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The vegetation and flora along an altitudinal transect through tropical forest at Mount Korobaba, Fiji
Abstract
Mt Korobaba, near Suva, Fiji, is a steep breccia cone 422 m high, covered by largely unmodified tropical forest. Fifteen percent of the indigenous vascular flora of Fiji was recorded from 15 plots. in a transect located to encompass the marked physiognomic variation in these forests. Agglomerative classifications of floristic and abundance data for the tree, sapling, shrub, herb, and dependent synusiae indicated five strong, but intergrading, types. The major forest types vary structurally from a multi-layered forest, with emergents up to 35 m and a rich development of epiphytes and climbers, to a 4–14 m tall broken-canopied scrub. poor in epiphytes and climbers. The forests along the transect show evidence of continuous regeneration. The “massenerhebung” effect on the Mt Korobaba forests appears to be associated with soil shallowness and exposure to strong winds. as does much of the variation in the vegetation.
... THE TROPICAL FORESTS OF THE FIJI ISLANDS are still only generally described, with few detailed ecological studies available in the peer-reviewed literature that characterize either the main island forests of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu (Kirkpatrick and Hassal 1985, Keppel 2005, Tuiwawa 2005, Keppel et al. 2006, Keppel and Tuiwawa 2007, Anderson et al. 2018 or smaller outlying islands (Garnock-Jones 1978, Ash 1987, Franklin et al. 2008, Franklin and Steadman 2010. This paucity motivated us to present results from a survey done during the 1990s in the Waisoi area of Viti Levu (Fiji's largest island). ...
... A follow-up survey could reveal worthwhile information regarding shifts in composition or evidence of encroachment of invasive species. Only one similar study had been conducted at the time, that of Kirkpatrick and Hassal (1985) on Mount Korobaba, although further studies have now been completed (Keppel 2005, Tuiwawa 2005, Keppel and Tuiwawa 2007, Anderson et al. 2018. Anderson et al. (2018) reported two significantly distinct forest types (lowland and montane). ...
... The River Flat had trees of similar stature to those observed on Mount Korobaba. According to Kirkpatrick and Hassal (1985), trees growing in this forest type are among the tallest in Fiji although the ecological reasons for this are not known. They also observed that on Pacific islands in general, the rainforest is relatively low in stature and never seems to attain the 45-60 m height of the Malaysian dipterocarp forest (Whitmore 1975, Ibanez et al. 2019). ...
The vegetation composition and structure of “pristine” primary
lowland rainforest in Waisoi, south Viti Levu, Fiji were assessed quantitatively by recording all trees with a diameter at breast height > 1 cm within sample plots covering the topographic range of the Waisoi area. The tree flora comprised 78 recognizable taxa, 68 of which were recorded to species. Of these 68 species, 61% were endemic. Four forest types were evaluated; “River Flat,” “Slope,” “Ridge,”and “Quasi-montane.” Differences in stem density, species richness, and diversity
were observed across the forest types. The River Flat and Quasi-montane forest types were distinct from each other and from Slope and Ridge forests. Canopy structure was characterized for each of these forest types and illustrated with profile diagrams.
... Ash (1992) summarized most of these studies but omitted some, such as those on Mt. Korobaba and the Sigatoka Sand Dunes (Kirkpatrick and Hassal 1981). Berry and Howard (1973a,b) conducted an inventory of the various forest types based on aerial photographs mainly for forestry purposes. ...
... Their data suggest that the vegetation is similar to that of Waisoi (Table 1). Kirkpatrick and Hassal (1985) also identified five altitudinal vegetation zones (Figure 3). ...
... Deep peat of about 1 m depth harbors Pandanus tectorius, ferns, and patches of Sphagnum cuspidatum. In addition, there is an inner colluvium-peat zone that is dominated by sedges, grasses, and dicotyledonous herbs Kirkpatrick and Hassal 1985). Areas in boxes show the distribution of vegetation types: A, diverse lowland rain forest; B, Calophyllum, Trichospermum, Terminalia forest; C, Canarium, Syzygium, Garcinia forest; D, Dacrydium nidulum forest; E, stunted montane forest. ...
Botanical studies along mountain-to-sea transects are a key component of the Pacific-Asia Biodiversity Transect (PABITRA) project. For the Fiji PABITRA Wet-Zone Transect, it is suggested that four basic categories of biodiversity data (species inventory, plant community description, ecological data on the species and community level, and long-term monitoring) be collected within the seven biodiversity study sites (Mt. Tomaniivi/Wabu, Monasavu, Sovi Basin, Waisoi, Waibau, Savura, and Nasoata/Valolo Islands) covering an elevational gradient from sea level to 1,300 m. Currently, Sovi and Waibau are without data, except for vegetation descriptions based on aerial photographs. However, data from baseline surveys is now available for Sovi. Most of the data available on Mt. Tomaniivi/Wabu and Savura are extrapolated from collections and studies in adjacent areas, but in both areas data collection has recently begun. Only Waisoi and Nasoata/Valolo have species checklists and descriptions of the various plant communities, with ecological studies having been conducted only in the former. Because basic data (species lists, plant communities) are lacking in many areas, obtaining such data is a primary objective of PABITRA in Fiji. Other issues that should be considered are inclusion of other sites in the network of focal sites and a standardized way of data entry and basic data analysis.
... Stem density generally increases, canopy height decreases and basal area displays varying patterns with increasing altitude (Ibanez et al. 2014, Moser et al. 2008, Slik et al. 2010. Similarly, lower tree height and higher stem densities at higher elevations are commonly observed in the Pacific (Ash 1987, Ibanez et al. 2014, Kirkpatrick & Hassall 1985. ...
... The lowland rain forest has common lowland rain-forest elements, such as Dysoxylum spp., Bischofia javanica, Hedycarya dorstenioides and Viticipremna vitilevuensis (Keppel et al. 2011). Other altitudinal transects in Fiji have similarly found turnover of dominant species with altitude (Ash 1987, Kirkpatrick & Hassall 1985. ...
To investigate changes in vegetation and climate with altitude, we established forest plots and recorded climatic data at 100-m intervals between 550–1100 m asl on the western slopes of Mount Batilamu, Mount Koroyanitu range, Viti Levu, Fiji. Trees with a dbh ≥10 cm were identified and measured in 21 10 × 10-m plots, starting at 750 m altitude. Temperature and relative humidity sensors were deployed in two habitats, leaf litter and 50 cm above the ground, and two vegetation types, grasslands and forest, at six altitudes over a 48-h period. Two significantly distinct forest types, lowland and montane, were present. Montane forest was found at higher elevations (>950 m asl) and had significantly higher stem density. Mean temperature decreased significantly with altitude and was strongly moderated by vegetation type (lower average and less variation in forest). While average relative humidity significantly increased with altitude, it was strongly moderated by both habitat and vegetation type (higher average and less variation in leaf litter and forest). The lapse rate varied with time of day (higher during the day) and vegetation type (higher in grasslands). Therefore, vegetation and microhabitats create unique microclimates, and this should be considered when investigating current or future climatic patterns along altitudinal gradients on forested mountains.
... There have been no studies on the ecology of this species, so the regeneration requirements are not known. Our interpretation of some previous botanical surveys (Kirkpatrick and Hassall 1981, 1985, Keppel et al. 2005 is that it may be found principally in unmodified forest, but Whistler (2004) described it as common in disturbed foothill and montane forest. Trichospermum richii appears to be more common on Ta'u than on Tutuila Fa'aumu 1999, Webb et al. 1999). ...
... There have been no studies on the ecology of this species, so the regeneration requirements are not known. Our interpretation of some previous botanical surveys (Kirkpatrick and Hassall 1981, 1985, Keppel et al. 2005 is that it may be found principally in unmodified forest, but Whistler (2004) described it as common in disturbed foothill and montane forest. Trichospermum richii appears to be more common on Ta'u than on Tutuila Fa'aumu 1999, Webb et al. 1999). ...
This study examined the composition and structure of tropical rain forest in four permanent plots on the island of Ta‘u, American Samoa. Two 1-ha plots were established in coastal forest, one in an abandoned coastal cultivation site (a “plantation” ca. 17 yr post-abandonment) and another in a Dysoxylum samoense–dominated coastal forest. Two 2-ha plots were established in lowland forest at 200–250 m elevation, one in an abandoned plantation (ca. 13 yr post-abandonment) and the other in less-disturbed mid- to late-secondary mixed lowland forest. In the total 6 ha, we encountered 54 tree species, with Dysoxylum samoense the most dominant species overall and abundant in all four plots. The upper forest plot was the most diverse plot and exhibited low similarity with any of the other three plots. This plot exhibited a rarefaction curve similar to those of four lowland hill forest plots on Tutuila but was most similar in composition to regenerating disturbed forest on Tutuila rather than mature, less-disturbed forest. Low similarity was found between the two Dysoxylum-dominated coastal forests and the Dysoxylum-Pometia–dominated Ottoville lava flow forest on Tutuila. By examining the populations of D. samoense across the four plots we found an impact of agriculture and cyclones on height structure of the forest. Examination of species' diameter class distributions allowed us to propose several hypotheses related to the life histories of several tree species. We documented the natural establishment of the introduced species Flueggea flexuosa into both abandoned plantations and natural forest. Monitoring these plots over time will allow us to better understand successional processes in natural and human-impacted forest including changes in composition, structure, relative abundance of nonnative species, as well as the impact of cyclones on different forest types.
... These records were obtained from Flora Vitiensis Nova (Smith 1979Smith , 1981Smith , 1985Smith , 1988Smith , 1991Smith , 1996), the database of the South Pacific Regional Herbarium, and a previous study on Mt. Korobaba (Kirkpatrick and Hassal 1985). Planted ornamentals were ignored. ...
... Nakobalevu. This would allow a comparison with the vegetation surveys from Mt. Korobaba (Kirkpatrick and Hassal 1985). ...
Savura is one of the seven focal sites of the Pacific-Asia Biodiversity Transect (PABITRA) Gateway Transect in Fiji. The site is composed of tropical lowland rain forest located in southeastern Viti Levu and consists of two adjacent watershed reserves, the Savura Forest Reserve and the Vago Forest Reserve. A total of 560 indigenous species (52% endemic) of vascular plants is recorded for this focal site. Savura has been chosen for the establishment of a large permanent plot of 12 ha following the methods proposed by the Centre of Tropical Forest Science (CTFS). This involves the recording of name, diameter at breast height (DBH), and precise location of every tree with 1 cm or more DBH. A total of 5,494 individuals with a total basal area of 2,752 m2 was recorded in the first 6,000 m2 of this CTFS/PABITRA permanent plot. The Myristicaceae (species of the genus Myristica) was the dominant family in numbers of individuals (14.4%) and basal area (35.6%). Tree ferns (Cyatheaceae [8.2% of individuals, 14.6% basal area]) and the Clusiaceae (8.6% of individuals, 12.8% basal area) are other major components. After this initial census, subsequent censuses will be carried out every 5 yr and should give insights on spatial dynamics, recruitment and mortality, and long-term changes in populations of tree species.
... They are ideal systems to explore how interactions among environment, disturbance history and biogeography influence rain forest composition, yet quantitative studies of these forests have thus far been limited to individual islands or island groups (e.g. Garnock-Jones 1978;Whistler 1980;Kirkpatrick & Hassall 1985;Webb & Fa'aumu 1999;Keppel et al. 2005). We assembled data from four previous forest surveys conducted in Tonga to address three questions: ...
... These patterns are again consistent with the gradient-in-time model where niche breadth should decrease during succession (Peet 1992). Calophyllum neoebudicum forest was found at higher elevations than Myristica and Maniltoa-dominated forests, although elevations in Tonga do not extend high enough to support montane rain forest found elsewhere in Western Polynesia (Whistler 1980;Kirkpatrick & Hassall 1985;Ash 1992;Keppel 2005;Tuiwawa 2005). The distribution of C. neo-ebudicum forest seems to be determined by elevation rather than substrate because it was found on both limestone and volcanic substrates. ...
Questions
How do forest types differ in their distinctiveness among islands in relation to environmental and anthropogenic disturbance gradients? Are biogeographic factors also involved?
Location
Tonga, ca. 170 oceanic islands totalling 700 km ² spread across 8° of latitude in Western Polynesia.
Method
Relative basal area was analysed for 134 species of woody plants in 187 plots. We used clustering, indirect gradient analysis, and indicator species analysis to identify continuous and discontinuous variation in species composition across geographical, environmental and disturbance gradients. Partial DCA related environmental to compositional gradients for each major forest type after accounting for locality. CCA and partial CCA partitioned observed compositional variation into components explained by environment/disturbance, locality and covariation between them.
Results
Differences among forest types are related to environment and degree of anthropogenic disturbance. After accounting for inter‐island differences, compositional variation (1) in coastal forest types is related to substrate, steepness and proximity to coast; (2) in early‐successional, lowland rain forest to proximity to the coast, steepness and cultivation disturbance; (3) in late‐successional, lowland forest types to elevation. For coastal/littoral forests, most of the compositional variation (71%) is explained by disturbance and environmental variables that do not covary with island while for both early and late‐successional forests there is a higher degree of compositional variation reflecting covariation between disturbance/environment and island.
Conclusions
There are regional similarities, across islands, among littoral/coastal forest types dominated by widespread seawater‐dispersed species. The early‐successional species that dominate secondary forests are distributed broadly across islands and environmental gradients, consistent with the gradient‐in‐time model of succession. Among‐island differences in early‐successional forest may reflect differences in land‐use practices rather than environmental differences or biogeographical history. In late‐successional forests, variation in composition among islands can be partly explained by differences among islands and hypothesized tight links between species and environment. Disentangling the effects of anthropogenic disturbance history versus biogeographic history on late‐successional forest in this region awaits further study.
... Mt. Korobaba at 400m elevations (Kirkpatrick and Hassall, 1985). Cloud forest is a system known to have very unique plant life, and the forest was expected to be relatively intact. ...
... Average annual rainfall is 2000-3000 mm, with average temperatures ranging from a low of 20°C in July to a high of 32°C in February (Mataki, Koshy, & Lal, 2006). The natural vegetation of southeastern Viti Levu is lowland rainforest of a relatively species rich and heterogeneous composition (Ash, 1992;Kirkpatrick & Hassall, 1985;Mueller-Dombois & Fosberg, 1998). Natural vegetation in and around the GSUA is highly fragmented, with only about 30% of Viti Levu's land J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f covered by dense, closed forests (both primary and secondary) (S. ...
Tropical Pacific island countries, many of which are less-developed, are experiencing invasions of alien plant species at rates faster than areas of comparable size elsewhere. In this paper we examine the relationship between the presence, abundance, and richness of 14 invasive woody plant (IWP) species and level of urbanization and road type in the Greater Suva Urban Area (GSUA), Fiji.
One hundred and fifty-four sample locations within a 29 km transect traversing urban, peri-urban and rural land sectors on local, collector and arterial roads were surveyed. We analyzed the 14 species for frequency of occurrence across the urban-rural gradient and found spatial patterns of IWP presence differed by species.
We analyzed the abundance of seven species using multivariable regression and found abundance was more often influenced by urban-rural sector than road type, though road type had a significant effect for some species.
We conclude by offering plausible explanations for differences attributed to modes of dispersal, introduction history and human activities. We include supplementary material providing detailed characterization of biology, ecology, and history of the 14 target species. These findings are expected to help inform risk assessments and management of IWP in other tropical urban-rural gradients, and especially small island developing states.
... The environmental changes along tropical altitudinal gradients sees a change in the distributions and/or attributes of many biotic variables including; vascular plant composition and richness (Grubb et al., 1963, Kirkpatrick & Hassal, 1985, Gentry, 1988a, Nakashizuka et al., 1991, Kitayama, 1995, Lieberman et al., 1996, Givnish, 1999, Kessler, 2001, Martin et al., 2007, bryophyte composition and richness (Frahm & Gradstein, 1991, Wolf, 1993c, Wolf, 1993b, Wolf, 1993a, Kurschner & Parolly, 1998d, Hemp, 2002, Hemp, 2006, plant morphologies (Rozema et al., 1997, Bruijnzeel & Veneklaas, 1998, Buot & Okitsu, 1999, van de Weg et al., 2009, epiphytic characters (Gentry, 1988a, Michelsen, 1993, Wolf, 1993c, Wolf, 1994, Hietz & Hietz-Seifert, 1995, Freiberg & Freiberg, 2000, Krömer et al., 2005, Werner et al., 2012, forest structure and productivity (Grubb et al., 1963, Tanner, 1980a, Tanner, 1980b, Ohsawa, 1991, Kitayama, 1992, Phillips et al., 1994, Ohsawa, 1995a, Ohsawa, 1995b, Weaver, 2000, Kitayama & Aiba, 2002, Gerold et al., 2008, Weaver, 2010b, Häger & Dohrenbusch, 2011, carbon allocation (Darrell & James, 1999, Roderstein et al., 2005, Soethe et al., 2006, Gibbon et al., 2010, Girardin et al., 2010, standing mortality rates (Matelson et al., 1995), plant phenology (Primack, 1985, Wesselingh et al., 1999, Kimura et al., 2001, terrestrial soil characteristics (Marrs et al., 1988, Cavelier & Peñuela, 1990, Wolf, 1993c, Pendry & Proctor, 1997 and animal communities (Stiles, 1981, Patterson et al., 1998, Giaretta et al., 1999, Richardson et al., 2000. Whilst many structural, compositional and functional changes have been observed in tropical montane forest, causal processes are still widely debated. ...
The Cordillera Yanachaga is a semi-isolated Andean range protruding into
the Peruvian Amazon that houses an important area of montane cloud forests
on both windward and leeward slopes. Despite the importance of these
forests for biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services for nearby
populations, their orographic variation in climate and forest ecology had not
been previously described. Climatic and forest parameters were studied
along an orographic gradient consisting of three sites, a windward slope
forest at 2400 masl, a ridge forest on the mountain pass at 2800 masl and a
leeward slope forest at 2400 masl. Common climatic measurements and
visibility were recorded from canopy towers within 1-ha vegetation sampling
plots, from which environmental data and taxonomic, foliage and structural
characters of all stems ≥5 cm DBH were collected.
Despite its orographic location, the leeward forest received marginally less
rainfall than the ridge forest and considerably more rainfall that the
windward forest. The temperature variation found was attributed to altitude
and an afternoon Foehn effect, while the orographic variation in PPFD was
very strongly correlated to fog frequency. The ridge and windward forests
showed higher canopy fog immersion (c. 75%) and a higher frequency of
simultaneous rain and fog events, while the leeward forest showed less fog
immersion (c. 20%) and higher rain frequency. The ridge and windward
forests were affected principally by easterly air masses, while the leeward
forest showed signs of localized phenomena originating from the Oxapampa
valley to the west. The leeward forest displayed more climatic variation and
larger parameter ranges, which were reflected in greater species richness,
basal area, canopy height, foliage area and leaf size. Floristic associations
within plots reflected sheltered and exposed regions. Forests at all the sites
had stem densities and basal areas at the lower end of those recorded in
other regions.
At the leeward site, light and moderate fog events generally displayed diurnal
temperatures and PPFD more similar to clear sky events than to rain events,
reflecting the warm clear upper atmosphere conditions under which they
form. Dense fog events tended to mimic microclimatic conditions during
rainfall events, albeit with higher PPFD.
In addition to the very strong correlation between fog frequency and PPFD,
PPFD also correlated very strongly with total arboreal foliage area,
suggesting as possible relationship through limitations on the development
canopy substrata. While the mechanism for such a relationship remains
unclear, the observations contribute to the existing theory that the effect of
fog frequency on light conditions is one of the major drivers of variation in
tropical montane forest productivity.
La Cordillera Yanachaga es una cadena montañosa andina, semi-aislada por
extenderse en el territorio de la amazonia peruana. Alberga un área
importante de bosques montanos de niebla en sus flancos barlovento y
sotavento. A pesar de la importancia de estos bosques para la biodiversidad y
la provisión de servicios ecosistémicos a poblaciones cercanas, su variación
orográfica en clima y ecología no han sido descritas previamente. Se estudió
los parámetros climáticos y boscosos a lo largo de una gradiente orográfica
que consistió en tres sitios, bosque barlovento a 2400 msnm, bosque de
cresta a 2800 msnm y bosque sotavento a 2400 msnm. Se grabó mediciones
climáticas estándares y visibilidad desde torres del dosel dentro de parcelas
de vegetación de 1-ha, en las cuales se registraron datos ambientales y
caracteres taxonómicos, de follaje y estructurales de todos los tallos ≥5 cm
DAP.
A pesar de su ubicación orográfica, el bosque sotavento recibió levemente
menos lluvia que el bosque de cresta y una cantidad considerablemente
mayor al bosque barlovento. La variación en temperatura hallada se atribuyó
a la altitud y un efecto Foehn postmeridiano, mientras la variación orográfica
en radiación fotosintéticamente activa (RFA) fue altamente correlacionado a
la frecuencia de neblina. Los bosques de cresta y barlovento presentaron una
frecuente inmersión del dosel por neblina (c. 75%) y una mayor frecuencia
de eventos de neblina y lluvia simultanea, mientras el bosque sotavento
presentó menos inmersión por neblina (c. 20%) y mayor frecuencia de lluvia.
Los bosques de cresta y barlovento fueron afectados principalmente por
masas de aire orientales, mientras el bosque sotavento demostró señales de
un fenómeno localizado originado desde el valle de Oxapampa hacia el oeste.
El bosque sotavento presentó mas variación climática y mayores rangos de
parámetros, lo cual fue reflejado con mayor riqueza de especies, área basal,
altura del dosel, área del follaje y tamaño de hojas. Las asociaciones
florísticas dentro de las parcelas reflejaron sitios protegidos y expuestos.
Todos los bosques tuvieron densidades de tallos y áreas basales menores en
comparación con bosques comparables de otras regiones.
En el bosque sotavento, generalmente los eventos de neblina tenue y
moderada demostraron temperaturas y RFA con mayor semejanza a los
eventos de cielos despejados que a los eventos de lluvia, reflejando las
condiciones atmosféricas cálidas y despejadas en las que se forman. Los
eventos de neblina densa demostraron similitud a las condiciones
microclimáticas durante eventos de lluvia, aunque con mayor RFA.
En adición a la correlación muy fuerte entre frecuencia de neblina y RFA, RFA
también tuvo una correlación fuerte con el área total del follaje arbóreo,
sugiriendo una posible relación a través de limitaciones al desarrollo de
substratos en el dosel. Mientras que el mecanismo para la supuesta relación
no es claro, las observaciones contribuyen a la teoría existente que el efecto
de la frecuencia de neblina en las condiciones de luz es uno de los factores
claves para la variación en la productividad de bosque montano tropical.
... Korobaba is located 8 km west of Suva (-18.097, 178.388), and was cleared and systematically planted and managed for the mahogany timber trade from the late 1950's to 1970's (Kirkpatrick & Hassall 1985). The sampling sites within Mt. ...
... This good representation of native rainforest taxa and the observed abundance of seedlings and saplings, suggest efficient regeneration of native species (Pascal and Pelissier, 1996;Kirkpatrick and Hassal, 1985). Whilst this demonstrates the potential for re-establishing native lowland rainforest, the scenario would primarily depend on the ability of the majority of native species to thrive under the closed mahogany canopy and the ability of the matured native cohort to outcompete mahogany in a secondary forest system. ...
Mahogany ( Swietenia macrophylla King) plantations cover a considerable area on the south-eastern parts of Viti Levu, Fiji. The understorey of these plantations often comprise a diverse, but undocumented, assemblage of native plant species. This study investigates the diversity, composition and regeneration potential of native plant species in the Wainiveiota mahogany plantation 40–50 years after establishment. Ten 10 m x 10 m plots were alternately placed at 10 m intervals perpendicular to a 200 m line transect. A total of 491 individual plants with dbh ≥ 1 cm, comprising 69 species, 51 genera and 34 families, were sampled. In addition to the exotic mahogany, there were 68 native (39 endemic, 24 indigenous and 5 identified to genus only) species recorded. Girronniera celtidifolia Gaud., Dillenia biflora (A.Gray) Martelli ex Dur. & Jacks and Barringtonia edulis Seem. had the highest recruitment and Endospermum macrophyllum (Muell.Arg.) Pax & Hoffm. was the dominant native species. Syzygium Gaertn. (Myrtaceae) was the most diverse genus and Myrtaceae the most diverse family. With 98% of the sapling recruitment consisting of native species, there is potential for re-establishment of a lowland rainforest dominated by native species over time.
... , 1978;Kirkpatrick & Hassall, 1985;方精 云和李莹, 2002;Takahashi, 2003;Peng et al., 2008, Millar & Robert, 2010Tchebakova et al., 2010)。 一般 随着海拔高程的变化, 水热因子均会发生相应的变 化 (Fang & Kyoji, 1988;Woodward, 1990 Lower represent determination coefficient of spruce lower distribution point with altitude. **, p < 0.01; ***, p < 0.001; α, aridity index; MAP, mean annual precipitation; MAT, mean annual air temperature; MTCM, mean air temperature of the coldest month; MTWM, mean air temperature of the warmest month; SM, soil moisture; GDD 5 , growing degree days on a 5 ℃ basis; GDD 0 , growing degree days on a 0 ℃ basis. ...
... This good representation of native rainforest taxa and the observed abundance of seedlings and saplings, suggest efficient regeneration of native species (Pascal and Pelissier, 1996;Kirkpatrick and Hassal, 1985). Whilst this demonstrates the potential for re-establishing native lowland rainforest, the scenario would primarily depend on the ability of the majority of native species to thrive under the closed mahogany canopy and the ability of the matured native cohort to outcompete mahogany in a secondary forest system. ...
Mahogany (
Swietenia macrophylla King) plantations cover a considerable area on the south-eastern parts
of Viti Levu, Fiji. The understorey of these plantations often comprise a diverse, but undocumented, a
ssemblage of native plant species. This study investigates the diversity, composition and regeneration potential of native plant species in the Wainiveiota mahogany plantation 40-50 years after establishment. Ten 10 m x 10 m plots were alternately placed at 10 m intervals perpendicular to a 200 m line transect. A total of 491 individual plants with dbh ≥ 1 cm, comprising 69 species, 51 genera and 34 families, were sampled. In addition to the exotic mahogany, there were 68 native (39 endemic, 24 indigenous and 5 identified to genus only) species recorded. Girronniera celtidifolia Gaud., Dillenia biflora (A.Gray) Martelli ex Dur. & Jacks and Barringtonia edulis Seem.had the highest recruitment and Endospermum macrophyllum
(Muell.Arg.) Pax & Hoffm. was the dominant native species. Syzygium Gaertn. (Myrtaceae) was the most diverse genus and Myrtaceae the most diverse family. With 98% of the sapling recruitment consist
ing of native species, there is potential for re-establishment of a lowland rainforest dominated by native species over time.
... For the Fiji environmental domains analysis, a modified weighting system was used in which clusters of attributes rather than individual attributes were given equal weightings. Attribute clustering maximises qualitative correspondence of domains with pattern in indigenous vegetation obseerved in various studies (Smith, 1951;Berry and Howard, 1973;Kirkpatrick and Hassall, 1985;Ash, 1988Ash, , 1992Keppel, 2005). The clusters comprised: (i) three temperature variables; (ii) annual rainfall; (iii) rainfall during trade-winds season; (iv) rainfall during the cyclone season; (v) soil drainage; and (vi) 10 soil chemistry variables. ...
Objective
• To review and collate information on the Fijian land snail fauna.
• Rank land areas in the islands of Fiji, currently in tenures outside the conservation estate, for priority for protection.
This report focuses on establishing priorities based on land snails, and is intended as a complement to work within Wildlife Conservation Society based on other components of the Fijian biota.
Methods
Composition of the Fijian land snail fauna
• A systematic checklist of the Fijian land snail fauna was developed by reference to the published systematic and ecological literature and various collections.
History of malacolgical endeavour in the Fijian land snail fauna
• The systematic and ecological literature, and various collections were reviewed to compile a brief historical account of the prior malacological activity in the Fiji archipelago.
Reservation priorities
• Delineation of biogeographic and environmental domains of the Fijian archipelago, as spatial frameworks for assessing reserve priorities.
• Rank land parcels based on biogeographic and environmental complementarity to the current protected natural areas network.
• Determine the adequacy of domain classifications as surrogates for biotic pattern.
Results
Composition of the Fijian land snail fauna
• A systematic checklist of the Fijian land snail fauna was developed. The information collated indicates the land snail comprises 240 species, of which 218 are native and 22 are introduced aliens. The indigenous land snail fauna exhibits 78% endemism at the archipelago level.
• The status of eight species-level taxa described for the Fijian fauna remains uncertain.
History of malacolgical endeavour in the Fijian land snail fauna
• A historical synopsis of malacological work on the Fijian fauna is present.
Reservation priorities
• Biogeographic and environmental domains were delineated and mapped as frameworks for assessing reserve priorities.
• The distance information resulting from the biogeographic and environmental domains classifications was used to calculate complementarity value of areas to the current protected natural areas network, thus enabling the design of the reserve network that maximises representation of the biogeographic and environmental diversity of the Fijian archipelago.
• Biotic pattern correlated more strongly with biogeographic domain distances than with environmental domain distance.
Conclusions
Land snail fauna
• The estimated richness of 218 native land species indicates the Fijian fauna is extraordinarily species rich given the limited land area, and highlights the significant under-estimation of the total species-level diversity in previous analyses. Furthermore, the indigenous land snail fauna exhibits 78% endemism at the archipelago level and thus represents a suite globally-unique terrestrial radiations.
Reservation priorities
• Despite extensive collecting effort spaning some 180 years, the spatial information on the Fijian landsnails is still incomplete, with under-representation of many islands and environment types in the collection effort.
• The Fijian land snail fauna exhibits strong geographic structure within the archipelago, supporting the concept that biogeographic effects dominate over environment as a source of spatial patterning in communities. This in turn supports nesting environmental subdivisions within biogeographic domains, as an approach to using surrogate information in assessing reservation priorities. Analyses of the available biotic data provided validation of these concepts.
Recommendations
Defining the Fijian biota
• Inventory of the Fijian land snail fauna, as a resource for biodiversity management, can be enhanced by databasing accessions in collections not utilised in the present work, and by completion of the biosystematic revision of species-level taxa.
Biogeographic and environmental domains as frameworks for reservation priorities
• Priorities for reservation should shift emphasis from further reservation on the main islands of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Ovalau and Tavenui, to a more comprehensive and strategic representation of the diversity within the entire archipelago. Development of a protected natural areas network should ensures adequate representation of the environmental and biogeographic diversity present in the archipelago as a whole.
• The strong dominance of biogeographic history in structuring land snail faunal turnover within the Fijian archipelago suggests that a focus on maximising representation of biogeographic diversity should be the priority in further development of the protected natural areas network.
• Within the larger islands, emphasis should be on representation of environments, with priority based on complementarity with the current protected natural areas nework.
Utilitizing recent advances in gap analyses
• Generalised dissimilarity modelling should be utilised to provide aa more comprehensive and direct approach to estimating faunal turnover and thus reservation priorities.
... In upland forests on Mt. Korobaba, Fiji, Calophyllum neo-ebudicum and Garcinia myrtifolia are common, but not dominant (Kirkpatrick & Hassall 1985). Islands east of Tonga, such as the Cook Islands, simply lack many of the Yongan dominants (Merlin 1985(Merlin , 1991Franklin & Merlin 1992). ...
The indigenous vegetation of 'Eua Island, Tonga, is described and a species list presented. Quantitative data were collected from 40 forest plots in which all vascular plant species were recorded and the diameters of all stems ≥ 5 cm dbh were measured. Plot classification, based on basal area data, identified six forest types, two coastal and four inland, which reflect an elevational sequence from the coast to the island's summit (312 m a.s.l.). A polar ordination, based on basal area data, arranged plots from the four inland forest types in a sequence from low to high elevation along one ordination axis, and from more mature to less mature along a second axis. Species richness increased with elevation. Several additional, non-forest vegetation types, including fern- and grass-dominated vegetation of inland ridges and shrub-dominated vegetation of cliffs and rocky shores, were sampled semi-quantitatively and are also described.
... Although there have been some descriptive botanical studies of the makatea islands in the Cook Islands (Sykes 1976a(Sykes d, 1980bWhistler 1988Whistler , 1990) and elsewhere in the Pacific (Wilder 1934), few quantitative analyses of the species assemblages or species/environment relations of native forest have been carried out in the southern Cook Islands (Merlin 1985(Merlin , 1991, or anywhere in the tropical Pacific (e.g. Whistler 1983; Sabath 1977; Kirkpatrick & Hassall 1985) other than Hawaii. ...
We examined woody species composition and its relation to environmental variables in native forest growing on four limestone islands in the southern Cook Islands: Atiu, Mangaia, Ma'uke, and Miti'aro. Relative dominance (percent basal area) of woody species in 74 sites was sampled using the point-centered quarter method, and the data were analyzed using clustering and ordination techniques. These tropical forests have a relatively low diversity of native woody species (32 native and 10 introduced species occurred in our sites). Four forest types were recognized: Pandanus/Guettarda littoral forest (with several subtypes), Hernandia nymphaeifolia littoral forest, Barringtonia littoral forest, and makatea forest (dominated by Elaeocarpus tonganus and Hernandia moeren-houtiana). These types were related, using canonical correspondence analysis, to geographical attributes (wind-wardness, elevation, and proximity to the coast or roads) that served as surrogates for environmental variables (maritime influence, soil variation, and degree of human disturbance). The eigenvalues for this direct ordination were much lower than for indirect ordination (0.32 vs. 0.71 for the first axis), indicating that the measured geographical attributes could explain only a modest portion of the compositional variation.
... IntroductionTakahashi 1962; Yamada 1977; Ohsawa 1984; Kirkpatrick and Hassall 1985; Kojima 1994; Lieberman et al. 1996; Tang and Ohsawa 1997; Kamijo et al. 2001). For example, in central Japan,, forest vegetation changes from evergreen broad-leaved forests at low altitude to deciduous broad-leaved forests at middle altitude, and to evergreen coniferous forests at high altitude (Yoshino 1978). ...
Changes in stand structure with altitude have been studied at ten sites between 800 and 2,500m above sea level (a.s.l.) in
temperate forests on Mount Norikura (36°06′N, 137°33′E, 3,026m a.s.l.) in central Japan. Vegetation in this range of altitudes
was roughly classified as a montane deciduous broad-leaved forest zone between 800 and 1,600m a.s.l. and a subalpine coniferous
forest zone between 1,600 and 2,500m a.s.l. at the timberline. The frequency distribution of trunk height was an L-shaped
pattern at 800m a.s.l., changed to a flat pattern with increasing altitude up to 2,000m a.s.l., but changed to an L-shaped
pattern again from 2,000 to 2,500m a.s.l. This change in frequency distribution of trunk height with altitude was related
to the change in maximum trunk height with altitude. The maximum trunk height did not change with altitude between 800 and
2,000m a.s.l. but it decreased markedly from 2,000 to 2,500m a.s.l. Although mechanical damage to conifer trunks and branches
was not observed between 800 and 2,000m a.s.l., the proportion of damaged trees increased from 2,000 to 2,500m a.s.l., suggesting
that subalpine conifers cannot grow in height near the timberline because of mechanical damage. The increase in the number
of small trees from 2,000m a.s.l. to the timberline was therefore because of a less developed canopy structure, i.e. small
trees can grow without shading by canopy trees. This study suggests that mechanical damage, probably because of strong winds
in the winter, affects changes with altitude in regeneration and formation of the timberline.
... f uprooting or broken branches, and though less frequent severe cyclone gusts of 40-55 m S-1 may occur, the stem diameter-canopy height relationship (Figure 2) indicates that the ridge-top forests are stunted rather than an early stage of regrowth on a devastated site. The infrequent impact ofdevastating cyclones should not, however, be overlooked. Kirkpatrick and Hassall (1985) considered wind to be a major determinant of the stunting offorest (8-12 m high) on Mt. Korobaba. On the basis ofclimatic records from the environs of Suva , the average mid-day rate of transpiration was estimated as 13 x 10-7 g cm ? S-1 which is only slightly greater than the esti- PACIFIC SCIENCE, Volume 41, 1987 mates from Taveuni fo ...
The vegetation and microclimate of a stunted ridge-top cloudforest on Mt. Koroturanga (l210m), Taveuni, Fiji (Lat. l7 °S, Long. 180°) is described. Canopy heights decreased from about 30m at sea level to 10m at 1140m altitude and to 3-7m on the ridge and upper windward slopes. The stunted trees were of low height for their stem diameter, and had abundant epiphytic bryophytes. The upper windward slopes and ridge were usually cloud enveloped and had low temperature (c 17°C), high relative humidity (c94%) and high wind speed (c 5m S-1 at 15m height). Canopy height was closely correlated with estimated rates of leaf transpiration. The cloud-forest had abundant Freycinetia urvilleana in the upper canopy and included species restricted to this environment on a few peaks in Fiji, e.g. Ascarina swamyana and Medinilla waterhousei.
Los bosques pre-montanos y montanos son poco estudiados y su composición florística es muy poco conocida, aunque últimamente aquí se han descubierto nuevas especies de árboles. Describimos la diversidad, composición florística y estructura del bosque en 13 parcelas permanentes de 1 ha, evaluadas en el 2018 en el Transecto Yanachaga en el centro del Perú (400 a 3170 msnm). Registramos un total de 6998 árboles, 617 especies, 249 géneros y 82 familias. Existe unas altas correlaciones entre la altitud, la riqueza y diversidad de especies. La mayor riqueza ocurre en la parcela PNY-05 a 470 msnm con 202 especies y la menor con 43 especies en la parcela PNY-01 a 3170 mnsm. La altura promedio del dosel es mayor entre los 400 y 800 msnm, y disminuye progresivamente a medida que se va subiendo, presentando alturas mínimas entre 2800 y 3170 msnm. Este mismo comportamiento ocurre con respecto al área basal y volumen de madera. Los individuos muestreados están representados por especies de árboles (88%), palmeras (4%), helechos arborescentes (6.5%), lianas (1.5%) y hemiepífitos leñosos (0.03%). Las formas de vida varían notablemente en el transecto altitudinal, los árboles y palmeras son más abundantes y diversos en la parte baja, mientras los helechos arborescentes son abundantes por encima de los 1800 m. Existen diferencias en la diversidad, composición y estructura de árboles entre parcelas y también si se compara al llano amazónico. Los bosques del Transecto Yanachaga juegan un papel importante, puesto que conservan una alta diversidad de especies y hábitats.
A grid of 447 50 × 50 m cells was established across a monsoon forest-treeless floodplain transition near the Adelaide River, northern Australia. The grid was surveyed to the nearest 0.5 m, to reveal a gradual elevation gradient of less than 7 m over about 1000 m of horizontal distance. Half of the gradient was flooded by freshwater in the wet season. Three soil types were identified across the grid, and with the exception of cracking clays on the floodplain they showed no obvious relationship with elevation. The ecological response of most major (basal area $>0.1 m^2 h^1)$ tree species was skewed and unimodal and is thought to be primarily determined by degree of inundation. The peaks ot abundance of the forty-three major species were clumped in two groups across the gradient. The abundances of 81% of the seventy-eight tree species were significantly correlated (P<0.0001) to the abundance of at least one other species. Most of these species formed tight, independent clusters and are considered to be components of four intergrading forest communities. Tree species richness and stem density increased linearly up the elevation gradient, total basal area had a skewed unimodal response, and dominance of a single tree species occurred only on the boundary with treeless vegetation. Unlike complex rainforest the monsoon rainforest community was relatively bereft of species, possibly because of the overwhelming influence of climatically induced Pleistocene extinctions on the original Australian rainforest flora.
Gau (pronounced “ngau” with a soft “ng”) is Fiji’s fifth largest island, with an area of 140 km2. Its rugged inland topography comprises the northern upland, which is dominated by the twin summits of Delaco (715 m) and Delacoboni (705 m) and the main ridge running southward. Fifty-five percent of the island supports dense rain forest, while the rolling country of the eastern coast and the island’s extremities are covered with grass or reed, with some recently established plantations of Caribbean pine.
The palm has a juvenile stage with entire leaves followed by a stage in which an aerial stem develops, up to a height of 13 m, and pinnate leaves are produced, which leave distinct scars on the stem. In the juveniles, successive leaf lengths increase by c1-4 cm and about 28 juvenile leaves are produced. Annual leaf production increased from c1.2 yr-1 in juveniles to c2.2 yr-1 in tall palms. Duration of the juvenile phase was 15-25 yr, while the oldest palm observed was c85 yr. Flowering began at 5 m stem height, after 40-60 yr, with one inflorescence in each leaf axil and 183±92 (s.d.) fruits on each infructescence. Mortality was estimated as 99.8-99.9% from the seed to juvenile stage, and 1.4-4% yr-1 in later stages. A mean generation time of 68 yr was calculated. About 23% of net production was used in reproduction during the reproductive period, or c13% of total net production of an old palm. -from Author
Five inter-related themes are selected for review: physical environment; forest regeneration and growth; invertebrate herbivory patterns of seed and seedling mortality; mineral nutrition; and altitudinal zonation of rain forests. -K.Clayton
The dependent synusia in 15 forests plots on Mt Korobaba, Fiji proved better predictors of the overall floristic composition of the plots than any of the tree, sapling, shrub, or herb synusiae. The species richness of epiphytes and climbers per tree and sapling varies by host species, by the positions of individuals of species in the structural gradient, and by the size of the individuals of particular species.
The tooth-billed pigeon Didunculus strigirostris lives on three islands in Western (Independent) Samoa. A larger, extinct species, Didunculus placopedetes, is described from bones recovered in late Quaternary cave deposits on 'Eua, Kingdom of Tonga. Also referred to D. placopedetes are bones from archaeological sites on the larger Tongan island of Tongatapu and the smaller, lower islands of Lifuka, Ha'ano, 'Uiha and Ha'afeva. As with so many other landbirds in Polynesia, the extinction of D. placopedetes occurred since the arrival of people and presumably was due to human impact. The peopling of Tonga is why the genus Didunculus is considered to be endemic to Samoa. The biogeographic implications of the new data on Didunculus are not unique; human activities have reduced or eliminated the natural range of nearly every genus and species group of Polynesian landbird. The reduced ranges of surviving taxa have created a situation (herein called ‘pseudo-endemism’) where a taxon that seems today to be endemic to a restricted area (often one or two islands) was much more widespread at first human arrival. As the prehistoric record of insular birds improves in the Pacific and elsewhere, the list of pseudo-endemic taxa will continue to grow.
Two 1 ha plots of undisturbed upper montane rain forest in southern Ecuador were sampled for all trees with a dbh ≥ 5 cm. An extraordinarily high α-diversity for a forest near treeline is described. The “non-ridge forest” plot at 2900 m elevation has 75 species and 28 families ha-1 and is believed to represent an advanced stage of succession whereas, the “ridge forest” plot at 2700 m elevation with 90 species and 38 families ha-1 has a more rapid turn-over rate probably due to a more unstable environment. Downslope forces (soil creep) are discussed as a possible cause for 32–44% of all trees being inclined more than 30° in the moderately steep terrain (average slope 20° in both study plots). The plot of “non-ridge forest” is characterized by a much greater biomass whether expressed as basal area (44 m2 versus 15 m2) or stem volume (214 m3 versus 52 m3), while the density is equally high (2310 versus 2090 trees ha-1) in both plots. Families with Family Importance Value >25 / ha-1 are Clusiaceae, Cunoniaceae, Melastomataceae, Myrsinaceae, and Ternstroemiaceae.
The Vava'u island group, Tonga, comprises ca. 60 limestone islands on a single submarine platform overlain with rich soils derived from tephra deposits from nearby volcanic islands. The island group has moderate topographic relief (215 m) and is characterized by plateaus and steep cliffs. Humans settled in Tonga ca. 3000 yr ago and have exploited the flatter terrain for agriculture since that time. We conducted the first survey of forest composition in Vava'u, sampling remnant patches of late-successional forest as well as stands in various stages of secondary succession following agricultural abandonment. Plant species composition did not vary greatly with elevation over this short gradient, in contrast with patterns found on‘Eua, a higher island in Tonga. The most significant environmental gradient affecting species composition was coastal or maritime influence. However, the greatest variation in species composition and structure appeared to be related to species turnover during secondary succession, and we hypothesize a sequence of species replacements. Secondary forest begins to resemble late-successional forest in 30–50 yr in terms of structure and native species richness and therefore is of significant conservation value.
A set of eighteen sites, previously classified by reference to all 818 species recorded, was reclassified using subsets of species; ten `synusial' subsets were used, and each was matched by a subset containing the same number of species selected at random. The subset of all 269 large trees duplicated the original classification perfectly down to the ultimate divisions of the hierarchy, and no other subset possessed this property. It is demonstrated that many of these larger trees are confined, or almost confined, to single sites, and that such species contribute very little to the classification; it has therefore been possible to duplicate the major divisions of the original classification, with only very slight modification, by the use of only sixty-five tree-species. The implications of these findings are discussed with reference to the structure and floristic classification of rain forests.
A detailed study of montane and lowland forest areas at 1710 and 380 m respectively is presented; supporting data from three other lowland forests are also given. 1. The soils under the forests are compared. The montane is appreciably more acid in the A1 horizon, has a lower calcium-status, contains more organic matter, has a coarser texture and has freer drainage. 2. The forests are shown to be very similar in structure. The montane forest is somewhat less dense (Table 2), and the trees are of slightly lesser mean height and diameter (Table 3), but there is not much difference in the extent of the canopy holes. Concerning undergrowth plants (Table 4), the montane plot bore fewer saplings and poles (woody plants 3-9 ft, 9-20 ft) but far more cyclanths and palms. The data from the extra lowland plots indicate that the plot studied in detail was essentially typical of forest over a wide area in eastern Ecuador. 3. The stratification of forests is analysed more closely than by other workers and various types are distinguished. It is concluded that stratification of species has not been shown for any species-rich primary tropical lowland rain forest. Stratification of the heights of individuals and of canopy volume or mass is related to species-paucity and to the regeneration pattern. Other forms of stratification are briefly discussed. The montane forest shows no stratification of individuals or, over the whole plot, of canopy volume. No regular strata of individuals have been located in the four lowland forests (cf. Fig. 4). 4. Various evidence is used to show that all the forests investigated are either primary or very old secondary. 5. The leaf size spectra of the montane and lowland forests are similar but the montane has less macrophylls and more notophylls and microphylls. The montane forest has shorter buttresses, more leaning and distorted boles, and less monopodial crowns. 6. Both forests have strong floristic affinities (at the family level) with the Amazonian hylaea; the montane forest also contains a distinctly Andean element. 7. A revised system of synusiae of epiphytes and climbers is presented, together with a detailed analysis of the numbers of species and individuals in different taxonomic groups and arbitrary height classes in the two forest types. The montane forest has a greater abundance of skiophytic bryophytes, pteridophytes, bromeliads, and orchids and of photophytic bryophytes and macrolichens. The lowland forest has more photophytic dicotyledonous climbers and more climbing and epiphytic Araceae. 8. The classification of tropical rain forests is discussed and the three formation-types recognized by Richards (1952) are renamed Lowland Rain forest, Lower Montane Rain forest and Upper Montane Rain forest. The montane forest studied is assigned to the Lower Montane Rain forest formation-type and the lowland forests to the Lowland Rain forest formation-type. The limitations of a single system of formation-types for the whole of the tropics are emphasized.
1. This paper describes an extensive survey of the composition of the canopy in two sample areas taken from 1 mile2 (2.5 km2) of relatively uniform, undisturbed Lowland Dipterocarp forest in the Malay Peninsula. This survey was designed to find out what factors control the distribution of species within such a forest. 2. A brief introduction is given to Malayan forest types based mainly on the work of Wyatt-Smith; this shows that a number of types of forest are already recognized and that the distribution of these, even within the complex of Lowland Dipterocarp forest, is related broadly to habitat. 3. Jengka Forest Reserve is situated to the east of the main watershed of the Malay Peninsula between 150 and 250 ft (45 and 75 m) above sea level. The survey area lies on Triassic shales and sandstones which form a yellow latosol. The climate is typically equatorial with a well-distributed rainfall, though there is evidence that evaporation exceeds precipitation for some months in dry years. The forest is typical in structure of Malayan Lowland Dipterocarp forest and is, as far as can be ascertained, undisturbed by human interference past or present. 4. Two surveys were made. `A' was a grid sample amounting to 20 ha in which all trees reaching the canopy (mainly those over 3 ft (91 cm) girth) were enumerated and mapped. `B' was a block of 24 ha in which all individuals reaching the canopy of the nineteen commonest species were enumerated and mapped. 5. A total species list and an analysis of the basal area and number of trees per family was prepared for `A'. This shows that the Dipterocarpaceae is the most important family by any criterion. The sample contained 2773 trees of 375 species, 139 genera and fifty-two families. The average basal area was 24.2 m2/ha. 6. The network of narrow swamps which traverse the area (amounting to 4.6% of the total) have a significantly different flora from the rest. 7. The eighteen commonest trees in `B' were mapped and thirteen of these were analysed by the partition of variance to detect pattern. Some species were found to be randomly distributed while others showed significant aggregations of various dimensions. The most marked pattern for several species measured approximately 200 m across. The degree of aggregation seemed to be related to means of dispersal and size of fruit. 8. The distribution maps of the same thirteen species showed that smaller trees were generally grouped round larger trees but occasionally occurred in isolated positions, presumably forming foci for new aggregation. 9. Covariance analysis of the thirteen commonest species for pattern showed no groups or pairs of species which were consistently positively or negatively associated with one another at all sizes of aggregation. The degree and the sign of the association between any pair of species frequently changed as the size of the aggregations changed. 10. Normal and inverse association analysis were applied to the distribution of 184 species in 192 plots each of 20 × 60 m. Normal association analysis revealed those species which were known to have indicator value for swamp conditions. In the inverse analysis there appeared a number of groups of species which could be interpreted from present knowledge of the ecology of Malayan Lowland forest. These groups contained mainly the rarer species of the survey area. The groups containing the commoner species did not correspond with the results of the covariance analysis. 11. Further analysis of the data show that a plot of at least 2 ha is necessary to obtain a coefficient of similarity of 50% for canopy tree species between two samples of this forest and that Williams' Index of Diversity (α) increases with increasing size of plot. Calculations made from the proportion of gap in the forest and from the distribution of girth classes both lead to the view that any piece of forest may persist, between gap phases, for an average of 200-400 years. 12. An hypothesis is advanced to account for the kinds of distribution of species that were found. The `rarer' species are thought to occur in associated groups, the distribution of which depends on changes of soil and micro-environment. These occur within a matrix of commoner species whose distribution is determined more by the relations between flowering, fruiting, agency of dispersal and the formation of gaps (i.e. by chance) than by their relation to small changes of environment. 13. The evidence of the behaviour of Dipterocarpus, Koompassia and Shorea leprosula suggest that the forest is not in equilibrium and that the balance of some of the more important species in it has changed within the last 100 years.
(1) The numerical models available for the classification of quantitative data (numbers of species in size-classes) are discussed theoretically, and four (together with two qualitative counterparts) are selected for study. These are: (i) the Canberra metric with double-zero matches suppressed, zero/non-zero matches adjusted, and flexible sorting; the qualitative counterpart is the complement of the Jaccard measure with flexible sorting; and (ii) three forms of partitioned diversity, viz. total information, species ignoring sizes, and equivocation; information analysis was used as an approximate qualitative counterpart. (2) Complete data were collected for three contrasted situations: (i) eight large sites of diverse forest types; (ii) ten small sites, homogeneous by comparison with the eight-site set, but including a soil discontinuity, and (iii) eighty such small sites, now encompassing a wide variety of forest types. (3) For the eight-site set, numbers and size-classes added nothing to the qualitative classification, which was remarkably robust under change of numerical model; only equivocation was unsatisfactory. For the ten-site set, all analyses overtly involving size-classes seriously distorted the results; the analysis using species numbers and the Canberra metric was marginally the best. For the eighty-site set, only two models were satisfactory; these were (i) species numbers and Canberra metric, and (ii) information analysis. Of these two, the metric analysis with numbers was preferable. (4) The results are discussed in the general context of floristic primary survey of tropical and subtropical rain forests.
A detailed quantitative description is given of the tree flora of thirty-eight square plots of 10 × 10 m in four forest-types at c. 1550 m altitude on the ridge between John Crow Peak and Morce's Gap in the Blue Mountains in Jamaica. The four forest-types (Mor Ridge, Mull Ridge, Wet Slope and Gap) can be assigned to three associations: the Chaetocarpus globosus--Clusia cf. havetioides--Lyonia cf. octandra association (Mor Ridge), the Dendropanax pendulus-Hedyosmum arborescens-Podocarpus urbanii association (Mull Ridge and Wet Slope) and the Cyathea pubescens--Meriania purpurea--Solanum punctulatum association (Gap). The two Ridge forests have a higher basal area and more individuals per unit area than the Gap and Wet Slope forests. The distributions of individuals in girth size-classes show that most species are regenerating. The level of competition appears to fall in the sequence Gap > Mull Ridge > Mor Ridge and to be greater in Gap forest than Wet Slope forest. The amount of organic matter in the soil decreases in the series Mor Ridge > Mull Ridge > Gap > Wet Slope. In a mineralization test moderate quantities of nitrate were released in all soils except that of the Wet Slope forest. In a series of bioassays several species were found to fail completely on Mor Ridge forest soil. Two species showed a primary limitation by phosphorus on the other three soils, and one accumulated nitrogen to high levels. Holcus lanatus on soil from Mor Ridge forest showed a significant response to phosphate fertilizers but only after the pH was raised. Mean foliar levels of N, P, K and Ca increase along the sequence Mor Ridge, Mull Ridge-cum-West Slope, Gap. In contrast, the foliar levels in single species do not differ between forest-types except for K and Mg; the K level is markedly lower in Mor Ridge forest. It is tentatively suggested that the Mor Ridge forest is limited primarily by the extremely low soil pH (2.8-3.5), that the Mull Ridge forest is limited relative to the Gap forest by a slower circulation of nutrients, and that the Wet Slope forest is limited relative to Mull Ridge forest by the lack of support provided by the very shallow soil ( $\geqslantless 30$ cm deep) and the difficulty of establishment on a 30°-slope. Comparisons between the Jamaican forests and Lower Montane Rain forests in Puerto Rico and New Guinea show that the Jamaican forest soils are all low in total carbon (except Mor Ridge soil), total nitrogen and instantaneously exchangeable bases. Comparison of mean foliar mineral levels between the most widespread Jamaican forest-type (Mull Ridge-cum-Wet Slope) and a much taller Lower Montane Rain forest in New Guinea suggests that the Jamaican forest is not short of N, P, K or Ca, but it is emphasized that more critical studies on mineral cycling are needed to explore this question.
The vegetation of the Sigatoka sand dunes in Viti Levu, Fiji, consists of forest dominated by native trees and shrubs, coastal communities dominated variously by native and introduced species, and grassland dominated by introduced species. The near-coastal and inland forest are discriminated by numerical analysis as are three non-forest communities. The dunes are edaphically and climatically capable of supporting a complete cover of native closed-forest. However, this formation has been drastically reduced in area by firing, cutting, grazing, and the instability of the parabolic dune system in the high-energy coastal environment. The closed-forest may be eliminated if the present pattern of use of the area continues or if the full area of the dunes is used for mining of magnetite. The destruction of the closed-forest would be unfortunate as it has high nature conservation value.
The literature of plant geography has long contained references to the facts that (1) in progressing from the poles toward the equator, alpine timberline increases in elevation above sea level, and that (2) the elevation of this timberline exhibits considerable variation at any one latitude on different mountain systems. More recently a third fact concerning the geography of this vegetation boundary has been documented; the latitude-altitude relationship is not rectilinear.
THREE types of rain forest can generally be recognized on wet tropical mountains: lowland rain forest, lower Montane rain forest and upper Montane rain forest1–3. These forest types can be defined both by distinctive plant associations1 and by the altitudinal limits within which they lie. These limits, however, vary with the type of mountain. On small, isolated mountains and outlying ridges of major ranges, the upper limit of lowland rain forest is about 700–900 m and that of the lower Montane rain forest about 1,200–1,600 m, whereas on the main ridges of major ranges the limits are higher, approximately 1,200–1,500 m and 1,800–2,300 m, respectively4. This phenomenon is known as the ‘Massenerhebung’ effect.
Trichospermurn rlchU (A. Gray) Seem
- E Chelonirnorphus Gillespie
- E Seem
E/aeocarpus chelonirnorphus Gillespie
E. storkil Seem.
Trichospermurn rlchU (A. Gray) Seem.
PTERIDOPIlYT A Aspidaceae Ctenitis Niensis <Hook.) Copel. Cyclosorus decadens (Baker) Ching Diplazium melanocaulon Brack. Elaphoglossum milnei Krajina Lomagramma cordipinna Holttum L. polyphylla Brack. Lomariopsis brackenridgei Carr
- Podocarpaceae Dacrydium Nidulum De Laubenfels Podocarpus Decipiens
- N E Gray
- P Neriijolius
- D Don
- Lamb
Podocarpaceae
Dacrydium nidulum de Laubenfels
Podocarpus decipiens N. E. Gray
P. neriijolius D. Don ex Lamb.
PTERIDOPIlYT A
Aspidaceae
Ctenitis Niensis <Hook.) Copel.
Cyclosorus decadens (Baker) Ching
Diplazium melanocaulon Brack.
Elaphoglossum milnei Krajina
Lomagramma cordipinna Holttum
L. polyphylla Brack.
Lomariopsis brackenridgei Carr.
Plesioneuron hopeanum (Baker) Holtt.
Tectaria crenata Cay.
T. hookerii Brownlie
T. vitiensis Brownlie
Aspleniaceae
Asplenium amboinense Willd.
A. australasicum Hk.
Loxoscaphe gibberosum (Forst.) Moore
Fiji forest inventory
- M J Berry
- W J Howard
Berry, M. J.; Howard. W. J. 1973: Fiji forest inventory.
Land resources study no. /2. London. Land
Resources Division.
Gray Psychotrla caldwell; Gillespie 1'. leptantha A. C. Smith P. piltospori/olia Fosberg P. lephrosantha A
- M Nandarlvalensls Gillespie Ophiorrhiza Laxa
- Ai Gray
- O Leptantha
M. nandarlvalensls Gillespie
Ophiorrhiza laxa AI Gray
O. leptantha A. Gray
Psychotrla caldwell; Gillespie
1'. leptantha A. C. Smith
P. piltospori/olia Fosberg
P. lephrosantha A. Gray
New Zealand Journal of Botany, 1985, Vol. 23
Trichomanes apiifolium Presl T. asae-grayi Van
- Hymenophyllaceae Ilymenophyllum
- Brack
Hymenophyllaceae
Ilymenophyllum qffine Brack.
Trichomanes apiifolium Presl
T. asae-grayi Van der Bosch
T. caespifrons C. Chrjsten
T. dentatum Van der Bosch
T. endlicherlanum Presl
T. tahitense Nad.
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