 times the world's current conventional oil and gas resources. Today, the majority of the proven reserves are distributed in the United States, Estonia, China, Brazil, Russia, and Australia [3][4][5][6][7]. Oil shale enjoys a wide range of applications. ...
The world energy mix has been confronted with significant challenges since the international circumstances became increasingly complicated. Oil shale is a typical alternative resource to traditional oil, therefore, it is of great significance to re-evaluate its exploitation and utilization status and research trend under the new background. Through the bibliometric analysis of 944 articles on oil shale published between 2012 and 2022 collected from WoS database, this research has carried out a review on the global publication and research trend in oil shale relevant studies, and then investigated and compared the research characteristics in three major countries that carry out oil shale related research, to identify the opportunities of oil shale development in different nations under the restriction of diversified factors. The results show that during the last ten years, research on oil shale has experienced a continuous growth in its publication quantity and greatly contributed to the oil shale development with the production of highest cited studies. As for the regional characteristics, Estonia focuses on the comprehensive utilization of oil shale and stands out in its engagement in the environment protection, while China and USA are still accumulating the applied technological research and fundamental science knowledge and conservatively develop the utilization of oil shale. Although different regions have developed different research priorities and strategies due to the differentiated resource reserve, technical condition and environmental pressure, the environmental-friendly and efficient utilization of oil shale resource will be the future emphasis of the oil shale development.
... The total organic carbon of oil shale with high quality can reach 50% [1,2]. There is 411 billion tons of equivalent oil of oil shale in the world according to recent statistics [3]. The surface retorting was widely applied in the past few decades to get oil from the oil shale by mining and heating oil shale in the retort furnace. ...
... Although freshwater is added to waste water for its neutralization, waste water still can cause pollution in the surrounding environment. Other challenges in biofuel production using algae include the energyintensive mechanical method of algal cell wall disruption, and the problem of adding wastewater for neutralization which brings about pollution in the surrounding environment (Dyni, 2006). With increasing population and expanding economy, coupled with the possibilities of depleting petroleum hydrocarbon, there is an important need for biotechnologists to employ various means in improving algal biofuel production (Schindler et al., 2008). ...
Discussed about challenges and
Future Scope of
Bio-nanotechnology
in Algal Biofuel and
Life Cycle Analysis
... Defined as a high-ash solid combustible organic rock, oil shale is typically a finegrained sedimentary rock (usually shale) with a high kerogen content that is sufficient for fractionating a significant amount of oil [1][2][3]. It has more than 40% ash content and 3.5% oil content and is regarded as a typical unconventional oil and gas resource. ...
Oil shale is a kind of unconventional energy resource with abundant reserves, but its exploitation has a continuous negative impact on the environment, which has hindered the research and exploitation of oil shale under the international environmental consensus on issues such as climate change. Therefore, more attention should be paid to environmental problems as the side effect of oil shale exploitation. With the combination of field research, literature collection, and tracking survey, the oil shale open-pit exploitation and management process in Maoming, Guang-dong, China, has been investigated, and its development and transformation model has been subsequently refined and summarized. The research results show that Maoming oil shale open-pit mine area has gone through four main stages: pre-exploitation stage, large-scale utilization stage, restoration stage, and green development stage. Through the management of mine pit treatment, vegetation restoration, ecological park construction, and tourism resource development, the abandoned open-pit mine has been transformed into an ecological park combining ecosystem, tourism, and cultural resources. In this process, this area has achieved the transformation from rough resource extraction to environment-friendly sustainable growth in its development mode. As a successful case of open-pit mine management in the world, the ecological restoration experience in Maoming can function as a reference for the smooth development and transformation of other oil shale mines in developing countries. Citation: Zhao, D.; Zhang, W.; Xie, W.; Liu, C.; Yang, Y.; Chen, Y.; Ren, C.; Chen, H.; Zhang, Q.; Folinas, S. Ecological Restoration and Transformation of Maoming Oil Shale Mining Area: Experience and Inspirations. Land 2023, 12, 318.
... Oil yield refers to the mass fraction of shale oil (tar) in oil shale, which is one of the important indicators for defining the concept of oil shale and evaluating oil shale resources [42,43]. The oil yield test results show that the oil yield distribution of Maoming oil shale is 3.56-13.07% ...
Oil shale is a crucial unconventional energy source to supplement conventional oil and gas. The oil shale in the Maoming Basin of China has excellent resource potential. In this study, through systematic geochemical testing, the industrial quality and geochemical characteristics of oil shale are revealed, and the hydrocarbon generation potential of oil shale, the parent rock type, and the tectonic setting of the source area are discussed. It is comprehensively assessed that Maoming oil shale has a medium-oil yield (avg. 6.71%) with high ash content (avg. 76.1%), a high calorific value (avg. 7.16 M J/kg), and ultra-low sulfur (avg. 0.54%). The mineralogical compositions primarily consist of clay minerals and quartz, and barely pyrite. Maoming oil shale is in an immature evolution stage, with high TOC and I-II1 kerogen type, and could be considered an excellent hydrocarbon source rock. The chemical index of alteration (CIA), the index of chemical variability (ICV), and the Th/U ratio indicate that the Maoming oil shale parent rock area is strongly weathered. Multitudinous geochemical diagrams also show that the oil shale was mainly derived from Late Cretaceous felsic volcanic rock and the granite zone, and the tectonic setting was a continental island arc environment related to the active continental margin. This is consistent with the tectonic history of southern China in the Late Cretaceous.
This paper summarizes the most important results and conclusions derived from organic geochemical investigations performed on the Miocene Aleksinac oil shale (Serbia) during the last 60 years. The Aleksinac oil shale is one of the richest and most studied European oil shale deposits. This paper is divided into four sections. The first section includes data from Rock-Eval pyrolysis, organic petrography, and biomarkers of outcrop samples, as well as samples taken from two layers (upper and lower), drilled from the well BD-4. The results consistently indicated that the Aleksinac oil shale contains immature, mostly algal-derived organic matter (kerogen types I and II), deposited in reducing brackish to freshwater environment. However, certain differences were observed between the upper and lower oil shale sequences in the well BD-4, which resulted in two times higher source potential index in the upper layer. The Aleksinac oil shale has been used as a model substance in numerous organic geochemical studies. The second section of the review paper describes how a standard procedure for determination of kerogen chemical structure (controlled gradual degradation of kerogen by an alkaline permanganate solution) is established, which was developed using the Aleksinac oil shale as a substrate. This oil shale was also used as a model substance to investigate the influences of native minerals on the thermal changes of bitumen and kerogen in sediments, and this process is described in the third section of the paper. In the final section, studies (performed on the Aleksinac oil shale) related to the influence of the pyrolysis type and variations of kerogen type on the yield and composition of liquid pyrolysis products are presented.
Geological bodies are important sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Organic-rich oil shale in sedimentary basins is a good gas source rock, the GHG in which will be released into the atmosphere during crushing to affect climate change. Quantitative calculations of GHG emissions during oil shale crushing were carried out on oil shales from the Yaojie (YJ) and Fushun (FS) mining areas in China. Organic geochemistry, X-ray diffraction, and pore structure analysis experiments, as well as the relationship between storage time and GHG emissions, were analyzed to investigate the main controlling factors of GHG release in different types of oil shales. The results showed that the CH4 and CO2 released from the YJ oil shale were 0.002–0.145 mL/g and 0.011–0.054 mL/g, respectively; the CH4 and CO2 released from the FS oil shale were 0.0001–0.0008 mL/g and 0.002–0.045 mL/g, respectively. Residual CH4 release was closely related to total organic carbon (TOC) and maturity: the CH4 released from the organic-rich and mature YJ oil shale was much higher than that of the FS oil shale, which is relatively organic-lean and immature. The control factors of the released CO2 vary in different regions: CO2 released from the YJ oil shale was somewhat affected by the TOC, while that released from the FS oil shale was mainly controlled by carbonate minerals and their contributing pores. The results of pore structure and organic maceral analyses indicated that both organic and inorganic pores of the YJ oil shale are occupied by asphaltenes, forming a key gas preservation mechanism of residual CH4 and CO2 as solutes dissolved in asphaltenes. In addition, CO2 has a greater absorptive capacity than CH4 and is therefore more difficult to release during the same crushing time. As oil shale is stored for longer periods, residual CH4 will be preferentially released to the atmosphere, while residual CO2 will be released in large quantities during crushing.
The Green River Formation illustrates the expression of sequence-stratigraphic surfaces and units in lacustrine and alluvial strata. These settings are distinctly different from those of most of the mudstone units considered in this book. Our study shows how applying the sequence-stratigraphic method and approach from first principles in continental settings can provide insights into the accumulation of mudstones enriched in organic matter and biogenic material. These settings also have substantial hydrocarbon source, reservoir, and seal potential. Indeed, lacustrine settings host many of the largest oil discoveries of this century.
This setting offers an opportunity to examine the expression of parasequences, depositional sequences, and key surfaces in a setting that is significantly different from the more commonly studied marine settings. Although lakes may seem completely different from oceans, they have enough similarities with oceans that their differences tell us much about what is really essential about sequence stratigraphy—and what is an accident of the depositional setting. The sequence-stratigraphic approach of recognizing a hierarchy of rock packages bounded by various surfaces works very well in lake strata. In studying lacustrine strata, we recognize the same types of sequence-stratigraphic surfaces as in marine settings along with similar stratal stacking patterns. The expressions of parasequences and sequences differ between marine and lacustrine settings, however, because of significant differences among the dynamics and responses of these systems. Despite these differences, we see that the sequence-stratigraphic approach works well for lakes. Separate models, however, are needed for each of three lake-basin types to summarize the lacustrine sequence expression—just as shallow-marine carbonate sequences look different from shallow-marine siliciclastic sequences and require separate models. Contrasts among lake and marine systems make it inappropriate to directly apply one unmodified marine sequence-stratigraphic model to all lake systems. Indeed, one lacustrine model is not applicable to all lake-basin types.
This research presents the results of successful application of organic geochemical analysis and foraminiferal assemblage analysis of Maastritchian Shale, Mamu Formation, Southern Anambra Basin, Nigeria. The study investigated the ancient deposition environment of the sediments and also accesses the hydrocarbon potentials of the shale. Twenty one (21) representative outcrop samples from three (3) locations within the formations within the basin were collected and were subjected to both organic geochemical analysis and foraminiferal evaluation. The result of the source rock maturation of the shale with Tmax for the studied samples, the value ranges from 440 to 444 °C (441 °C average), suggests that the shale is mature. This is authenticated by the plots of hydrogen index (HI) versus measured vitrinite reflectance and hydrogen index (HI) versus Tmax which both indicates a Types II-III oil–gas kerogen that are both matured. Also, the total organic carbon (TOC), ranges as 0.60 to 1.21 wt. % (0.91wt. % average), suggests the shale are good source rock. The cross plot of petroleum potential yield versus total organic carbon also confirms that it is a good source rock. This is further confirmed by the organic richness and the hydrocarbon potential log, both indicating a good to excellent source rock. The generative potential values for the samples ranges from 1.57 to 1.65 mgHC/g (1.61 mgHC/g average), which indicates that they have minor oil but with some gas potential, which is authenticated by the HI value for the studied samples ranges from 129 to 150 mgHC/g (141.33 mgHC/g average) suggesting that the source rock is gas prone. This shows that the shale is capable of generating mixed oil to gas prone kerogen. Furthermore, the plot of HI against Tmax indicates type III kerogen and type II-III kerogen with subordinate type IV organic matter in mature window for the sediments. Also, the plot of HI against calculated vitrinite reflectance (% Ro) suggests type III and type II-III kerogen as the main organic matter. These results reveal kerogen of type III and mixed type II/III organic matter, which are predominantly gas. The ancient environment, from the foraminiferal content, shows predominance of Arenaceous benthic devoid of planktonic counterparts. The foraminiferal assemblages present in the shale are Amphicoryna scalaris, Ostracoda, Fissurina earlandi, Rectuvigerina striata, and Ammobaculites coprolithiformis spp. These sediments were deposited within the Neritic to the Bathyal zone belonging to the deep marine environment; the identified species can be attributed to lower Maastrichtian based on literature. The total organic carbon (TOC) with an average 1.22 (wt. %) is associated with a depositional environment intermediate between an oxidizing and reducing environment (a paleoredox indicator), while the total sulphur content (TSC) in this study (0.42 wt. %) implies that the analyzed shales were mainly deposited in a non-marine environment (fresh water). with a shale that were deposited in a non-marine environment. This is further confirmed by the bivariate plot of TOC and TSC which indicates a marine environment. Hence, the paleoenvironment of deposition can be interpreted as marine environment with some fresh water incursion.
Based on the combination of core observation, experimental analysis and testingand geological analysis, the main controlling factors of shale oil enrichment in the Lower Permian Fengcheng Formation in the Mahu Sag of the Junggar Basin are clarified, and a shale oil enrichment model is established. The results show that the enrichment of shale oil in the Fengcheng Formation in the Mahu Sag is controlled by the organic abundance, organic type, reservoir capacity and the amount of migration hydrocarbon in shale. The abundance of organic matter provides the material basis for shale oil enrichment, and the shales containing types I and II organic matters have good oil content. The reservoir capacity controls shale oil enrichment. Macropores are the main space for shale oil enrichment in the Fengcheng Formation, and pore size and fracture scale directly control the degree of shale oil enrichment. The migration of hydrocarbons in shale affects shale oil enrichment. The shale that has expelled hydrocarbons has poor oil content, while the shale that has received hydrocarbons migrated from other strata has good oil content. Lithofacies reflect the hydrocarbon generation and storage capacity comprehensively. The laminated felsic shale, laminated lime-dolomitic shale and thick-layered felsic shale have good oil content, and they are favorable lithofacies for shale oil enrichment. Under the control of these factors, relative migration of hydrocarbons occurred within the Fengcheng shale, which leads to the the difference in the enrichment process of shale oil. Accordingly, the enrichment mode of shale oil in Fengcheng Formation is established as “in-situ enrichment” and “migration enrichment”. By superimposing favorable lithofacies and main controlling factors of enrichment, the sweet spot of shale oil in the Fengcheng Formation can be selected which has great significance for the exploration and development of shale oil.
Els recursos de la natura són finits, especialment les energies no renovables, un fet que no sembla que tinguin en compte molts dels responsables polítics i empresarials. L'autor es pregunta si serà possible mantenir el sistema de desenvolupament industrial iniciat ara fa 200 anys, amb l'explotació del carbó i, més tard, del petroli, del gas natural i de l'urani. Aquesta anàlisi es basa en dades de les grans agències de l'energia (l'Energy Information Administration, EIA, del Govern dels Estats Units, i l'Agència Internacional de l'Energia, IEA-AIE, de l'OCDE), com també en altres fonts estadístiques reconegudes a escala internacional, convenientment contrastades i reelaborades. Els resultats contradiuen moltes argumentacions oficials. Mostren que la crisi energètica serà profunda i que es manifestarà ja en la dècada actual: els recursos no s'acabaran immediatament, però l'escassetat de l'oferta davant de l'augment de la demanda qüestionarà el paradigma del creixement continu. Se suggereix que la crisi financera n'ha estat un preludi. La reducció energètica començarà amb el petroli, fet que comportarà la crisi del transport, el fre de les produccions globalitzades i, en darrera instància, la crisi alimentària (també als països desenvolupats!). El canvi climàtic -imparable, segons les tendències analitzades- serà una dificultat afegida a les readaptacions necessàries. Quin paper podria fer Europa en el futur, amb els recursos energètics ja exhaurits?
For gas-solid fluidization separation, mineral particles are separated under the joint action of bed density and apparent viscosity. In present study, the apparent viscosity of high-density binary mixture media was investigated by the falling ball method. Moreover, the significant effects of bed density and apparent viscosity on simulated mineral pellets and their interactions were investigated. The apparent viscosity model of high-density gas-solid fluidized beds was modified, and it was found that the Pearson correlation coefficient is 0.86. The results show that the apparent viscosity of high-density gas-solid fluidized bed decreases with increasing fluidization gas velocity. When the fluidization number is higher than 1.3, the apparent viscosity is basically stable in the range of 3.96–5.21 Pa·s. Under low apparent viscosity, when the pellet diameter is 20 mm and the density difference ∆ρ is greater than 0.27 g/cm³, gravity is the dominant factor affecting the settling behavior of the pellet. Under high apparent viscosity, the effect of viscous resistance on the settling behavior of pellets is dominant when the ∆ρ is less than 0.27 g/cm³. Based on the performed analyses, the low-viscosity medium can be selected for the separation of large mineral particles. Furthermore, for high-viscosity medium, the influence of bubbles on particle sedimentation can be effectively alleviated and it can be selected for the separation of small particles.
Concrete construction requires the consumption of large quantities of raw materials. If oil shale semi-coke can be used in concrete projects in a reasonable way, not only will it ease the shortage of raw materials for concrete, but it will also consume oil shale semi-coke and reduce its ecological impact. This investigation aims to study the feasibility of using semi-coke in concrete construction based on its mechanical properties. The chemical components and microstructures of four thermal activation temperature oil shale semi-cokes were first analyzed by X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Then, by replacing the cement with equal mass of semi-coke, the effect of heat-activated calcination temperature and the amount of semi-coke admixture on the mechanical strength of mortars sand and concrete was tested. Finally, a BP neural network was used to establish a strength prediction model for semi-coke concrete and the evolution of internal pores of semi-coke concrete was analyzed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The results show that semi-coke is mainly composed of SiO2 and Al2O3, which can be used as a concrete mineral admixture for volcanic ash reaction. The oil shale semi-coke is flaky with a porous surface, resulting in the semi-coke contributing more to the flexural strength of the mortar than to the compressive strength. At the calcination temperature of 500 ℃ and a semi-coke content of 15%, the concrete has the lowest porosity and the best mechanical properties, and is therefore recommended. The developed BP neural network prediction model has a high prediction level and can provide guidance for practical engineering. The increase in the amount of coke admixture leads to a continuous increase in the number of pores in the medium and large pore sizes inside the concrete, which is the main reason for the change in concrete strength due to semi-coke.
The search for a sustainable alternate fuel has already been fuelled by the depletion of fossil resources, rising
costs, rising demand, and global climate change concerns. Microalgae have emerged as a possible biofuel feedstock
because certain strains accumulate more lipids, grow faster, and have higher photosynthetic output than terrestrial plants.
Algae biofuels have the potential to be a viable alternative to fossil fuels; nevertheless, this technology must overcome a lot
of barriers before it can compete in the fuel market and be extensively adopted. These concerns include strain
identification and improvement in terms of both oil productivity and crop protection, fertiliser and resource allocation and
use, and co-product production to improve the system's overall economics. Although there is considerable
excitement about the potential of algae biofuels, there is much more work to be done in the industry. A decade ago, algae's
energy potential was all the rage in green technology. Algae fuel, also known as third-generation biofuel,
includes numerous advantages over earlier feedstocks based on plant crops such as sugar cane and maize, as
well as vegetable or animal waste streams. We highlight the opportunities for hastening the strain incentive program that
has arisen due to recent advances in the use of genome editing in microalgae.
The Youganwo Formation oil shale located in the Maoming Basin represents a large commercially valuable lacustrine oil shale resource and a potential bio-shale gas reservoir in South China. With the aim of deepening the understanding of factors that influence organic matter enrichment, this research conducted a geochemical investigation to reconstruct the depositional paleoenvironment of bioproductivity, preservation and dilution. Youganwo Formation oil shale is mainly deposited in semi-deep to deep-lake environments with relatively warm and humid paleoclimate in the subtropical-temperate zone. The total organic carbon (TOC) content (1.46–11.85%), S2 values (4.79–115.80 mg HC/mg rock) and HI (328–1040 mg HC/mg TOC) indicate that the oil shale has a good oil source rock potential. TOC content, (S1 + S2) values and vitrinite reflectance values show that its marginally mature organic matter (OM) belongs to kerogen type I-III with good oil-generating potential.
A 3rd order sequence was identified in the Yougnwo formation. Subsequently, the multiple factors including bioproductivity, preservation and dilution that control the OM enrichment of oil shale within system tracts were discussed. Moderate-quality oil shales (Oy-1) were developed in the transgressive systems tract (TST) in an oxidizing condition with abundant detrital input. High-quality oil shales (Oy-2) were deposited during the high-stand systems tract (HST) with increased accommodation space, improved preservation conditions, warm and humid climate, higher water bioproductivity and minimum detrital matter input. During the regressive systems tract (RST, Oy-3), higher detrital matter input and fresher water led to lower TOC values. Among these multiple factors, dilution condition was the major one that influences OM abundance and variation on the basis of sufficient organic matter input. Thus, OM enrichment models of Oy-1, Oy-2 and Oy-3 sub-members were established. The OM enrichment and quality in oil shale were controlled by the combined effect of bioproductivity, preservation, and dilution.
The evaluation of oil shale is significant to oil and gas exploration. Electronic nose has excellent odor recognition characteristics and can be used as a potential tool for oil content recognition. In this paper, the odor samples of Huadian and Wangqing oil shale with different oil content were obtained and the recognition ability and feasibility of electronic nose on oil content were investigated for the first time. More comprehensive information of oil shale was obtained by using transient and steady state fusion feature extraction method, which improves the recognition rate. And the influence of feature extraction methods and temperatures on oil content recognition was further discussed. The experimental results show that the electronic nose combined with proposed feature extraction method can realize the rapid in situ recognition of oil content at low temperatures. This work will help to propose more effective methods for the evaluation and development of oil shale.
A set of localization factors and forecast criteria is considered, the optimal method of geological exploration for unconventional hydrocarbon deposits is presented. A forecast assessment of promising stratigraphic complexes and structures for the search for shale gas and oil, gas of compacted reservoir rocks in the main oil and gas prospects regions of Ukraine: Eastern, Western, Southern.
Prospects of impact structures, methane production of coal deposits, gas hydrates of the Black Sea, increasing the resource base of hydrocarbons of Ukraine at the expense of unconventional sources are considered. The priority directions of geological exploration works for the purpose of development of resources of non-traditional sources of hydrocarbons in Ukraine are recommended, the organizational and legal basis of development of non-traditional resources of hydrocarbons in Ukraine is discussed.
Mechanical properties of layered rocks are critical in ensuring wellbore integrity and predicting natural fracture occurrence for successful reservoir development, particularly in unconventional reservoirs for which fractures provide the main pathway for hydrocarbon flow. We examine rock mechanical properties of exceptionally organic-rich, immature source rocks from Jordan and understand their relationships with rock mineral composition and lithofacies variations. Four depositional microfacies were identified: organic-rich mudstone, organic-rich wackestone, silica-rich packstone, and fine-grained organic-rich wackestone. The four types exhibit various mineralogical compositions, dominated by carbonates, biogenic quartz, and apatite. Leeb hardness ranges between 288 – 654, with the highest average values in silica-rich packstone and organic-rich mudstone. The highest uniaxial compressive strength (derived from the intrinsic specific energy measured by Epslog's Wombat scratch device), compressional, and shear waves velocities were measured in organic-rich mudstones (140 MPa, 3368 m/s, and 1702 m/s, respectively). Porosity shows higher average values in organic-rich wackestones and fine-grained organic-rich wackestones (33% – 35%). Silica-rich packstone and organic-rich mudstone have brittle properties, while organic-rich wackestone and fine-grained organic-rich wackestone are ductile. High silica contents are correlated positively with brittleness. A strong hardness-brittleness correlation suggests that Leeb hardness is a useful proxy for brittleness. Our study allows a better understanding of the relationships between lithofacies, organic content and rock mechanical properties, with implications for fracking design to well completion and hydrocarbon production. Further work involving systematic sampling and a more rigorous study is still required to better understand the spatial distribution of target lithologies and their mechanical properties.
There are several criteria for determining mineable oil shale reserves and resources. Three characteristics: thickness, average calorific value, and depth of the mineable bed were used in the era of planned economies, based on available mining technology capabilities. The reserve cut-off values had been estimated mostly for the needs of the large power industry. A research project to find new characteristics for the determination of oil shale reserves which are compatible with today's economy was performed in 1996/1997. According to this study, a given oil shale bed is defined as a reserve, provided that the costs of ifs mining and delivery to the consumer are lower than the consumer's expenditure of coal procurement. This study also defines an oil shale bed with an energy rating above 25 GJ/m(2) as a resource. Using these criteria, Estonia's oil shale resources are over 6 billion tonnes, or over 47 EJ (EJ - 10(18) J) of energy, including active reserves exceeding 2 billion tonnes, with over 17 EJ of energy.
During the Upper Triassic, in the western part of Hungary the paleogeographical conditions were favourable for the deposition of formations with high organic matter content. The best reference section of the Kössen Formation can be found in the Keszthely Mountains at Rezi Village: the borehole Rzt-1. The alginite sequence of the Kössen facies in the borehole Rzt-1 can be characterized by a moderate organic matter content (average Corg = 6.1%), relatively high carbonate-rich mineral part (average Ccarb = 6.1%) and relatively low total sulphur content (average Sta = 1.6%). On the basis of comparison of the previous average values derived from the qualitative analysis of the alginite-bearing samples from the borehole Rzt-1 with others for other Hungarian and Slovakian alginites, it can be established that the carbonate carbon and total sulphur content is higher in the Rezi samples, than in the other Hungarian and Slovakian ones. Two changes can be observed in the distribution among the varieties of sulphur in the studied alginite samples from the borehole Rzt-1. Above the interval 181.9-199.6 m the following order: pyritic sulphur (Spa) > organic sulphur (Sorga) > sulphate sulphur (SSO4a ) is characteristic. Between 199.6-233.3 m the order is Sorga > Spa > SSO4a and below 233.3 m repeatedly Spa > Sorga > SSO4a . According to the present and previous studies the alginite sequence of the Kössen facies may serve as a potential oil-source rock for petroleum found in the Zala basin. Presumably, the ≥20% of the sulphur content belonging to the Nagylengyel-type petroleum might have originated in the Kössen Formation.
The Lower Carboniferous (Visean) Emma Fiord Formation in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago is an oil shale of lacustrine origin composed of black carbonaceous shale, siltstone, and marlstone with interbedded sandstone, conglomerate, and oolitic and algal limestones. At Kleybolte Peninsula on Ellesmere Island, the Emma Fiord Formation was deposited on the tectonically active northwestern rim of the Sverdrup basin; it is now thermally overmature and well beyond the dry gas zone of organic maturation (vitrinite reflectance approx. = 5.0). In contrast, the Emma Fiord sequence on Grinnell Peninsula, Devon Island, near the southern edge of the Sverdrup basin, is immature to marginally mature (vitrinite reflectance = 0.26-0.44) and is composed predominantly of liptinite-rich oil shale. These kerogen-rich rocks contain a high volume of microcrystalline calcite and compositionally are marlstones. The Emma Fiord oil shales were deposited in lakes formed immediately prior to or possibly synchronous with the initiation of rifting in the Sverdrup basin. Syntectonic red-bed conglomerates derived from uplifted horst blocks directly overlie the Emma Fiord rocks. A few beds of conglomerate and sandstone in the upper part of the Emma Fiord Formation possibly record the onset of faulting. The formation closely resembles contemporaneous sequences in northern Alaska, Yukon Territory, Greenland, and Spitsbergen. Clearly, similar tectonic and paleoclimatic factors influenced sedimentation over this area in the Early Carboniferous, with the Sverdrup basin locations lying within 10°â»Â¹âµsup 0/ of the paleoequator. 11 figures, 2 tables.
Resources of potential oil in place in the Green River Formation are measured and estimated for the primary oil-shale resource area east of the Green River in Utah's Uinta Basin. The area evaluated (Ts 7-14 S, Rs 19-25 E) includes most of, and certainly the best of Utah's oil-shale resource. For resource evaluation the principal oil-shale section is divided into ten stratigraphic units which are equivalent to units previously evaluated in the Piceance Creek Basin of Colorado. Detailed evaluation of individual oil-shale units sampled by cores, plus estimates by extrapolation into uncored areas indicate a total resource of 214 billion barrels of shale oil in place in the eastern Uinta Basin.
Geological information is given on four oil shale fields in middle and western Anatolia: Himmetoǧlu, Seyitömer, Beypazarı and Hatıldaǧ. Some petrological, geochemical, Fischer assay and fluidized bed combustion test results for the oil shales are also presented. As a result of economic evaluation, it was concluded that Himmetoǧlu oil shale is the most appropriate for domestic and industrial utilization.
Oil shale has been exploited commercially in Soviet Estonia and the People's Republic of China for nearly a half-century, but at a scale and under economic conditions that would not qualify as commercial in the United States. Early oil shale operations date to the 1920's in both countries. Shale opeartions still play a significant role in Estonia and that role is expected to increase, but available information suggests that oil shale operations in the PRC are being de-emphasized in favor of conventional petroleum development.
The paper gives a detailed flow sheet of uranium production from Estonian Dictyonema shale used at Sillamäe uranium factory in 1948-1952 and comparison with other methods (Swedish, Estonian).
Tremadocian Dictyonema shale (argillite) is black argillaceous rock containing 10-20 % organic matter, abundant in sulfur and numerous microelements. Dictyonema shale is characterized by a high potassium and a low sodium content.
The Sillamäe uranium factory processed in 45 years more than 100,000 tons of uranium. The first 22.4 tons were produced from the local ore, the black Dictyonema shale, overabundant in North-East Estonia.
The present paper deals with the foundation and operation of the Sillamae Metallurgical Plant in 1946-1989. It presents data on uranium production from the local Dictyonema shale as well as from the imported ore. Data on the processing of enriched uranium are also given. The article describes the work of the Narva pilot plant and construction of the waste depository in Sillamae, which is an environmental hazard. The pre-investment planning of the initial remedial measures is presented.
A literature-based compilation of oil shale occurrence, geological setting and environment of deposition. Extensive details are given on the history of exploitation, reserves and tonnages mined, yields of distillates and chemical characteristics. Where available this is supported by diagrams showing mining methods including reproduction of contemporary photographs and plans. Particular emphasis is given to the retorting process and methods locally employed. An extensive literature base is referenced from a considerable range of sources including the most recent. Geographical sections covered are Africa, the Americas, Asia including the Middle East, Australasia and Europe including eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. -R.Foster
in this paper a short review about the history of oil shale exploration in Estonia is presented, Beginning from the 18th century, from the first notes written by A. W. Hupel, up to the present day. The numbers characterizing oil shale production within these years are presented, as well as the sizes of active and passive reserves of kukersite oil shale.
Oil shale is the major indigenous fossil-fuel in Jordan: its predicted reserves, of about 5 x 10(10) tonnes, should be sufficient to satisfy Jordan's energy-requirements for several centuries. Jordanian oil shale has, on an average, a gross calorific value of between 5 and 7 MJ/kg, an oil yield of similar to 10 % and a sulfur content of approximately 3 % by weight of the raw shale (i.e. 7 to 9 % of the organic matter content). Using the oil shale as the input fuel, a multipurpose production process (i.e. retorting, electricity generation, thermal water-desalination, chemicals production as well as mineral extraction) could achieve high utilisation-factors of both ifs chemical and energy potentials. In the long-term, oil shale is the only indigenous energy resource that could reduce Jordan's dependence on imported crude oil and hence ease the pressure on the national economy. The conversion of oil shale into a liquid or gaseous fuel and raw materials will be of decisive importance in attempts to secure the future of energy supplies. So national efforts devoted to the exploration for, and harnessing more economically, this energy resource, while limiting the associated adverse environmental impacts, should be accelerated.
Methods of the combusting and processing of Israeli oil shale (higher heating value 1150 kcal/kg, oil yield 5-6 %), and shale oil (sulphur content 5-7 %) are described. Oil shale is the only source of energy and only organic natural resource in Israel. Its reserves are of about 12 billion tons.
Although gas has been produced from Devonian black shales rich in organic matter in the Appalachian basin since 1821, the subsurface stratigraphy and the correlation of the gas-productive rocks were not well known because criteria were not available to subdivide the fine-grained rocks of the Devonian shale sequence. However, as the use of gamma-ray wire-line geophysical logs became widespread in the 1960's, data became available for identifying and tracing individual beds of black shale. Because organic matter in the black shales preferentially absorbed uranium during its transportation and deposition, the black shales are characterized by strong positive deflections on gamma-ray logs. By comparing gamma-ray logs from many closely spaced wells and correlating their conspicuous black shale log signatures with named stratigraphic units that crop out on the periphery of the basin a stratigraphic framework was established for the Devonian shale sequence, the relation of black shales in the New York Devonian section to the Chattanooga Shale of central Tennessee was resolved. Previously suggested correlations based upon conodont zonation were corroborated by the gamma-ray stratigraphy. -from Authors
On the basis of the results obtained by IR, NMR and GC-MS analysis it is supposed that organic matter of Khoot oil shale is a complex mixture of high-molecular organic compounds mainly of naphthene-aliphatic character with long aliphatic chains connected with naphthene rings as well as with some substituents such as aromatic rings, carboxylic, carbonyl and hydroxyl groups. Such a structure is evidenced by obtaining aliphatic, naphthenic, aromatic and heterocyclic substances of different molecular mass by pyrolysis (decomposition) of the organic matter of oil shale.
Oil shales are present as three distinct marlstones: laminated, clay and dolomite, based upon three major components: dolomite (including minor siderite and local calcite), clay (mostly illite and smectite) and kerogen.-P.B.
The rank and composition of organic material in oil shales and associated coals were determined using methods of incident light microscopy, ie reflectance and fluorescence measurement and maceral analyses.-from Authors
In the last five years, there has been a major increase in oil shale research in Australia in parallel with economic feasibility studies of the exploitation of the major Julia Creek, Rundle and Condor deposits. The results of these studies and the status of research being carried out primarily in government and university research laboratories are summarised. The scope of this research includes geology, petrology and geochemistry of oil shales, retorting chemistry and kinetics, upgrading of shale oils and environmental studies.
The titleof this book is atribute to Professor Erich Stach of Krefeld. Germany, who is one of the founding fathers of modern Coal Petrology. In his Original Lehrbuch der Kohlenpefro-graphie he showed, with many illustrations, the great merit and facility of examining the heterogeneity of coal with the aid of polished sections and oil immersion objectives. Great strides have been made in coal microscopy Since publication of the first edition in 1935. The current version is a complete new work by a number of authors of international repute, who have made contributions in their specific areas of expertise. In addition, the new edition is published in the English language and, like the original textbook, is profusely illustrated with excdlent photomicrographs and diagrams. The book is a comprehensive survey of nearly all aspects of coal petrology and since it is at present the only one of its kind, it most cerlainly fillsanimportant gap in fundamental scientific literature. It deals with the subject matter in five chapters, which have been written under single authorship or by several authors. with each contributing individual parts. The chapters have the following titles: I) Introduction and historical survey (4 p.); 2) Fundamentals of coal pelrology (50 p.); 3) Origin d t h e petrographic constituents of coal (74 p.): 4) Methods and tools of examination (73 p.): 5) Applied coal petrology (80 p.). Chapter 2 discusses the origin of coal and the development of coal facies in relation to different peat-forming environments, and how the original vegetable material changes into coal is dealt with under diagenesis and coalification. Of interest also is a comparison between coalification (leading lo coal formation) and bituminization (leading tooil generation). The recently developed views of M. Tdchmuller regarding the formation of oily substances during the coalification process are briefly referred to. A large part of Chapter 2 is devoted to detailed descriptions and terminology of the macerals, themicrdithotypes and the lrthotypes of coal as defined by the International Committee on Coal Petrology. In Chapter 3 theindividual coal constituents are related to botanical entities and to specificconditions of peat formation. The alteration of these constituents duringthe peat, brown coal and hard coal stages is mentioned and illustrated with photomicrographs. Chapter 4 givesan excellent survey of the melhods used in preparing the coal for microscopic study; also described are the procedures used tor the quantitative maceral, microlithotype. and mineral matter analysis as well as for rank determinations. The latter are carried out by vitrinite reflectance measurements, which are dealt with in considerable detail. A section on coke microscopy is included also. For those unfamiliar with coal petrology, the last chapter of the book may well be a revelation. It shows how varied are theapplications of these investigations. They range from actual coal technological processes, such as coal preparation, and the evaluation of suitability of coking coals and their blends lor the production of metallurgical coke, to geological applications. In the latter field, the value of coal petrology for seam correlations and for oil and gas prospecting (through vitrinite reflectance measurements) are discussed in some detail. This book has coveredthe subject matter In a most admirable manner and the authors can be congratulated on a job well done. It is modern in concept, contains an extensive and up-to-date bibliography, and can be recommended for both college students and professionals who desire more information on this comparatively new field of scientific endeavour. Only the high price is considered a disadvantage tor individual purchases. MS received August 23,1976.
The fault-bounded Stellarton Basin of northern Nova Scotia, Canada, contains the Province's largest oil shale resources (estimated at 825 à 10ⶠtons with 168 à 10ⶠbbls of shale oil in situ). The oil shales were first discovered in the 1850s and, except for limited scale mining during 1852-1859 and 1929-1930, they have remained undeveloped. In order to assess the potential economic use of the oil shales, a comprehensive study incorporating geological field mapping, core-logging, organic and inorganic geochemistry, organic petrology and combustion performance testing was undertaken. Results are presented.
The Fushun coalfield is located in Liaoning Province 45 km east of Shenyang in a relatively small east-west-trending exposure of Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks surrounded by Precambrian terrane. The coal is included in a sequence of early Tertiary rocks consisting of Paleocene basalt and tuff, and Eocene coal, oil shale and mudstone. These units have been folded into a syncline that plunges gently to the east. The overturned north limb of this fold has been partly removed by a thrust fault. The principal coal beds are low-sulfur subbituminous and bituminous in rank, are of limnic origin, and are contained in the 55-m-thick Eocene Guchengzi Formation. The field, which has been active since the turn of the century, has both open pit and underground mines. The largest operation is the West Open Pit mine, which measures 2.0 km wide, 6.6 km long, and 300 m deep. Coal is mined by means of power shovels, trucks, and an electric rail system. Oil shale from the Eocene Jijuntun Formation is also mined.
Oil shales are a diverse group of rocks that contain mineral matter and organic matter. The organic matter is derived from terrestrial, lacustrine and marine organisms. The maceral nomeclature system of the International Committee for Coal Petrology, used widely in coal petrography and petroleum source-rock studies, is suitable for describing the organic matter in oil shales provided the terminology for organic matter derived from algal precursors is divided into two submacerals — telalginite and lamalginite. Macerals of the liptinite group, including alginite, are volumetrically important constituents of oil shales and are the major source of the shale oil that is formed during pyrolysis. Liptinite is easily characterized and quantified using fluorescence mode microscopy and thus the type and abundance of liptinite can be used as a basis for a petrographic classification of oil shales.Oil shales are grouped, using the environmental of deposition as the discriminatory criterion, into the three primary divisions of terrestrial, lacustrine and marine oil shales. Type and abundance of liptinite is then used to subdivide these three groups into cannel coal, torbanite, lamosite (further subdivided into Rundle-type lamosite and Green River-type lamosite), marinite, tasmanite and kuckersite.
This work reports a detailed characterization of the various hydrocarbon structures present in a sample of the Irati shale oil (São Mateus do Sul, Paraná), obtained by the Petrosix Process, by means of a combination of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (g.c.-m.s.), co-injection with authentic standards, and retention time data of model compounds. Hydrocarbon structures, the main constituents of the shale oil (~ 38wt%), include: linear, branched and isoprenoidal alkanes, linear and isoprenoidal alkenes, alkylcyclopentanes and cyclohexanes, alkylcycloalkenes, hopanes, hopenes and steranes. Linear structures are dominant (43% of the total hydrocarbons), followed by isoprenoidal skeletons. Saturated compounds strongly predominate over their unsaturated counterparts. The use of several maturity parameters attested to the immaturity of the sediment. Our data further suggested a predominant algal/microbial origin and a basic lacustrine depositional environment to the Irati shale, probably under a moderate oxidative condition, thus confirming previous conclusions obtained via analysis of the Irati bitumen and the shale rock. Additionally, the data confirmed the usual classification of this shale as containing Type-II kerogen.
The eastern Devonian oil shale resource can yield 400 billion (400 X 10/sup 9/) bbl of synthetic oil, if all surface and near-surface shales were strip or deep mined for above-ground hydroretorting. Experimental work, in equipment capable of processing up to 1 ton/h of shale, has confirmed the technical and economic feasibility of aboveground hydroretorting of oil shales. Work done to date on nearly 500 samples from 12 states indicates that the HYTORT Process can give organic carbon recoveries from 2 to 2.5 times those of conventional retorting of the Devonian shales, so that the HYTORT Process yields 25 to 30 gallons per ton on syncrude at many localities, compared with 10 to 15 gallons per ton using Fischer Assay retort methods. Criteria for inclusion of shale in estimates of recoverable resources for the HYTORT Process are: (1) organic carbon of at least 10% by weight; (2) overburden of less than 200 feet (59 meters); (3) volumetric stripping ratios of less than 2.5 to 1; and (4) stratigraphic thickness of 10 feet (3 meters) or more. Resource estimates include: Kentucky (Ohio, New Albany, and Sunbury shales), 190 billion (190 X 10/sup 9/) barrels (bbl); Ohio (Ohio and Sunbury shales), 140 billion bbl; Tennessee (Chattanooga shale), 44 billion bbl; Indiana (New Albany shale), 40 billion bbl; Michigan (Antrim shale), 5 billion bbl; and Alabama (Chattanooga shale), 4 billion bbl. Recoverable resources have not been identified in West Virginia, Georgia, Oklahoma, Illinois, Arkansas, or Missouri outcrops. Co-production of uranium and metals is a possibility in the areas favorable for syncrude production.
Geology and oil-yield data are presented for a 58-sq-mile area encompassing the U.S. Department of the Interior oil-shale leasing program tracts in the W. Washakie Basin. Sweetwater County, Wyoming. Lithology and oil yields of samples from 3 Bureau of Mines coreholes are evaluated and correlated with Kinney Rim surface sections measured and sampled by the U.S. Geological Survey. Minable sections of oil shale averaging up to 25 gal of oil per ton crop out on Kinney Rim in the Laney Member of the Green River Formation. Thick oil-shale sections in the Laney Member that average 15 gal per ton represent 155 million bbl of oil in place per sq mile. In the lower part of the Green River Formation, the Tipton Shale Member contains a 20-to 40-ft section averaging 15 gal per ton. Beds of high-volatile C bituminous coal up to 6 ft thick are present in intertongued parts of the lower Green River Formation and upper Wasatch Formation. (13 refs.)
The black, organic shales of Devonian-Mississippian age in North America range in thickness from a few meters to thousands of meters and underlie some 650,000 km/sup 2/ (250,000 square miles). In the Eastern United States, where these rocks are exposed at the surface and thus most accessible as a resource, they are essentially flat-lying and average 9 to 18 m (30 to 60 ft) thick along nearly 1600 km (1000 miles) of outcrop. Recent stratigraphic studies have led to more accurate correlation and ore grade prediction. Widely scattered black shale sequences possess similar geometries that can be subdivided into depositional units based in part on the known or predicted stratigraphic position of the fossil alga Foerstia. Improvements in process technology have raised the competitive position of Eastern oil shales. 13 figures, 2 tables.
Thesis (M.S.)--University of Minnesota. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 144-161).
The geology of New Brunswick oil shales
- F D Ball
- G Macauley
Ball, F.D., and Macauley, G. 1988. The geology of New Brunswick oil shales, eastern Canada // Proc. Intern. Conf. on Oil Shale and Shale Oil. Chemical Industry
Press, Beijing, 1988. P. 34-41.
The Baltic oil shale basin: an overview
- Heikki Bauert
Bauert, Heikki. 1994. The Baltic oil shale basin: an overview // Proc. 1993 Eastern
Oil Shale Symp. Univ. Kentucky, Institute for Mining and Minerals Research,
1994. P. 411-421.
Nahcolite and dawsonite resources in the Green River Formation, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado // Guidebook to the Energy Resources of the Piceance Creek Basin. 25th field conf. Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists
- T M Beard
Beard, T.M., et al. 1974. Nahcolite and dawsonite resources in the Green River
Formation, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado // Guidebook to the Energy Resources
of the Piceance Creek Basin. 25th field conf. Rocky Mountain Association of Geologists, 1974. P. 101-109.
Valorization studies of the Moroccon [sic] oil shales // Office Nationale de Researches et Exploitations Petrolieres B.P. 774
- R Bouchta
Bouchta, R. 1984. Valorization studies of the Moroccon [sic] oil shales // Office
Nationale de Researches et Exploitations Petrolieres B.P. 774, Agdal, Rabat, Maroc, 1984.
Methane occurrences and potential resources in the lower Parachute Creek Member of Green River Formation, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado // 24th Oil Shale Symp
- R D Cole
- G J Daub
Cole, R.D., and Daub, G.J. 1991. Methane occurrences and potential resources in
the lower Parachute Creek Member of Green River Formation, Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado // 24th Oil Shale Symp. Proc. Colorado School of Mines Quarterly,
1991. Vol. 83, No. 4. P. 1-7.