Global Multiculturals 1

Abstract

Drawing on psychological research, we examine how individuals who have been exposed to multiple cultures differ in their cultural experiences, cultural identities, and adaptation to foreign cultures. A survey of multicultural business students found that those who first moved to a foreign country at a relatively younger age and moved to relatively more countries over their lives constituted a distinct subset of multicultural individuals. Labeling these individuals " globals " , we found that they were less likely to identify with cultural groups and less culturally adaptive. These results suggest that there is no single type of " multiculturalism " , and that having more and earlier multicultural experiences does not necessarily predict better adaptation outcomes. More nuanced examination of multicultural individuals' past experiences and psychology is needed to understand how they can better leverage their skills as global leaders. Running head: Global Multiculturals Forthcoming in International Studies in Management and Organization 2013 Special Issue: " Advancing the Field—New Directions for Global Mobility " Kathrin J. Hanek is a doctoral candidate in the

Full text

Global&Multiculturals&1!
!
Kathrin&J.&Hanek,&Fiona&Lee,&and&Mary&Yoko&Brannen&
Individual)Differences)Among)Global/Multicultural)Individuals:)Cultural)
Experiences,)Identity,)and)Adaptation)&
Abstract:&Drawing&on&psychological&research,&we&examine&how&individuals&who&have&
been&exposed&to&multiple&cultures&differ&in&their&cultural&experiences,&cultural&
identities,&and&adaptation&to&foreign&cultures.&&A&survey&of&multicultural&business&
students&found&that&those&who&first&moved&to&a&foreign&country&at&a&relatively&
younger&age&and&moved&to&relatively&more&countries&over&their&lives&constituted&a&
distinct&subset&of&multicultural&individuals.&Labeling&these&individuals&“globals”,&we&
found&that&they&were&less&likely&to&identify&with&cultural&groups&and&less&culturally&
adaptive.&These&results&suggest&that&there&is&no&single&type&of&“multiculturalism”,&and&
that&having&more&and&earlier&multicultural&experiences&does&not&necessarily&predict&
better&adaptation&outcomes.&More&nuanced&examination&of&multicultural&individuals’&
past&experiences&and&psychology&is&needed&to&understand&how&they&can&better&
leverage&their&skills&as&global&leaders.&&
Running&head:&Global&Multiculturals&
&
Forthcoming&in&International&Studies&in&Management&and&Organization&2013&&
Special&Issue:&“Advancing&the&Field—New&Directions&for&Global&Mobility”&
&
)
Kathrin&J.&Hanek&is&a&doctoral&candidate&in&the&Department&of&Psychology&at&The&
University&of&Michigan,&530&Church&St.,&Ann&Arbor,&MI&48109,&U.S.A.;&tel.:&734_647_
6787;&e_mail:&khanek@umich.edu.&Fiona&Lee&is&Professor&of&Psychology&at&The&
University&of&Michigan,&530&Church&St.,&Ann&Arbor,&MI&48109,&U.S.A.;&tel.:&734_763_
3358;&e_mail:&fionalee@umich.edu.&Mary&Yoko&Brannen&is&Professor&of&International&
Business&at&The&University&of&Victoria,&3800&Finnerty&Drive,&Victoria,&BC&V8P&5C2,&
Canada;&tel:&250_721_4445;&email:&maryyoko@uvic.ca.&

Global&Multiculturals&2!
!
Individual)Differences)Among)Global/Multicultural)Individuals:)Cultural)
Experiences,)Identity,)and)Adaptation&
)
)
The&experience&of&living&in&multiple&countries&is&not&only&becoming&
increasingly&common,&but&is&a&fact_of_life&for&many&managers&and&members&of&
multinational&organizations.&Carlos&Ghosn,&CEO&of&Nissan&and&Renault,&is&of&
Lebanese&descent,&was&born&in&Brazil,&has&lived&in&Lebanon,&studied&in&France,&and&
resides&part_time&in&Japan&and&France&(INSEAD&2008).&Corporate&rivals&Coca_Cola&
and&PepsiCo&both&have&Chief&Executive&Officers&who&exemplify&multicultural&or&
global&backgrounds:&Turkish_American&Muhtar&Kent&and&Indian_American&Indra&
Nooyi,&respectively.&
There&is&a&growing&segment&of&multicultural&individuals&who,&like&Ghosn,&
Kent,&and&Nooyi,&are&familiar&with&and&competent&in&!"#$%&#'&cultures.&While&the&
psychological&and&managerial&literatures&have&long&explored&multiculturals&such&as&
immigrants&or&expatriates,&recent&research&has&noted&a&new&demographic&of&
multiculturals&who&possess&a&more&complex&cultural&identity&(Berry&1990;&Sussman&
2000).&This&new&research&includes,&but&is&not&limited&to,&work&on&$(%)*+,"#$")'+-%*.+
/012.34&&“people&who&have&spent&a&significant&part&of&their&developmental&years&
outside&their&parents’&culture,”&(Pollock&and&Van&Reken&2009,&13);&5#678#+
,6.!6&6#%$89.,&&“a&talented&population&of&highly&educated,&multilingual&people&that&
have&lived,&worked,&and&studied&for&extensive&periods&in&different&cultures”&(Brimm&
2010,&4);&,"#$")8#+96!8*.,&individuals&who&“feel&at&home&everywhere&and&nowhere”&

Global&Multiculturals&3!
!
(Isogai,&Hayashi,&and&Uno&1999,&493);+7%,"#$")8#+!8)5%98#.,&“individuals&who&have&
internalized&more&than&one&culture,&yet&do&not&identify&strongly&with&either&or&any&of&
them”,&(Fitzsimmons,&Lee,&and&Brannen&2010,&3):+or&,"#$")8##;+(6!'#'..+%9*%<%*"8#.4+
“individuals&of&mixed&ethnic&and/or&cultural&background&living&within&a&framework&
of&experiences,&feelings,&and&thoughts&that&do&not&belong&to&any&single&racial,&ethnic,&
or&cultural&reference&group….(who)&lack&a&cultural&home”&(Vivero&and&Jenkins&1999,&
12_13).&&
Importantly,&there&are&differences&between&these&conceptualizations&of&
multicultural&individuals.&For&example,&research&on&TCKs&and&the&culturally&
homeless&focused&on&formative&childhood&experiences,&examining&individuals&who&
have&lived&in&multiple&countries&early&on&in&their&lives&(Hoersting&and&Jenkins&2011;&
Vivero&and&Jenkins&1999).&Meanwhile,&other&research&has&focused&on&subjective&
cultural&identity—or&sense&of&belonging&in&different&cultural&groups—rather&than&
actual&living&experiences&(Berry&1980;&Ting_Toomey&et&al.&2000).&Indeed,&there&are&
many&questions&about&whether&and&how&such&differences&matter.&For&instance,&does&
it&make&a&difference&whether&cultural&exposure—e.g.,&living&in&a&foreign&country—is&
experienced&during&one’s&formative&years&versus&later&in&one’s&life?&Does&it&matter&
whether&one&is&exposed&to&only&a&single&foreign&culture&rather&than&to&several&
foreign&cultures?&Do&objective&cultural&experiences&over&one’s&lifetime&relate&to&
subjective&cultural&identity&and&adaptation?&
The&aim&of&this&article&is&to&provide&initial&data&to&address&these&questions.&
We&examine&the&67=',$%<'&,"#$")8#+'>&')%'9,'.&and&the&."7=',$%<'+.'9.'+6?+,"#$")8#+
%*'9$%$;&among&multicultural&individuals&to&investigate&the&key&dimensions&on&which&

Global&Multiculturals&4!
!
they&differ.&We&also&examine&multicultural&individuals&differ&on&cultural&adaptation&
(Sussman&2011).&Another&aim&of&this&article&is&to&integrate&recent&psychological&
investigations&of&multiculturals&to&the&managerial&literature&on&global&leadership.&&
1"#$")8#+'>&')%'9,'.+
We&suggest&that&two&factors—deep&cultural&experiences&that&(a)&incorporate&
!"#$%&#'&cultural&groups,&and&(b)&began&'8)#;&in&life&before&the&sense&of&self&was&fully&
formed—may&predict&distinct&psychological&processes&among&multiculturals.&There&
is&psychological&evidence&showing&that&people&who&belong&to&multiple&cultural&
groups&process&cultural&cues&in&more&complex&and&dynamic&ways&(Benet_Martinez,&
Leu,&Lee,&and&Morris&2002).&For&example,&Hong,&Morris,&Chiu,&and&Benet_Martinez&
(2000)&found&that&Asian_American&biculturals&engage&in&“cultural&frame&switching”&
where&they&exhibit&different&culturally_stereotypical&behaviors&depending&on&the&
situation.&Subsequent&studies&found&that&this&process&is&moderated&by&subjective&
perceptions&of&compatibility&between&cultural&groups&(Cheng,&Lee,&and&Benet_
Martinez&2006;&Cheng&and&Lee&in&press).&In&short,&external&cultural&cues&interact&
with&internal&perceptions&about&cultures&to&affect&multiculturals’&cognitive&
processes.&
These&processes&are&likely&to&be&exponentially&more&complex&for&individuals&
exposed&to&three&or&more&cultural&groups&(Roccas&and&Brewer&2002).&While&
biculturals&move&between&two&cultures,&individuals&who&have&had&deep&experiences&
with&three&or&more&cultures&will&have&to&choose&between&many&more&cultural&frames&
in&any&given&situation.&Similarly,&while&biculturals&are&affected&by&their&perceptions&
of&compatibility&between&their&two&cultural&groups,&individuals&who&have&lived&in&

Global&Multiculturals&5!
!
three&or&more&cultures&are&affected&by&many&more&inter_relationships&between&
cultural&groups;&multiculturals&exposed&to&three,&four,&or&even&five&cultural&groups&
are&managing&three,&six,&or&even&ten&inter_group&relationships&respectively.&In&short,&
the&basic&psychological&processes&underlying&the&management&of&three&or&more&
cultural&groups&may&be&fundamentally&more&complex&and&more&dynamic&than&that&of&
managing&one&or&even&two&cultural&groups.&As&such,&we&suggest&that&it&is&important&
to&differentiate&between&individuals&based&on&the&9"!7')&of&cultures&to&which&they&
have&had&deep&exposure.&
Second,&the&age&when&one&first&encounters&deep&exposure&to&foreign&cultures&
can&also&be&important.&Psychological&theory&suggests&that&adolescence&(typically&
ending&at&age&19)&is&considered&a&time&when&rising&self_consciousness&and&cognitive&
capacities&enable&individuals&to&think&abstractly&about&their&identity—who&they&are,&
and&how&they&are&“situated”&in&the&social&environment&(Baumeister&1986).&We&
suggest&that&there&might&be&important&differences&between&individuals&who&were&
first&exposed&to&multiple&cultures&before&and&after&this&critical&identity_formation&
period.&&
Individuals&who&are&exposed&to&many&different&cultures&as&children&or&
adolescents&may&be&moving&abroad&during&a&critical&period&when&they&are&still&in&the&
process&of&forming&a&clear&sense&of&self&based&on&their&belongingness&to&a&cultural&
group&(Brannen,&Garcia,&and&Thomas&2009;&Fail,&Thompson,&and&Walker&2004).&
While&such&experiences&can&assist&in&the&development&of&one’s&global&or&
international&career&(Vance&2005),&these&experiences&can&also&lead&to&a&type&of&
cultural&homelessness&or&rootlessness,&which&may&reinforce&the&psychological&

Global&Multiculturals&6!
!
difficulties&in&balancing&and&prioritizing&between&different&cultural&groups&(Phinney&
and&Devich_Navarro&1997).&Indeed,&a&recent&study&showed&that&teenage&children&of&
expatriates&were&less&interested&in&cultural&differences&than&their&adult&parents,&
presumably&because&their&own&cultural&identity&is&still&in&flux&(Weeks,&Weeks,&and&
Willis_Muller&2010).&This&literature&suggests&that&it&may&be&important&to&
differentiate&between&individuals&based&on&the&85'&when&they&first&experienced&deep&
exposure&to&another&culture.&
Overall,&we&suggest&that&individuals&who&have&been&exposed&to&multiple&
foreign&cultures&(two&or&more)&during&the&early,&formative&years&of&their&lives&(i.e.,&
before&age&19)&will&have&distinctive&psychological&characteristics.&For&the&purpose&of&
this&article,&we&label&individuals&with&these&two&characteristics&as&“globals”.&&
Hypothesis&1:&“Globals”&are&distinct&from&other&multiculturals&by&(a)&having&
deep&exposure&to&multiple&cultures&(two&or&more&foreign&cultures),&that&(b)&began&in&
their&early,&formative&years&(before&age&19).&
1"#$")8#+@*'9$%$;+
Cultural&identity&refers&to&the&subjective&sense&of&belongingness&people&feel&
towards&a&cultural&group&(Berry&1980).&Cultural&identity&differs&from&cultural&
experiences&insofar&that&individuals&and&organizations&who&have&experiences&
operating&in&another&culture&do&not&necessarily&feel&that&they&belong&in&that&culture&
(Adler&and&Bartholomew&1992;&Phinney&and&Devich_Navarro&1997;&Sussman&2000&
and&2002;&Ting_Toomey&et&al.&2000).&For&example,&Berry&(1990)&found&that&
immigrants&who&operate&in&two&cultures&can&have&different&patterns&of&cultural&
identification:&.'&8)8$'*&individuals&identify&with&the&home&but&not&the&host&culture;&

Global&Multiculturals&7!
!
8..%!%#8$'*&individuals&identify&with&the&host&but&not&the&home&culture;&%9$'5)8$'*&
individuals&identify&with&both&cultures;&and&!8)5%98#.&do&not&identify&with&either&
culture.&Although&marginal&individuals&do&not&identify&with&any&cultural&group,&they&
remain&competent&at&working&and&living&in&multiple&cultures&(e.g.,&Fitzsimmons,&Lee,&
and&Brannen&2010). &
Indeed,&recent&studies&&suggest&that&“globals”,&or&individuals&who&have&been&
exposed&to&multiple&cultures&starting&at&an&early&age,&may&not&identify&with&any&
cultural&group&(e.g.,&Brannen,&Garcia,&and&Thomas&2009;&Thomas,&Brannen,&and&
Garcia&2011).&“Globals”,&like&TCKs&or&culturally&homeless&individuals,&“frequently&
build&relationships&to&all&of&the&cultures,&while&not&having&full&ownership&in&any”&
(Pollock&and&Van&Reken&2009,&13).&Their&cultural&experiences&are&characterized&by&
restlessness&and&rootlessness,&a&“sense&of&simultaneously&belonging&‘everywhere&
and&nowhere’”&(Pollock&and&Van&Reken&2009,&23).&&
Hypothesis&2:&Compared&to&other&multiculturals,&“globals”&(or&individuals&
exposed&to&two&or&more&foreign&cultures&starting&early&in&life),&have&(a)&low&levels&of&
identification&with&cultural&groups,&or&(b)&a&marginal&cultural&identity.&
A*8&$8$%69+$6+B6)'%59+1"#$")'.+
Cultural&adaptation,&or&the&motivation/ability&to&adjust&one’s&thinking,&
feelings,&and&behaviors&to&a&new&culture,&is&an&important&predictor&of&effective&
performance&in&global&settings&(Halsberger&2005a;&Thomas&and&Lazarova&2006).&For&
example,&individuals&who&actively&engage&in&learning&about&and&adapting&to&foreign&
cultures&are&more&successful&in&international&assignments&(Black&1988;&Shaffer&and&
Harrison&2001).&&

Global&Multiculturals&8!
!
There&is&psychological&evidence&suggesting&that&individuals&with&exposure&to&
more&cultures&may&be&more&culturally&adaptive.&For&example,&people&who&are&
exposed&to&and&identify&with&multiple&cultures&think&about&culture&in&more&
cognitively&complex&ways,&and&have&more&culturally_diverse&social&networks&(Benet_
Martinez,&Lee,&and&Leu&2006;&Tadmor,&Tetlock,&and&Peng&2009).&This&in&turn&can&
facilitate&better&cultural&adaptation&and&advancement&in&multinational&corporations&
(Gillespie,&Riddle,&and&McBride&2010;&Sussman&2002).&&
However,&exposure&to&multiple&cultures&can&also&inhibit&cultural&adaptation.&
Brannen&and&Lee&(in&press)&argue&that&individuals&who&identify&with&multiple&
cultures&have&lower&perceptual&acuity&or&awareness&of&cultural&differences,&which&
can&decrease&cultural&adaptation.&Individuals&who&have&lived&and&worked&effectively&
in&multiple&cultures&may&be&less&likely&to&attend&to&and&understand&different&cultural&
environments&because&they&perceive&cultural&differences&as&easy&to&bridge&and&
unproblematic.&This&lowered&awareness&of&deep_seated&and&ingrained&cultural&
differences&in&turn&inhibits&cultural&adaptation&(Thomas&and&Lazarova&2006).&
Supporting&this&idea,&individuals&who&identify&with&multiple&cultures&have&been&
shown&to&be&less&culturally&adaptive,&behaving&and&communicating&in&less&culturally_
appropriate&ways&(Lee&2010).&&
Similar&findings&have&emerged&in&studies&of&young&individuals&in&their&
identity_formative&years.&A&recent&study&showed&that&college&students&who&have&
lived&abroad&for&an&extended&period&of&time&were&less&open&to&and&aware&of&other&
cultural&values&and&influences&than&students&who&never&traveled&abroad&(Cheng,&
Clerkin,&Lee,&and&Dries&2011).&Without&a&well_developed,&mature&cultural&identity&

Global&Multiculturals&9!
!
themselves,&these&students&might&oversimplify&cultural&differences,&leading&to&
lowered&attention&to&cultural&differences&and&lowered&desire&to&adapt&to&other,&
foreign&cultures&(Sanchez_Burks,&Lee,&Nisbett,&and&Ybarra&2007).&Another&study&
showed&that&expatriate&teenagers,&unlike&expatriate&adults,&were&more&interested&in&
making&friends&than&learning&about&and&understanding&a&foreign&culture.&For&
example,&one&said:&“(my&parents)&are&adapting&to&the&culture&and&I’m&adapting&to&the&
different&kind&of&friends&I’m&developing.&Instead&of&all&Americans,&I’m&establishing&
friends&from&different&countries”&(Weeks,&Weeks,&and&Willis_Muller&2010,&38).&These&
studies&suggest&that&“globals”,&or&individuals&who&were&exposed&to&multiple&cultures&
starting&at&a&young&age,&may&have&lower&levels&of&adaptation&to&foreign&cultures.&&
Hypothesis&3:&Compared&to&other&individuals&exposed&to&foreign&cultures,&
“globals”&(or&individuals&exposed&to&two&or&more&foreign&cultural&groups&early&on&in&
life)&will&show&lower&levels&of&adaptation&to&foreign&cultures.&
METHOD&
C8)$%,%&89$.+
Our&hypotheses&examine&differences&between&“globals”&and&other&
multiculturals.&We&tested&our&hypotheses&using&a&sample&of&MBA&students&from&the&
main&campus&of&an&international&business&school.&This&business&school,&which&has&
campuses&across&multiple&continents&and&affiliations&with&other&business&schools&
around&the&world,&is&well_known&for&drawing&students&with&highly&international&and&
diverse&backgrounds.&The&MBA&student&body,&thus,&provided&a&good&match&of&the&
demographic&group&that&is&of&primary&interest&to&the&present&study—specifically,&

Global&Multiculturals&10!
!
individuals&who&are&on&the&“high&end”&of&the&cultural&experiences&continuum&with&
exposure&to&multiple&cultures&throughout&their&lives.&&
Ninety_nine&MBA&students&(75&percent&male;&average&age&28.6,&DE&=&2.14),&
who&indicated&that&they&have&lived&in&a&foreign&country,&filled&out&a&survey.&The&
sample&was&culturally&diverse,&representing&36&different&nationalities&spanning&five&
continents.&Of&the&99&participants,&92&percent&were&living&outside&their&home&culture&
at&the&time&the&study&was&conducted.&Ninety_three&percent&of&the&participants&
reported&having&prior&experience&working&overseas.&Thirty_one&percent&of&the&
participants&listed&their&prior&occupation&before&entering&business&school&as&
management&consultant,&the&largest&occupational&group&in&our&sample.&Other&
occupations&included,&among&others,&banking,&finance,&automotive,&oil&and&gas&
industries.&The&average&reported&income&of&the&participants&was&65,244&Euros&(DE&=&
25,736).&
F'8.")'.+
& Participants&completed&a&survey&measuring&the&variables&listed&below.&&
1"#$")8#+G>&')%'9,'..&Participants&reported&how&many&foreign&countries&they&
had&lived&in&(not&traveled&to),&their&age&when&they&moved&to&each&of&these&countries,&
and&how&long&they&lived&in&each&country.&+
1"#$")8#+@*'9$%$;.&Following&previous&studies&on&cultural&identities&of&
biculturals&and&multiculturals&(Benet_Martinez,&Leu,&Lee,&and&Morris&2002;&Cheng,&
Lee,&and&Benet_Martinez&2006),&we&asked&participants&to&indicate&their&home&culture&
and&their&“host”&culture&(another&country&with&which&they&identify).&For&each&
culture,&participants&rated&their&agreement&with&the&following&items&using&a&5_point&

Global&Multiculturals&11!
!
Likert&scale&from&1&(not&at&all)&to&5&(very&much):&“To&what&extent&do&you&identify&
with&this&country?”:&“To&what&extent&are&your&values&the&same&as&this&country?”;&and&
“To&what&extent&is&your&worldview&the&same&as&this&country?”.&While&longer&scales&
exist,&these&items&have&been&shown&to&correlate&highly&with&longer&measures&of&
cultural&identification,&and&to&predict&culturally_relevant&behaviors&including&
attributional&tendencies,&cultural&ingroup&favoritism,&self_construals,&and&relational&
patterns&(Cheng&and&Lee&2009;&Nguyen&and&Benet_Martinez&2007).&The&three&items&
were&averaged&to&form&two&composite&scores&measuring&identification&with&home&(α&
=&.73)&and&host&culture&(α&=&.80)&respectively.+
A*8&$8$%69H+Previous&research&has&developed&multiple&scales&to&measure&
adaptation.&Sussman&(2002),&for&example,&measured&cognitive,&affective,&and&
behavioral&cultural&adaptation&using&a&29_item&scale.&Lin&and&Malhotra&(2011)&used&
three&items&to&measure&cultural&adaptation—whether&individuals&are&motivated&to&
understand,&make&adjustments,&and&learn&from&other&cultures&(α’s&>&.70&in&multiple&
samples).&In&the&present&study,&we&used&the&three&items&from&Lin&and&Malhotra’s&
(2011)&scale,&but&also&incorporated&items&that&tap&into&other&components&of&cultural&
adaptation,&such&as&“making&friends’”and&“language&proficiency”&(Halsberger&2005b;&
Sussman&2002).&+
In&all,&participants&rated&a&foreign&culture&they&had&lived&in&on&six&items&using&
a&5_point&Likert&scale&from&1&(not&at&all)&to&5&(very&much):&“To&what&extent&did&you&
adapt&your&thoughts&to&this&culture?”;&“To&what&extent&did&you&adapt&your&behaviors&
to&this&culture?”;&“To&what&extent&did&you&learn&about&this&culture?”;&“To&what&extent&
did&you&learn&the&language&of&this&culture?”;&“To&what&extent&did&you&interact&socially&

Global&Multiculturals&12!
!
with&people&from&this&culture?”;&and&“To&what&extent&were&you&exposed&to&media&
(television,&radio,&newspapers,&etc.)&in&this&culture?”.&These&six&ratings&were&
internally&reliable&(α&=&.82),&and&averaged&to&form&a&composite&adaptation&score.&
RESULTS&
1"#$")8#+G>&')%'9,'..&We&first&examined&whether&multiculturals&can&be&
meaningfully&classified&based&on&the&number&of&foreign&countries&they&have&lived&in&
and&the&age&at&which&they&first&moved&to&a&foreign&culture.&Using&SPSS,&a&two_step&
cluster&analysis&based&on&these&two&variables&identified&four&clusters.&This&solution&
was&good&(average&silhouette&=&0.6).&The&dendrogram&showed&that&the&four_cluster&
solution&best&characterized&the&data.&We&then&conducted&a&K_means&clustering&
analysis&with&the&standardized&variables&(number&of&foreign&countries&lived&in&and&
age&at&first&move)&in&which&a&four_cluster&solution&was&specified.&Ninety&participants&
were&classified&into&the&same&clusters&by&these&two&cluster&analyses;&only&these&
participants&were&included&in&the&subsequent&analyses.+
Table&1&displays&descriptive&statistics&for&the&final&four_cluster&solution.&
Cluster&1&included&participants&who&moved&when&they&were&relatively&older&(F&=&
22.12,&DE&=&2.76)&but&lived&in&relatively&fewer&foreign&countries&(F&=&1.00,&DE&=&.00);&
Cluster&2&represented&participants&who&moved&when&they&were&relatively&older&(F&=&
20.85,&DE&=&3.30)&and&lived&in&relatively&more&foreign&countries&(F&=&3.11,&DE&=&
1.55);&Cluster&3&consisted&of&participants&who&moved&when&they&were&relatively&
younger&(F&=&8.00,&DE&=&1.41)&and&lived&in&relatively&fewer&foreign&countries&(F&=&
1.00,&DE&=&.00);&and&Cluster&4&was&comprised&of&participants&who&were&relatively&
younger&when&they&moved&(F&=&4.54,&DE&=&3.57)&and&lived&in&relatively&more&foreign&

Global&Multiculturals&13!
!
countries&(F&=&3.92,&DE&=&1.12).&As&Table&1&shows,&Cluster&4&describes&what&we&
labeled&“globals”,&individuals&who&first&moved&to&a&foreign&country&at&a&younger&age&
and&have&lived&in&more&foreign&countries.&This&analysis&suggests&that&“globals”&
represent&a&distinct&group&among&a&broader&sample&of&multiculturals.&Overall,&these&
results&support&Hypothesis&1.&&
[INSERT&TABLE&1&ABOUT&HERE]&
1"#$")8#+@*'9$%$;H&Hypothesis&2&predicted&that&“globals”,&or&those&classified&
into&Cluster&4,&would&have&lower&cultural&identification&with&different&cultural&
groups&or&a&marginal&cultural&identity.&All&90&participants&provided&ratings&of&
identification&with&their&home&culture,&and&57&participants&also&provided&ratings&of&
identification&with&their&host&culture.&Two&one_way&analyses&of&variance&were&
conducted&comparing&identification&with&home&and&host&cultures&across&the&four&
clusters.&The&results&are&displayed&in&Table&2.&The&omnibus&test&was&marginally&
significant&for&identification&with&home&culture&(B(3,&86)&=&2.32,&&+=&.08),&and&not&
significant&for&identification&with&host&culture.&To&test&our&prediction&that&“globals”&
have&a&lower&level&of&cultural&identification&than&the&other&three&groups,&we&
performed&a&focused&contrast&(using&the&contrast&weights&of&_3,&1,&1,&1).&The&contrast&
was&significant&for&identification&with&home&culture&($(86)&=&2.16,&&&<&.05),&and&
marginally&significant&for&identification&with&host&culture&($(53)&=&1.72,&&&=&.09).&The&
means&were&in&the&predicted&direction,&providing&partial&support&for&Hypothesis&2.&+
[INSERT&TABLE&2&ABOUT&HERE]&
Next,&we&categorized&the&57&participants&that&provided&identification&of&home&
and&host&cultures&into&four&groups,&depending&on&whether&they&scored&relatively&

Global&Multiculturals&14!
!
higher&or&lower&on&each&of&the&two&identification&measures&(using&median&splits&on&
home&and&host&identification—3.67&and&3.0,&respectively).&As&Table&3&shows,&a&low_
low&identification&pattern&(marginal&cultural&identity)&was&the&most&common&
identification&type&among&“globals”.&While&45&percent&of&“globals”&had&a&marginal&
cultural&identity,&only&17&percent&of&other&participants—individuals&in&Clusters&1,&2,&
and&3—had&a&marginal&cultural&identity,&χ2(1)&=&3.97,&&&<&.05.&These&results&were&also&
consistent&with&Hypothesis&2.&
[INSERT&TABLE&3&ABOUT&HERE]&
A*8&$8$%69.&One_way&analyses&of&variance&were&conducted&comparing&
“globals”&with&other&participants&on&measures&of&adaptation.&The&omnibus&results,&
shown&in&Table&2,&found&significant&effects&for&adaptation&of&thought&(B(3,&86)&=&3.54,&
&&<&.05),&behavior&(B(3,&86)&=&8.09,&&&<&.001),&and&learning&the&culture&(B(3,&85)&=&
3.56,&&&<&.05).&The&adaptation&composite&variable,&averaged&over&all&the&adaptation&
items,&was&also&significant&(B(3,&86)&=&2.94,&&&<&.05).&+
Again,&focused&contrasts&were&conducted&examining&the&prediction&that&
“globals”&have&lower&levels&of&adaptation&than&other&groups.&The&effect&was&
significant&for&the&adaptation&composite&variable&($(86)&=&2.79,&&&<&.01),&as&well&as&for&
the&specific&items&tapping&into&adaptation&of&thought&($(86)&=&2.98,&&&<&.01),&behavior&
($(86)&=&4.90,&&&<&.001),&and&learning&of&the&foreign&culture&($(85)&=&3.16,&&&<&.01).&
The&means&were&in&the&predicted&direction,&supporting&Hypothesis&3.&To&examine&
whether&the&observed&effects&were&due&to&“globals”&first&moving&to&a&foreign&culture&
at&a&younger&age&than&other&multiculturals,&we&examined&the&correlation&between&

Global&Multiculturals&15!
!
the&adaptation&composite&and&age&of&first&move&in&our&sample;&the&correlation&
coefficient&was&not&significant&()&=&.088,&&&=&.41).&&
DISCUSSION&
In&today’s&global&economy,&people&with&so_called&global&experiences&and&
mindsets&are&often&perceived&as&effective&leaders&in&multinational&corporations.&
These&individuals&presumably&have&more&knowledge&about&multiple&cultures,&and&
can&leverage&this&knowledge&to&manage&teams&and&make&decisions&on&a&global&scale.&
Indeed,&there&has&been&a&growing&body&of&research&in&both&the&psychological&and&
management&literatures&showing&that,&compared&to&“monocultural”&individuals,&
those&with&multicultural&backgrounds&have&unique&skills&and&capabilities,&and&think&
about&culture&in&different&ways&(Brannen&and&Lee&in&press).&&&
Using&quantitative&data&from&a&survey,&our&findings&show&that&clear&
differences&exist&among&multiculturals.&We&first&found&that&there&is&a&distinct&group&
of&individuals&who&have&experienced&deep&exposure&to&two&or&more&foreign&cultures&
during&their&lives&beginning&at&an&early&age.&We&labeled&these&individuals&“globals”.&
Further,&we&found&that&“globals”&are&more&likely&to&have&a&marginal&cultural&identity&
where&they&do&not&identify&strongly&either&with&their&home&or&host&cultures.&Similar&
to&previous&research&on&TCKs,&the&cultural&homeless,&or&bicultural&marginals,&these&
individuals&do&not&feel&that&they&belong&in&any&one&culture.&Although&early&work&on&
immigrants&and&biculturals&implies&that&a&marginal&cultural&identity&can&be&
problematic,&more&recent&work&suggests&otherwise&(Berry&1990;&Roccas&and&Brewer&
2002).&For&example,&those&with&marginal&cultural&identities&exist&in&a&perpetual&state&
of&“experiential&angst”&that&in&turn&promotes&cognitive&complexity,&perceptual&acuity,&

Global&Multiculturals&16!
!
mindfulness,&and&flexible&thinking,&skills&that&are&important&for&effective&global&
leadership&(Fitzsimmons,&Lee,&and&Brannen&2010;&Brannen,&Garcia,&and&Thomas&
2009).&&
We&further&found&that&“globals”&are&#'..&adaptive&to&foreign&cultures.&This&
seems&rather&counter_intuitive&at&first&glance—multicultural&exposure&has&been&a&
fact&of&life&for&“globals”&since&adolescence&or&earlier,&and&one&might&assume&that&they&
will&be&more&motivated&and&able&to&adjust&their&behaviors&depending&on&changing&
cultural&contexts.&For&one,&it&may&be&that&early&cultural&exposure&experienced&by&
“globals”&made&adaptation&to&foreign&cultures&more&difficult.&Teenage&children&of&
expatriates&have&been&shown&to&be&less&interested&in&learning&about&foreign&cultures&
than&their&parents.&These&multicultural&teenagers&had&other&preoccupations&that&
might&have&overshadowed&their&motivation&and&ability&to&adapt,&such&as&making&
friends&regardless&of&the&friends’&cultural&backgrounds&(Weeks,&Weeks,&and&Willis_
Muller&2010).&Second,&having&extensive&multicultural&experiences&might&have&
instilled&a&sense&of&overconfidence&in&one’s&cultural&skills,&which&in&turn&leads&to&
lowered&motivation&to&attend&and&adapt&to&cultural&differences.&Third,&superficial&
engagement,&attachment,&and&adaptation&to&foreign&cultures&may&serve&as&a&coping&
mechanism&for&“globals”&to&manage&their&constant&moving.&In&short,&rather&than&
learning&about&and&assimilating&into&a&foreign&culture,&disengagement&may&actually&
be&more&“adaptive”.&This&suggests&that&a&more&nuanced&and&complex&definition&of&
adaptation&may&be&needed&to&account&for&the&finding&that&early&and&sustained&
cultural&exposure&may&have&possible&downsides&for&cultural&adaptation.&&

Global&Multiculturals&17!
!
It&is&important&to&note&that&the&present&study&examines&the&psychology&of&
multicultural&individuals&only,&focusing&on&individuals&at&the&very&high&end&of&the&
cultural&exposure&continuum.&We&only&sampled&MBA&students&in&an&international&
business&school.&Therefore,&one&should&keep&in&mind&that&our&sample&is&not&
representative&of&all&individuals&with&multicultural&experiences,&and&to&be&cautious&
not&to&draw&inferences&beyond&the&characteristics&of&our&particular&sample.&That&
said,&this&study&raises&important&avenues&for&future&research.&While&we&examined&
adaptation&as&an&important&outcome&variable,&there&are&many&more&global&
management&and&leadership&capabilities&that&should&be&included&in&future&research,&
such&as&cultural&intelligence,&creativity,&and&perceptual&acuity,&to&name&a&few.&
Although&“globals”&may&be&less&adaptive,&they&might&be&developing&these&skills&that&
can&be&important&for&global,&multinational&leadership&(Vance,&2005).&Relatedly,&the&
views&of&practicing&managers&would&add&an&important&dimension&beyond&those&of&
business&school&students,&as&would&assessments&beyond&participants’&self_reports&to&
include&other&measures&of&performance&such&as&supervisor&ratings&and&actual&job&
outcomes.&&
Further,&future&studies&need&to&investigate&the&cultural&experiences&of&
multicultural&individuals&more&deeply.&“Globals”&may&differ&from&other&
multiculturals&in&a&number&of&life&experiences&besides&the&number&of&cultures&they&
have&been&exposed&to&and&the&age&at&which&cultural&exposure&first&occurred.&For&
example,&“globals”&who&may&have&moved&at&a&younger&age&because&of&their&parents’&
occupation&rather&than&their&own&choice,&and&thus&more&likely&to&experience&
exposure&to&foreign&cultures&as&an&involuntary&process.&In&addition,&studies&that&

Global&Multiculturals&18!
!
longitudinally&track&cultural&identification&over&the&lifespan&can&provide&a&rigorous&
test&of&how&age&at&which&cultural&exposure&occurs&impacts&identity&and&adaptation.&
Also,&our&focus&was&on&the&&)'.'9$&experiences&of&multiculturals.&More&research&is&
needed&to&examine&the&&8.$,&?6)!8$%<'&cultural&experiences&of&multiculturals.&Lastly,&
more&studies&are&needed&to&account&for&how&the&cultures&to&which&individuals&have&
been&exposed&differ&from&one&another.&For&example,&an&individual&who&has&lived&in&
England,&U.S.,&and&Canada—all&highly&developed&economies&with&prototypically&
Western&cultural&values—arguably&would&have&different&cultural&experiences&than&
one&who&has&lived&in&Germany,&India,&and&Argentina.&&
CONCLUSION&
In&this&article,&we&use&the&term&“globals”&to&describe&individuals&who&have&had&
exposure&to&multiple&foreign&cultures&starting&at&an&early&age.&We&found&that&
“globals”&constitute&a&distinct&group&of&multiculturals,&and&that&they&are&more&likely&
to&have&a&marginal&cultural&identity.&Interestingly,&“globals”&show&#6I')&levels&of&
cultural&adaptation&compared&to&other&multiculturals,&challenging&the&idea&that&
extensive&and&early&cultural&exposure&are&unequivocally&beneficial.&This&suggests&
that&it&is&overly&simplistic&to&assume&that&individuals&with&more&multicultural&
experiences&will&have&an&easier&time&adapting&to&a&new&work&role,&project,&or&joint&
venture&in&an&unfamiliar&culture.&&
&
&
&
&

Global&Multiculturals&19!
!
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