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Anthropometry of Head and Face
... Farkas [4] presented a fundamental study for an anthropometrical approach to facial features that measures the head and face anthropometric features, including angles, distances and proportions. He also investigated several derived features such as facial asymmetry, gender differences and related facial changes. ...
... To provide a quantitative measurement of a facial impression, we conducted a comprehensive review of anthropometry studies [4,6,7,[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]18,19,23,25,28] and collected 68 facial features, eliminating any duplicates. These features are suggested in Appendix A. We classified the collected features according to their corresponding facial components and selected 25 features for inclusion in our study. ...
... We list the facial features suggested in various anthropometry studies [4,6,7,[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]18,19,23,25,28,33] in Figure A1. ...
We present a novel approach to perceiving facial impressions by defining the explicit features of the face (xFoFs) based on anthropometric studies. The xFoFs estimate 35 anthropometric features of human faces with normal expressions and frontalized poses. Using these xFoFs, we have developed a method to objectively measure facial impressions, compiling a dataset of approximately 4896 facial images to validate our method. The ranking of xFoFs among the face image dataset guides an objective and quantitative estimation of facial impressions. To further corroborate our study, we conducted two user studies: an examination of the first and strongest impression perception and a validation of the consistency of multiple important impression perceptions. Our work significantly contributes to the field of facial recognition and explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) by providing an effective solution for integrating xFoFs with existing facial recognition models.
... For measurement error analyses, a direct facial anthropometry was adopted (18). This involved asking a participant to sit with his head in natural head position. ...
... Standard anatomical landmarks and reference points were identified according to previous works (5,18,19) and were recognized using Bioanalyzer (a software developed using Microsoft visual basic version 6) for frontal facial analysis (see Table 1 and Plate. 1). ...
... Subnasale sn It is the junction between the lower border of the nasal septum and the cutaneous portion of the upper lip, in the midline 18 Vertex v This is the highest point on the head with the head in the Frankfort horizontal plane 19 ...
Human faces contain several cues, for example, identity, emotional expression, age, gender, ethnicity, attractiveness, personality traits, and many more. The aim of this study was to determine the facial parameters in the population of Hausa Male taxi and tricycle drivers in Kano, Nigeria and to compare them with those determined in earlier studies in different populations. Four hundred (402) subjects were selected from the two association in Kano state, Tsaya da Kafarka Taxi Drivers Association and Tricycle Operators Association Kano (TOAKAN), using random sampling methods, with the age range of the participants between 18-50 years and Those with facial deformities or craniofacial trauma, surgery, and congenital facial abnormalities were excluded from the study. Photographic methods were used to capture the face. The data were expressed as mean ± SD, frequency, and percentages. It was observed that facial height (tr_gn) was higher in the facial vertical dimensions than the rest with the mean value of 190.59 ±17.60mm, while the lower face width (go1_go2) was higher in the horizontal facial dimensions than the rest, with the mean value of 115.92±11.86mm. The right eye length (ex1_en1) was slightly lower (30.07±3.80mm) than the left (30.27±3.81mm). In conclusion, the present study has established the baseline data of facial dimensions of Hausa Male taxi and tricycle drivers in Kano, Nigeria.
... For measurement error analyses, a direct facial anthropometry was adopted (18). This involved asking a participant to sit with his head in natural head position. ...
... Standard anatomical landmarks and reference points were identified according to previous works (5,18,19) and were recognized using Bioanalyzer (a software developed using Microsoft visual basic version 6) for frontal facial analysis (see Table 1 and Plate. 1). ...
... Subnasale sn It is the junction between the lower border of the nasal septum and the cutaneous portion of the upper lip, in the midline 18 Vertex v This is the highest point on the head with the head in the Frankfort horizontal plane 19 ...
Human faces contain several cues, for example, identity, emotional expression, age, gender, ethnicity, attractiveness, personality traits and many more. The aim of this study was to determine the facial parameters in the population of Hausa Male taxi and tricycle drivers in Kano, Nigeria and to compare them with those determined in earlier studies in different populations. Four hundred (402) subjects were selected from the two association in Kano state, Tsaya da Kafarka Taxi Drivers Association and Tricycle Operators Association Kano (TOAKAN), using random sampling methods, with the age range of the participants between 18-50 years and Those with facial deformities or craniofacial trauma, surgery, and congenital facial abnormalities were excluded from the study. Photographic methods were used to capture the face. The data were expressed as mean ± SD, frequency, and percentages. It was observed that facial height (tr_gn) was higher in the facial vertical dimensions than the rest with the mean value of 190.59 ±17.60mm, while the lower face width (go1_go2) was higher in the horizontal facial dimensions than the rest, with the mean value of 115.92±11.86mm. The right eye length (ex1_en1) was slightly lower (30.07±3.80mm) than the left (30.27±3.81mm). In conclusion the present study has established the baseline data of facial dimension of Hausa Male taxi and tricycle drivers in Kano, Nigeria.
... Measurement or anthropometric of the surface of the human head and face is necessary to design personal protective items (e.g. respirators, eyeglasses, and other head/face gear) (Shiang, 1999), identify missing persons in forensic (Farkas, 1994), and help predict growth patterns and evaluate patients in craniomaxillofacial surgery (Posnick and Farkas, 1994). ...
... Anthropometric data of the 'normal range' group (Farkas, 1994) of the population are needed to plan craniofacial reconstruction of malformation patients because the normal data are often used as the correct dimension for surgery (Cutting et al., 1998;Madjarova et al., 1999). In addition, the normal data are required for the forensic applications, namely: 1) identifying a body (skeletal remain), 2) predicting the current profile of the individual and 3) estimating the age of the individual (Giles and Elliot, 1963). ...
Preliminary study shows that craniofacial surgery in Malaysia uses reference data from abroad, as the local craniofacial database is not available yet. This research concentrates on the development of a prototype information system, as a basis for nationwide craniofacial database. Key techniques employed to capture the spatial data are laser scanning, digital photogrammetry and CT scan. The craniofacial information system is developed using POSTGRESQL and other software (e.g. VISUAL C++, DELPHI, OPENGL, etc), and consists of three main components: Data input and pre-processing; database management; data manipulation and analysis. Some preliminary results are included to highlight the practicality of the developed craniofacial information system.
... This work built the experiments depending on two types of face dataset. First one is the standard FG-NET dataset, which was provided with face landmark points numbered from 1 to 68 [14,15], where Active Appearance Model (AAM) was adopted to extract these points. Such standard dataset is supposed to be more suitable for this work due to considerable number of images (761) between (0 to 15) years old, and it was widely adopted in previous age estimation works. ...
... Exaggerated head size of newborns and the successive shrinking cause significant changes in forehead size, face roundness and distances between face components [15]. Precisely drawn ellipse provides considerable measurements representing such changes, which can be provided depending on three types of points illustrated in Figure 6. ...
Background: This paper analyzes the geometric changes in human face during childhood to estimate the related age; cranial changes are used as age-progression features within childhood stage (0-12) years. Infant face is close to the circular shape turning to an ellipse shape over age progression face oval is determined and drawn using face landmarks, were it’s robust against opening mouth, thinness, fatness or face occlusion by hair. Materials and Methods: The experiments depending on two types of face dataset. First one is the standard FG-NET dataset, which was provided with face landmark points numbered from 1 to 68 [14, 15]. Besides, an Internet-based collected data set of (3010) face images extracted from Daily Photo Project. Results: Drawn face ellipse provided set of measures that significantly modeled changes in forehead size and face roundness. Studied age period was between birth and 12 years old. Exaggerated head size at birth provides round face with big forehead, which starts shrinking as age progresses natural face. Conclusion: Face ellipse provided efficient measures and distances to represent face changes along childhood. Comparing with published researches in young-face age estimation, proposed face ellipse recorded encouraging results.
... Najkraća je bila srednja trećina lica, što se poklapa sa ispitivanjima drugih autora;tako je kod bele rase srednja trećina lica obično kraća u odnosu na ostale dve 7 , što je odnos koji je pokazan i kod muških pripadnika crne rase 12 . Farkaseva studija pokazuje da je kod današnje bele rase evropskog porekla donja trećina lica nešto duža 13 . Kod pripadnica žute rase podaci su ukazali na kraću gornju trećinu lica, za razliku od pripadnica crne rase, kod koje je prisutna duža gornja trećina lica 14 . ...
... Thus, in the white race, the middle third of the face is usually shorter compared to the other two 7 , which is a relationship that has also been shown in male members of the black race 12 . Farkas's study shows that the lower third of the face is slightly longer in today's white race of European origin 13 . In the case of yellowskinned women, the data indicated a shorter face, in contrast to black women, who show a longer upper third of the face 14 . ...
Introduction: The analysis of facial parameters in young people with a full dental arch is an assessment of the representation of certain anthropological features in the Serbian geographical area, but also a starting point for their reconstruction after tooth loss in order to achieve the maximum therapeutic and aesthetic effect. Aim: The aim of the work was to measure and compare facial parameters among respondents with a complete dental arch. Material and methods: 91 dental students participated in the research, 32 (35.2%) male and 59 (64.8%) female. The average age of the respondents was 22.16±1.53 years. The length and width of the face were measured, as well as the vertical and horizontal parameters, and the facial index was calculated. Results: Men had a significantly longer (Z=4.567; p<0.001) and wider face (Z=5.962; p<0.001) compared to women. There was no significant difference in the face index between women and men (ch 2 =2.492; p=0.666). There was also no significant difference in the vertical analysis of the face according to gender (ch 2 =0.065; p=0.798). In the majority of subjects, the shorter middle third of the face was measured. In the case of the expected division of the lower third of the face, it exists in a significantly greater extent in males (ch 2 =5.989; p=0.014). In the majority of subjects, the intercanthal width corresponded to the width of the eye, in both sexes, without statistical significance. Further, in a significantly larger number of male and female respondents, it was determined that the bipupillary corresponds to the intercommissural distance. The interalar distance corresponding to the width of the eye was more significantly present in women (ch 2 =5.002; p=0.025). Conclusion: Measurement of facial parameters can significantly improve dental therapy by enabling optimal aesthetic performance.
... In general, the data preprocessing phase includes three main steps: facial landmark detection and orientation, data segmentation, and face registration. Facial landmarks are a set of keypoints defined by anthropometric studies [49] and can be used to automatically localize and register a face. Some databases already provide landmarks for each face image. ...
... Some databases already provide landmarks for each face image. Data segmentation is the process of utilizing facial landmarks, such as nose tip and eye corners, to segment the facial surface [49]. This process is always used by local conventional methods, which determine identifiable facial parts like the nose and eyes for feature extraction. ...
In the past ten years, research on face recognition has shifted to using 3D facial surfaces, as 3D geometric information provides more discriminative features. This comprehensive survey reviews 3D face recognition techniques developed in the past decade, both conventional methods and deep learning methods. These methods are evaluated with detailed descriptions of selected representative works. Their advantages and disadvantages are summarized in terms of accuracy, complexity, and robustness to facial variations (expression, pose, occlusion, etc.). A review of 3D face databases is also provided, and a discussion of future research challenges and directions of the topic.
... The scans were landmarked in the 3dMD Vultus software (Version 2.5.0.1.) by a single operator; 26 facial landmarks, described by Farkas [22], were placed ( Figure 1; Table 1). The highest and lowest terminal points on the nostril axis were newly defined by the authors of the present study. ...
... Sixteen linear measurements (Table 2) were made on each image, mostly defined by Farkas [22]. The width and height of the nostril were defined, as described by Altorkat et al., 2016 [1], and the facial width was defined, as described by Cole et al., 2017 [5]. ...
Facial morphology is known to be influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Scientific evidence regarding facial parameters in patients with posterior crossbite is lacking. This study aimed to investigate the association between posterior crossbite and facial parameters. This cross-sectional study included 34 adolescents with and 34 adolescents without posterior crossbite in the age range from 13 to 15 years. Facial surface scans were acquired with a 3dMD imaging system, and landmark-based analysis was performed. Data were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney U test and Spearman’s correlations. Individuals in the control group had lower face heights (females: p = 0.003, r = 0.45; males: p = 0.005, r = 0.57). The control group females presented with smaller intercanthal width (p = 0.04; r = 0.31) and anatomical nose width (p = 0.004; r = 0.43) compared with the crossbite group females. The males in the control group had wider nostrils. In the control group, significant correlations among different facial parameters were more common, including the correlations between eye width and other transversal face measurements. On the contrary, the facial width was correlated with nasal protrusion (r = 0.657; p < 0.01) and the morphological width of the nose (r = 0.505; p < 0.05) in the crossbite group alone. In both groups, the philtrum width was linked with the anatomical and morphological widths of the nose. Conclusions: Patients with posterior crossbites have increased face height and different patterns of facial proportions compared with individuals without crossbites.
... The distances between seven landmarks (Table 1) of the T 1 and the T P were measured. All of these points were standard anthropometric or cephalometric landmarks [9][10][11]. All distance testing was completed by a single investigator to reduce inaccuracies between viewers. ...
... The distances between seven landmarks (Table 1) of the T1 and the TP were measured. All of these points were standard anthropometric or cephalometric landmarks [9][10][11]. All distance testing was completed by a single investigator to reduce inaccuracies between viewers. ...
Using a computer-aided, three-dimensional surgical simulation planning program, soft-tissue planning can help achieve adequate facial esthetics and patient satisfaction after orthognathic surgery. This study aimed to assess the Simplant O&O software’s soft tissue prediction accuracy. Fourteen skeletal type III patients who underwent orthognathic surgery by the same surgeons were included in this prospective study, and they were separated into two groups: the one-jaw (n = 5) and two-jaw (n = 9) groups. The software was used to analyze the preoperative (T0) and 4-month postoperative computed tomography data (T1), as well as intraoral scans. Data from cone-beam computed tomography and stereolithography from a scanned dental cast were used to reconstruct a composite skull model. Based on the presurgical CT data, the program generated a predicted soft tissue image (TP), which was then superimposed on the T1. The distances between seven T1 and TP landmarks were measured and evaluated using a one-sample t-test. In the one-jaw group, the mean error for all linear measurements was 1.73 ± 1.14 mm, whereas the mean error of the two-jaw group was 1.03 ± 0.83 mm, and both measurements were within clinically acceptable limits. Pronasele had the best correlation (mean error of 0.63 ± 0.45 mm) while soft tissue pogonion and soft tissue point B had the worst correlations (mean error of 2.87 ± 2.22 mm and 1.31 ± 0.98 mm, respectively). Even though there were some limitations, it was possible to conclude that the ability to accurately predict soft tissue changes using Simplant O&O for skeletal type III patients makes it adequate for use in clinical practice.
... There are many studies on the anthropometry of the external nose and nasal base by direct or indirect measurement through normalized imaging. The facial landmarks are defined below based on the study of LG Farkas [30]. The nasion (denoted n), is the midpoint of the two segments of the nasal bone and the nasofrontal joint. ...
... Names and symbols of facial landmarks that are used in this study[20,30,31]. ...
Measuring and labeling human face landmarks are time-consuming jobs that are conducted by experts. Currently, the applications of the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) for image segmentation and classification have made great progress. The nose is arguably one of the most attractive parts of the human face. Rhinoplasty surgery is increasingly performed in females and also in males since surgery can help to enhance patient satisfaction with the resulting perceived beautiful ratio following the neoclassical proportions. In this study, the CNN model is introduced to extract facial landmarks based on medical theories: it learns the landmarks and recognizes them based on feature extraction during training. The comparison between experiments has proved that the CNN model can detect landmarks depending on desired requirements. Anthropometric measurements are carried out by automatic measurement divided into three images with frontal, lateral, and mental views. Measurements are performed including 12 linear distances and 10 angles. The results of the study were evaluated as satisfactory with a normalized mean error (NME) of 1.05, an average error for linear measurements of 0.508 mm, and 0.498° for angle measurements. Through its results, this study proposed a low-cost automatic anthropometric measurement system with high accuracy and stability.
... Farkas [11]). Each landmark is defined by three coordinates in the x, y and z spatial dimensions. ...
... This example has good descriptive features from which it is easy to select individual overlapping points, such as points around the eyes. We chose area and points around the eyes and in the middle of the forehead, because these points remain almost unchanged from childhood to adulthood [11,27]. After selecting important overlapping landmarks, the alignment process becomes simple while reducing the fitting errors for the selected landmarks. ...
The inspection of patients’ soft tissues and the effects of various dental procedures on their facial physiognomy are quite challenging. To minimise discomfort and simplify the process of manual measuring, we performed facial scanning and computer measurement of experimentally determined demarcation lines. Images were acquired using a low-cost 3D scanner. Two consecutive scans were obtained from 39 participants, to test the scanner repeatability. An additional ten persons were scanned before and after forward movement of the mandible (predicted treatment outcome). Sensor technology that combines red, green, and blue (RGB) data with depth information (RGBD) integration was used for merging frames into a 3D object. For proper comparison, the resulting images were registered together, which was performed with ICP (Iterative Closest Point)-based techniques. Measurements on 3D images were performed using the exact distance algorithm. One operator measured the same demarcation lines directly on participants; repeatability was tested (intra-class correlations). The results showed that the 3D face scans were reproducible with high accuracy (mean difference between repeated scans <1%); the actual measurements were repeatable to some extent (excellent only for the tragus-pogonion demarcation line); computational measurements were accurate, repeatable, and comparable to the actual measurements. Three dimensional (3D) facial scans can be used as a faster, more comfortable for patients, and more accurate technique to detect and quantify changes in facial soft tissue resulting from various dental procedures.
... [7][8][9] People of African descent (as well as some Asian groups) are characterized by a platyrrhine (i.e., "broad and flat") nose. Sparse data related to anthropometric measurements [10][11][12][13] indicate a typical short nasal bridge with low radix, small and flat nasal bones, a short concave dorsum, and a flattened middle vault. A bulbous and underprojected tip with a reduced columella height and lack of structural support (giving an illusory widened intercanthal distance) along with flared alae with round nostrils (resulting in a wide nasal base) and extremely thick skin are common findings, too. ...
The apparent lack of quadrangular cartilage in Black African noses is commonly observed both from a radiological and clinical point of view. To the best of our knowledge only a few research papers has been conducted on the facial proportions and structural anatomy of black people of Southern and Eastern Africa. The aim of this retrospective comparative study is a radiological assessment of the total amount of septal quadrangular cartilage by measuring its area in sagittal CT views, in two selected Black South African (SA) and Caucasian (CA) samples and the comparison with the literature in our hands. Statistical analysis was conducted, Categorical variables are showed as frequencies and percentages, while continuous variables as means and standard deviations (SD). Normal distribution of variables was verified using the Shapiro-Wilk test or by means of skewness and kurtosis values. Differences among unpaired groups were evaluated using the independent Student’s t test for normally distributed data (complemented by the Cohen’s d to show the effect size with the following cut-off: d=0.2, “small” effect size; d=0.5, “medium” effect size; d=0.8, “large” effect size) and Mann-Whitney U test in case of no normal distribution. Statistical significance was defined as p < 0.05 setting the α-error probability at 5%. This study shows that on average there is a 30% more cartilage available in caucasian compared to Black African noses and confirms the apparent lack of quadrangular cartilage and in Black African noses which is commonly observed in surgery. The need for an adequate amount of autologous septal cartilage makes cartilage availability a major concern before surgery and being able to pre-operative accurately measure the amount of septal cartilage that is available to be harvested for other grafts in the surgery is essential.
... The Farkas craniofacial anthropometry system [10] is a landmark scheme widely used in medicine, clinical genetics, plastic surgery, and oral maxillofacial surgery. Dr. Farkas created a measurement system based on anthropometric landmarks. ...
p>As special marks on a human face, facial landmarks reflect the facial features of various parts of the face, which is crucial in biomedicine and medical imaging. In addition, facial landmarks are also important features in computer vision such as face detection, face recognition, facial pose estimation, and facial animation. In this paper, we construct a 3D facial acupoint annotated dataset by labeling 37 facial acupoints on 846 neutral face triangle mesh on the FaceScape dataset. Based on these annotated data, we use a feature template matching method to realize the automatic annotation of 37 acupoints on triangle meshes. We used 40 meshes as the training set to extract the geometric patterns of 3D acupoints and then measured the performance of the automatic labeling algorithm on 20 meshes and 806 meshes as the test sets. In the training process, we extract the tangent plane for each landmark, project the neighbor vertices of the landmark to the tangent plane, and construct the feature image with R × R resolution through the bounding box of the projected points. In the testing process, we use the pattern images extracted during training to find the average features and use them as a guide to optimize the predicted landmarks. The experimental results show that our automatic acupoint labeling method has achieved good results. </p
... Most surgeons (in Malaysia) are still relying on laborious traditional contact method (for example, calipers) for measuring anthropometric landmarks on human face and skull (Halim et al, 2004; Figure 2). The traditional contact method (Farkas, 1994) is slow, time-consuming, not practical, subject to significant errors, and not efficient to build the database. The craniofacial reconstruction requires the following: precise automated imaging and measurement (to sub-mm accuracy) of soft and hard tissues (i.e. ...
For specific medical purposes (such as craniofacial reconstruction), human faces and skulls (i.e. soft and hard tissues) need to be modeled and measured accurately. This multidisciplinary research focuses on the development of surgical planning system for craniofacial reconstruction, for both the soft and hard tissues. The craniofacial reconstruction requires the following: imaging and measurement (non-contact, precise, rapid), 3D models (digital and physical), database, and surgical planner. In this research, the main data are the soft tissue (face) and hard tissue (skull) of craniofacial. This paper discusses the research works undertaken by UTM on the development of specialized imaging system (close range, non-contact, precise, and real time) for capturing soft tissue spatial data, and the development of specialized information system (called MyCIS) for craniofacial applications. The developed real time imaging system combines laser scanning (via MINOLTA VIVID910 scanner) and stereo photogrammetric techniques for acquiring high-resolution 3D models of craniofacial soft tissue. All these 3 types of data (laser scanning, stereo photogrammetric, and CT scan) were processed separately using RAPIDFORM, DVP, and 3DSLICER respectively. MyCIS or Malaysian Craniofacial Information System is developed in-house, and consists of three main components: Data input and pre-processing; Database management; Data analysis and manipulation. MyCIS uses ORDBMS for managing anthropometric/morphometric craniofacial spatial data. MyCIS integrates various inputs (soft tissue from laser scan and photogrammetry, hard tissue from CT-scan, measurement, patient's information, etc) for managing and visualizing the craniofacial data. The actual results to date (with measurement accuracy of sub-mm) indicate the suitability of the adopted procedure for practical craniofacial applications. This research has produced the latest approach for imaging of soft tissue and managing of local craniofacial database. The results from this research are useful for many multidisciplinary applications (both local and abroad) requiring craniofacial data.
... A study conducted by L. Farkas [21] which is based on the relations between well-defined facial landmarks in terms of the Euclidean distance between two points, the angle formed by a point and two other points, and the perpendicular distance from a point to the straight line between two other points. This study shows that these relations can be used to distinguish the differences in facial features of different ethnic groups. ...
... .18,[20][21][22] Some landmarks were identified on the patients' faces before image capture, including Tr, G, N, Prn, Al (R-L), Sn, Cph (R-L), Ls, Li, Sl, Pg, Gn, Go (R-L), and T (R-L). In our study, a total of 22 linear and 13 angular measurements (Figure 1)18,20-23 derived from 28 anthropometric landmarks were recorded. ...
Objectives
To evaluate the quantitative values of linear and angular facial anthropometrics in patients with unilateral cleft lip and palate (UCLP) and compare them with those of patients with bilateral cleft lip and palate (BCLP) using three-dimensional (3D) facial imaging.
Design
Retrospective, observational, and cross-sectional study.
Setting
Hospital for Rehabilitation of Craniofacial Anomalies/USP (HRAC/USP).
Patients/ Participants
In total, 61 non-syndromic patients with CLP who underwent multidisciplinary treatment and rehabilitated with a prosthesis were enrolled and divided into those with UCLP (G1; n = 31) and those with BCLP (G2; n = 30).
Intervention
Facial images were captured using a 3D camera after landmarks were marked on each patient's face. The software evaluated linear and angular parameters. Statistical tests were applied. Significance was determined as P < 0.05.
Main Outcome Measurements
Overall, 22 linear and 13 angular measurements were evaluated.
Results
The nasal length ( P = 0.08), middle third of the face ( P = 0.06), base nose width ( P < 0.001), nasal root width ( P < 0.001), nasal tip angle ( P = 0.018), philtrum width ( P < 0.001), lower face width ( P = 0.039) and midfacial depth ( P = 0.040) were significantly higher in G2; the upper cutaneous lip height was significantly higher in G1. Sexual dimorphism was observed except for linear measurements (linear distance between the labiale superius and labiale inferius landmarks, nasal root width, and upper cutaneous lip length) and angular measurements.
Conclusions
G2 had a greater length and width of nose and nasal root, nasal tip angle, philtrum width, and lower face width, midfacial depth, and midface third than G1. These findings also revealed the presence of sexual dimorphism.
... [24] Forehead: In profile evaluation, it is described as protrusive, flat, posteriorly inclined, and anteriorly inclined. According to Farkas [25] (1994), the normal adult has a mild posterior inclination; in males, it is 10 ± 4° and in females 6 ± 5°. At times the prominent supraorbital rim or forehead, frontal bossing, may be found associated with many syndromic conditions such as Crouzon syndrome, Pfeiffer syndrome, Russell-Silver syndrome, Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome, Hurler syndrome, and acromegaly, altering this normal inclination and providing us with an opportunity to diagnose the underlying condition for greater patient benefit. ...
Facial esthetics and balanced facial proportions are the expectations of the orthodontic patient. Promising and achieving the desired facial esthetic outcome, with functional harmony are the major orthodontic challenges. A detailed study of facial hard and soft-tissue structures is required for an orthodontist to evaluate, diagnose, and treat the chief complaints of an individual orthodontic patient. Orthodontic treatment has evolved from the angles paradigm to the soft-tissue paradigm. Evaluation in terms of facial esthetics requires a thorough understanding of the concept of the soft-tissue paradigm. This review article summarizes existing major facial esthetic parameters comprehensively and will also act as a guide for the detailed scientific evaluation of soft-tissue proportions in achieving treatment goals in orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics.
... List of landmarks of the nasal base [32,61] ...
Nasal base aesthetics is an interesting and challenging issue that attracts the attention of researchers in recent years. With that insight, in this study, we propose a novel automatic framework (AF) for evaluating the nasal base which can be useful to improve the symmetry in rhinoplasty and reconstruction. The introduced AF includes a hybrid model for nasal base landmarks recognition and a combined model for predicting nasal base symmetry. The proposed state-of-the-art nasal base landmark detection model is trained on the nasal base images for comprehensive qualitative and quantitative assessments. Then, the deep convolutional neural networks (CNN) and multi-layer perceptron neural network (MLP) models are integrated by concatenating their last hidden layer to evaluate the nasal base symmetry based on geometry features and tiled images of the nasal base. This study explores the concept of data augmentation by applying the methods motivated via commonly used image augmentation techniques. According to the experimental findings, the results of the AF are closely related to the otolaryngologists’ ratings and are useful for preoperative planning, intraoperative decision-making, and postoperative assessment. Furthermore, the visualization indicates that the proposed AF is capable of predicting the nasal base symmetry and capturing asymmetry areas to facilitate semantic predictions. The codes are accessible at https://github.com/AshooriMaryam/Nasal-Aesthetic-Assessment-Deep-learning .
... Aras. 8 From frontal view photographs, the alar base height ratio (ABHR) 9 was calculated. From basilar oblique view photographs, the columellar angle (CA), 10 nostril axis inclination on the cleft and noncleft sides (NAI-C and NAI-NC, respectively), 11 nasal floor width ratio (NFWR), 9 and columella length ratio (CLR) 9 were calculated ( Figure 2). ...
Objective
Presurgical nasoalveolar molding (PNAM) using a modified nostril retainer is a new treatment approach. This study aimed to evaluate the outcomes of early nasal molding using this approach with an average follow-up of 2 years in patients with severe unilateral cleft lip and palate.
Methods
This retrospective study included 18 patients with unilateral cleft lip and palate without genetic syndromes who underwent PNAM with modified nostril retainers. The Grayson technique was employed with an intraoral plate to approximate cleft segments. Nasal molding was initiated before reducing the cleft width to 5 mm. Measurements, including alar base height ratio (ABHR), nasal floor width ratio (NFWR), columellar length ratio (CLR), columellar angle (CA), and nostril axis inclination on the cleft and non-cleft sides (NAI-C and NAI-NC, respectively), were calculated from standard photographs taken before PNAM (T1), after PNAM (T2), after an average of 1.81 months post-surgery (T3), and after an average of 2.2 years after T3 (T4). Pairwise comparisons of values at the four time points were conducted.
Results
NFWR, CLR, CA, NAI-C and NAI-NC significantly increased after PNAM (p<0.05). However, no significant change was observed in ABHR (p>0.05) from T1 to T2. These outcomes were maintained at T4, and no patient developed a mega nostril.
Conclusion
The use of a modified nostril retainer for nasal molding appears to provide stability during the high probability of relapse reported in the literature.
... Farkas et al. published an anthropometric study of the Caucasian population. 26 When compared to Caucasian measurements, the philtrum length and lower vermillion height of the men were similar. Interestingly, upper lip height was larger in Indonesians, but upper vermillion height, female lower vermillion height and mouth width were smaller in the Indonesian population. ...
and keywords
Lips are an important part of our perception of beauty, youthfulness and attractiveness. Aesthetic lips, as with the rest of the face, differs according to age, ethnicity and sex. The aim of this study was to evaluate the anthropometric measurements of the lips of young and attractive Indonesian adults.
Photographs of faces were taken at an anterior neutral position for 100 participants; 47 men and 53 women volunteered to participate in this study. Seven landmarks were used in this study: stomion (st), sublabiale (sl), subnasale (sn), labiale superius (ls), labiale inferius (li), crista philtre (cp) and chelion (ch). Using these landmarks, lower lip height, upper lip height, philtrum length, upper vermillion height, lower vermillion height, cutaneous lower lip height, philtrum width and mouth width were measured.
The results were analysed using independent t-test and Mann-Whitney test. Significant differences in lip size were observed between men and women in all the measurements st-sl (lower lip height), sn-st (upper lip height), sn-ls (philtrum length), li-sl (cutaneous lower lip height), sn-ls/ls-st (philtrum length and upper vermillion height) and ls-li/ch-ch (cutaneous lower lip height and mouth width) with a significance of p=0.003, p=0.007, p<0.001, p=0.05, p=0.005 and p=0.021, respectively. Male lip measurements of ch-ch (overall lip width) and ls-st/li-st (overall lower lip height) were significantly smaller than those of female lips.
The lip ratios calculated in this study were congruent with aesthetic parameters reported in other populations. This study suggests that the same measurement standards cannot be used on different populations, but these ratios may offer a better framework for precision cosmetic procedures. We believe that the results obtained in this study on lip anthropometry will help in optimising the standard values that can be used for the Indonesian population aged 20 to 35 years.
... These landmarks are usually very few. Regardless of the method used, the step of identifying landmarks by the investigator affects the validity of the process [12][13][14]. ...
Symmetry is a fundamental biological concept in all living organisms. It is related to a variety of physical and social traits ranging from genetic background integrity and developmental stability to the perception of physical appearance. Within this context, the study of human facial asymmetry carries a unique significance. Here, we validated an efficient method to assess 3D facial surface symmetry by best-fit approximating the original surface to its mirrored one. Following this step, the midsagittal plane of the face was automatically defined at the midpoints of the contralateral corresponding vertices of the superimposed models and colour coded distance maps were constructed. The method was tested by two operators using facial models of different surface size. The results show that the midsagittal plane definition was highly reproducible (maximum error < 0.1 mm or°) and remained robust for different extents of the facial surface model. The symmetry assessments were valid (differences between corresponding bilateral measurement areas < 0.1 mm), highly reproducible (error < 0.01 mm), and were modified by the extent of the initial surface model. The present landmark-free, automated method to assess facial asymmetry and define the midsagittal plane of the face is accurate, objective, easily applicable, comprehensible and cost effective.
... For estimation of the FD from partial profile photographs, the pupil chord to stomion distance was measured in both frontal and profile photographs, after [51,63] (Fig. 5). PerspectiveX was then used to estimate the FD of each frontal photograph using (1) the measured palpebral fissure length from the photograph (x) in pixel units, the focal length of the camera lens (f) in millimetre units, (2) the mean palpebral fissure length (A) in millimetre units (according to Farkas [64]) and (3) the manufacturer reported image pixel size of the camera (y) in millimetre units [49]. Whereas the image receptor pixel sizes and focal lengths of the DSLR cameras and lenses were easily determined from the manufacturer website, Exif metadata readers or written on the lenses themselves, the same information was considerably more difficult to acquire for smartphones. ...
As focus distance (FD) sets perspective, it is an important consideration for the forensic analysis of faces in photographs, including those used for craniofacial superimposition. In the craniofacial superimposition domain, the PerspectiveX algorithm has been suggested for FD estimation. This algorithm uses a mean value of palpebral fissure length, as a scale, to estimate the FD. So far, PerspectiveX has not been validated for profile view photographs or for photographs taken with smartphones. This study tests PerspectiveX in both front and profile views, using multiple DSLR cameras, lenses and smartphones. In total, 1709 frontal and 1709 profile photographs of 10 adult participants were tested at 15 ground truth FDs using three DSLR cameras with 12 camera/lens combinations, five smartphone back cameras and four smartphone front cameras. Across all distances, PerspectiveX performed with a mean absolute error (MAE) of 11% and 12% for DSLR photographs in frontal and profile views, respectively, while errors doubled for frontal and profile photographs from smartphones (26% and 27%, respectively). This reverifies FD estimation for frontal DSLR photographs, validates FD estimates from profile view DSLR photographs and shows that FD estimation is currently inaccurate for smartphones. Until such time that FD estimations for facial photographs taken using smartphones improves, DSLR or 35 mm film images should continue to be sought for craniofacial superimpositions.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00414-023-03078-y.
... Maturing in grown-up is portrayed by wrinkles, retrusion, listing skin, eye slops and so on [14][15]. Shape change because of development is introduced by Thompson [16] while confront anthropometric profile for portraying human face certain qualities is exhibited by Farank and Farank and Munro [17][18]. Age invariance confront acknowledgment (AIFR) has been comprehensively arranged into three classes: I) generative ii) discriminative and iii) Deep learning. ...
... There are many studies using anthropometric and cephalometric measurement models for the bone and soft tissue evaluation of facial features. Comparing these measurements with ideal facial proportions provides important clues about the phenotype and medical background of a certain population [12,[18][19][20]. There also are some studies comparing the changes in the craniofacial profile of β-thalassemia major patients to healthy individuals using cephalometric measurements [10,12,17,[21][22][23]. ...
Objective
The present study aims to compare β-thalassemia major patients and healthy individuals in terms of anthropometric characteristics and changes in craniofacial profile.
Subjects and method
Craniofacial anthropometric measurements were performed on a total of 422 subjects (199 β-thalassemia major patients and 223 healthy individuals) by using a millimetric caliper and tape measure on 19 anthropometric parameters (8 horizontal, 10 vertical, and 1 head circumference) in cranial, facial, nasal, orolabial, and orbital zones.
Results
The difference between the orbital, nasal, and orolabial zone parameters of healthy subjects and β-thalassemia major patients was found to be statistically significant (p < 0.05). There was no statistically significant difference between the groups in terms of head circumference in the cranial zone and total facial height in facial zone (n-gn) values (p˃0.05). In intragroup comparison between females and males with β-thalassemia, statistically significant differences were found in forehead width (ft-ft), forehead height (tr-gl), right eye width (R ex-ex), and upper lip height (sn-stm) (p < 0.05).
Conclusion
Understanding the craniofacial profile changes in β-thalassemia major patients and increasing our knowledge about the relationship between the course and severity of disease and the level of these changes would contribute to the advancements in diagnoses to be made in facial and jaw zones of these patients and in the treatment plans.
Clinical relevance
We believe that the analysis and results of the craniofacial anthropometric data obtained in the study will contribute to the diagnosis and treatment processes of patients with β-thalassemia major in areas of expertise such as craniofacial surgery, orthodontics, and hemato-oncology.
... Forehead height from the trichion to the glabella has been reported as 6-7 cm in the average woman and 7-8 cm in the average man. 4,11 In a study comparing multiracial celebrities to anonymous volunteers, forehead height was found to be 7.64 cm in attractive women compared with 7.23 cm in average women, whereas attractive men had an average forehead height of 7.12 cm compared with 6.87 cm in average men. 9 The values were significantly different between attractive men and women and between the average men and women. ...
Background
Upper facial third morphometrics are an important consideration in aesthetic facial surgery and facial gender-affirming surgery. Although there are generally accepted sexual dimorphic differences, an in-depth analysis of forehead morphometrics in attractive individuals is lacking.
Methods
Thirty white female and 30 white male celebrities were included. Three full-face front-view photographs of each celebrity were evaluated by a facial analysis program, using Vision framework and MATLAB. After converting pixel distances to absolute distances, midline and lateral forehead heights were calculated and compared between men and women.
Results
Forehead height was similar between attractive men and women, but forehead width was shorter in women. Analysis of forehead height at various points along the hairline demonstrated that forehead measurements above the lateral brow and brow peak were significantly greater in men. Mean forehead height above the lateral eyebrow was 3.51 cm in women and 4.16 cm in men ( P = 0.017). Forehead height above the eyebrow peak was 4.34 cm in women and 5.55 cm in men ( P < 0.001). Medial forehead height was similar between men and women, indicating that the greatest difference in attractive male and female foreheads is in the lateral forehead and forehead width.
Conclusions
Analysis of attractive white celebrities demonstrated no significant differences in central forehead heights between men and women. Forehead width and lateral forehead height were significantly smaller in women, with an overall downward slanting contour. Male hairlines were more horizontal and slanting upward laterally. These results have implications in facial rejuvenation and facial gender-affirming surgery.
... After each subject, the callipers were cleaned with cotton wool and methylated spirit. The measurements were taken to the nearest 0.01 mm using the following landmarks 7 : Nasion (n): A depression at the root of the nose that overlies the junction of nasofrontal and internasal sutures. The facial height (n-gn) was measured as the linear distance between the nasion to gnathion whereas the facial width (zy-zy) was measured as the linear distance between the right and left zygion. ...
Introduction: Facial anthropometry is required in many medical and dental disciplines, particularly for prosthodontists, orthodontists, plastic surgeons, maxillofacial surgeons, and forensic medicine experts. An individual's facial shape is a reflection of their race, age, and gender. The present study aimed at determining the facial and nasal indices among the Akan ethnic group in Kumasi, Ghana.Methodology: A total of 307 (182 males and 125 females) Akan adult volunteers between the age of 18 - 30 years were recruited for the study. Standard procedures were used to obtain the necessary facial and nasal measurements for generating the appropriate indices. A p-value of 0.05 or less was judged statistically significant.Results: In males, the facial index ranged from 75.28 to 117.90, while in females it ranged from 76.58 to 97.87. The nasal index ranged from 52.0 to 115.3 in males and 52.0 to 105.7 in females. There were significant differences between males and females in all facial parameters utilized to calculate facial and nasal indices. The facial index, but not the nasal index, differed significantly between Akan males and females. Mesoprosopic was the most prevalent face type in both male and female Akan populations, whereas mesorrhine was the most common nose type.Conclusion: The findings of this study can be used as a reference to improve the outcome of cosmetic and reconstructive facial surgery and rhinoplasty, as well as for medico-legal purposes in the Akan people of Ghana.
... Photometric study [Farkas, 1994;Sforza et al., 2011;Ferrario et al., 1999] The photometric results showed increased transversal facial dimensions ( Fig. 1a) with frontal distance between the temporal bones (ft-ft) 10.5 mm wider than the control patients (p=0.0007). Similar findings were observed at the nasal root since the distance mf-mf was 5.8 mm larger on average than control patients, corresponding to a 28.5% differential (p=0.000). ...
Aim:
The aim of this study was to analyse the facial characteristics and the craniofacial morphology in GGS patients in order to enable an early diagnosis.
Background:
Gorlin-Goltz syndrome (GGS) is a autosomic dominant disease, characterised by basal cell carcinoma, palmar/plantar pits, maxillary and mandibular keratocysts and dental abnormalities.
Methods:
Nine out of a sample of 24 GGS patients had complete cephalometric and photographic records at an average age of 8.7 years. Cephalometric and photometric analysis were carried out with standard analyses and compared with healthy patients matched for sex and age.
Conclusion:
Early diagnosis of GGS based on clinical features could be useful to identify the presence of keratocysts through x-ray examination proceeding with surgical removal at an early stage, limiting space occupying damages.
... : depth distance of nose pads; : static expanded distance of EAPs at temples; : temple length; : temple height; : depth distance between rim forefront and hinges of rim and temple; : temple expanded angle under static conditions. (b)/(c) Front/side view of the head template with the main eyeglassesrelated facial landmarks pinpointed (Bai et al., 2021;Farkas, 1994;Kim et al., 2021), 1. ear attachment point (EAP) for the temple, 2. nose attachment point (NAP) for the nose pads, 3. maxillofrontale, 4. endocanthion, 5. palpebrale inferius, 6. pupil center point, 7. exocanthion, 8. superciliare, 9. nasion, 10. sub-landmarks. a/b indicate landmarks located on the left/right side of the face. ...
Modeling the quantified relationships between anthropometric/product parameters and human perceptions provides research-driven guidelines for mass customization and personalization of ergonomic products. In particular, such models are critical for designing children’s eyeglasses; however, they are still underexplored. This study examined children’s comfort perceptions for eyeglasses with two variables (i.e., nose pads width and temple clamping force), and established quantified linkage models between subjective human perceptions and objective 3D anthropometric/product parameters. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first work to quantify these relationships for ergonomic eyeglasses design. A psychological experiment with thirdy child participants was performed, and our analyses showed that two eyeglasses variables significantly influenced the children’s comfort perceptions; static vs. dynamic conditions caused slight differences. The mathematical trendlines and trend surfaces established by our findings can estimate perceived component-specific and overall comfort scores based on 3D anthropometric/product parameters. This also allows for calculation of parameter’s allowances for sizing and grading eyeglasses while maintaining satisfactory comfort. Github: https://github.com/Easy-Shu/Eyeglasses_Comfort_Modelling
... Anthropometry is the scientific study of the measurements and proportions of the human body, which has been employed in various fields such as aesthetics [22,23], forensics [24,25], and anthropology [26,27]. Farkas [28] used anthropometry to compare human faces, successfully recognizing facial features such as age and gender in a quantitative manner. Similarly, Merler et al. [29] extracted facial features by defining the anthropometrical expression of the quantitative face coding system. ...
We present a hybrid approach for generating a character by independently controlling its shape and texture using an input face and a styled face. To effectively produce the shape of a character, we propose an anthropometry-based approach that defines and extracts 37 explicit facial features. The shape of a character’s face is generated by extracting these explicit facial features from both faces and matching their corresponding features, which enables the synthesis of the shape with different poses and scales. We control this shape generation process by manipulating the features of the input and styled faces. For the style of the character, we devise a warping field-based style transfer method using the features of the character’s face. This method allows an effective application of style while maintaining the character’s shape and minimizing artifacts. Our approach yields visually pleasing results from various combinations of input and styled faces.
... b. A comparison between the Euclidean distance and the surface distance between two points 2) Angles between 3 points, for relationships and growth patterns 3) Surfaces These measurements can be found in Table 2 and are based on the work of Farkas [22] and Lee et al. [15]. ...
To evaluate craniofacial measurements on 3D-stereophotogrammetry and see if particular measurements are more typical in obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and have a correlation with its severity.
Subjects included were adults undergoing a diagnostic polysomnography. Age, BMI, neck, abdominal and hip circumference (cm) were recorded.
3D-stereophotogrammetry was performed and landmarks were placed on the 3D-image. Different linear, angular and volume measurements were performed to gauge facial and neck anatomy. The relationship between these measurements and the severity of OSA, based on the obstructive apnea/hypopnea index (OAHI, events/h), was assessed by multiple linear regression, and adjusted for BMI and sex.
Of 91 subjects included (61 male), mean age was 46 ± 12 years, BMI 30.1 ± 6.5 kg/m2, OAHI 19.3 ± 18.8/h. BMI was higher (p = 0.0145) in females (32.9 ± 7.7) than in males (28.6 ± 5.3). This was also true for hip circumference (118 ± 15 vs 107 ± 10, p = 0.0006), while the neck circumference was higher (p < 0.0001) in males (41 ± 4 vs 37 ± 4).
The following parameters could predict the logOAHI (r2-adjusted = 0.51): sex (p < 0.0001), BMI (p = 0.0116), neck-depth/mandibular-length (p = 0.0002), mandibular-width angle (p = 0.0118), neck-depth euclidean distance/surface distance (E/S) (p = 0.0001) and the interaction terms between sex and neck-depth/mandibular-length (p = 0.0034), sex and neck-depth E/S (p = 0.0276) and BMI and neck-depth E/S (p = 0.0118).
The interaction between sex and neck-depth/mandibular-length showed a steeper linear course in females. This is also true for the interaction term BMI with neck-depth E/S in patients with a higher BMI. With a same neck-depth ratio, the OAHI is larger in men.
Measurements involving the width of the face and addressing the soft tissue in the upper neck were found to have a significant relation with OSA severity. We found remarkable differences between non-obese/obese subjects and between males and females.
... A digital caliper was used to perform direct measurement as the gold standard. Nineteen landmarks, as defined by Farkas (15), were manually located onto each 3D image ( Figure S1). To describe the horizontal (X-axis direction), vertical (Y-axis), and sagittal scale (Z-axis) of a 3D image, this study selected 18 anthropometric parameters defined by the landmarks ( Table 1). ...
Background: Three-dimensional (3D) imaging is a powerful tool for the analysis of soft tissue morphology. 3D photogrammetry outperforms conventional photogrammetric methods and gains popularity among plastic surgeons. However, commercial 3D imaging systems bundled with analytical software are costly. This study intends to introduce and validate an automatic, low-cost, and user-friendly 3D facial scanner.
Methods: An automatic and low-cost 3D facial scanning system was developed. The system consisted of a 3D facial scanner running automatically on a sliding track and a 3D data processing tool. Fifteen human subjects underwent 3D facial imaging by the novel scanner. Eighteen anthropometric parameters were measured on the 3D virtual models and compared with caliper measurements (the gold standard). Further, the novel 3D scanner was compared to the commonly used commercial 3D facial scanner Vectra H1. Heat map analysis was used to evaluate the deviation between the 3D models obtained by the two imaging systems.
Results: The 3D photogrammetric results were highly correlated with the direct measurement results (P<0.001). The mean absolute differences (MADs) were less than 2 mm. Bland-Altman analysis indicated that, for 17 of the 18 parameters, the largest differences within the 95% limits of agreement margin were within the 2.0 mm clinical acceptance. Heat map analysis showed the average distance between the 3D virtual models was 0.15 mm, with a root mean square of 0.71 mm.
Conclusions: The novel 3D facial scanning system is proven to be highly reliable. It provides a good alternative to commercial 3D facial scanners.
... Farkas, en su libro, Anthropometry of the face and head [4], describe un conjunto de puntos fiduciales ampliamente utilizado para la caracterización del rostro humano, comúnmente utilizado como referencia para la evaluación antropométrica y algunos otros trabajos relacionados con la ubicación de puntos característicos en el rostro. ...
The face images processing is one of the study areas within the field of computer vision. Thus there are works mainly in face recognition, emotions identification, among others, however the development of automatic systems of age estimation is a challenge that is still under investigation. In the present work, a procedure to classify a face in a determined age range is proposed. For said proposal, theories of craniofacial growth and facial anthropometry are analyzed, deriving in a selection of anthropometric parameters that represent discriminant characteristics for the distinction of faces at different ages. These parameters were used to generate a classification model on Weka platform using the SVM, Knn, Naïve Bayes and C4.5 algorithms. Cross validation at 10 folds was used for each algorithm. The highest accuracy was obtained with Knn with 7 neighbors and it was 75. 28%. This verifying the usefulness of the anthropometric distances selected for the recognition of age in face images.
This paper describes craniofacial medical application, with the emphasis on the comparison of normal and abnormal facial data by using statistical shape analysis method to classify the data sets. The data consists of 3D laser scans of mannequin faces. The normal facial dataset is based on the mannequin. The distance between two landmarks and angle between three landmarks are used as the reference to determine whether the facial datasets are normal or abnormal with respect to the normal facial dataset. The statistical shape analysis is a useful tool for facial analysis after the treatment of facial deformity.
Modelling and measurement of the human face have been increasing by importance for various purposes. One of the purposes is craniofacial anthropometry or human face measurement. This paper is focused on measurement comparison between contact and non-contact method for craniofacial anthropometry. Mannequin is the type of data used in this research. The mannequin are scanned using two laser scanner VIVID910 to create the 3D model. Then the measurement will be made on that 3D model based on landmarks of human face. All the measurements are compared with contact method (caliper and microscribe). The result from this comparison shows which method is more precise.
The results of the work help in the investigation of criminal offenses related to the concealment of a corpse (missing person). Regression equations help not only to obtain approximate data on the length of a person’s body during life, but also make it possible to select from a variety of bones those skulls and long tubular bones that correspond to each other in metric characteristics.
When an unidentified skeleton is discovered, a video superimposition (VS) of the skull and a facial photograph may be undertaken to assist identification. In the first instance, the method is fundamentally a photographic one, requiring the overlay of two 2D photographic images at transparency for comparison. Presently, mathematical and anatomical techniques used to compare skull/face anatomy dominate superimposition discussions, however, little attention has been paid to the equally fundamental photographic prerequisites that underpin these methods. This predisposes error, as the optical parameters of the two comparison photographs are (presently) rarely matched prior to, or for, comparison. In this paper, we: (1) review the basic but critical photographic prerequisites that apply to VS; (2) propose a replacement for the current anatomy-centric searches for the correct ‘skull pose’ with a photographic-centric camera vantage point search; and (3) demarcate superimposition as a clear two-stage phased procedure that depends first on photographic parameter matching, as a prerequisite to undertaking any anatomical comparison(s).
Just like linear nasal parameters, angular nasal parameters form the basis of any rhinoplasty, especially in various ethnic groups to maintain the specific racial characteristics while creating an aesthetic nose. The objective of this study was to measure and study the outcomes of angular nasal parameters in north–east Indians and to contrast them with available literature on Oriental, Caucasian and Indian population in general.
This cross-sectional study was carried out in 150 young adults from north–east region of India. Surface landmarks were marked, and standard photographs were taken. Nine angular parameters were measured from the left lateral and basal view photographs of the face using computer software. Data were analysed by Student's ‘t’-test for parametric data and Mann–Whitney U-test for non-parametric data using SPSS v.25.
All the angular measurements were found to be greater in females except nasofacial angle, columella tip angle and interaxial angle. Differences in nasofrontal angle, columella labial angle, nasofacial angle and columella tip angle between males and females were statistically significant. Nasofrontal and columella labial angles were more acute in the study population compared to Caucasians, Orientals and other Indians while nasofacial, interaxial and interalar angles were larger.
The north–east Indian nose is dissimilar to that of rest of the country as well as that of Caucasians and Orientals with respect to angular parameters.
Quantifying in edentulous patients the facial collapse and whether complete conventional denture (CCD) and implant-supported fixed complete denture (ISFCD) can restore the facial proportions to match those of a dentate patient (CG) is relevant for clinical dentists. One hundred and four participants were enrolled and divided into edentulous (n=56) and CG (n=48). The edentulous participants were rehabilitated with CCD (n=28) or ISFCD (n=28) in both arches. Anthropometric landmarks in the face were marked and captured by stereophotogrammetry. Linear, angular, and surface measurements were analyzed and compared among groups. The statistical analysis was performed by an independent t-test, the one-way ANOVA, and Tukey's test. The significance level was set at 0.05. The facial collapse was quantified as a significant shortening of the lower third of the face affecting facial aesthetics in all parameters evaluated and the same was observed in comparison among CCD, ISFCD, and CG. The CCD presented statistical differences with the CG group in the lower third of the face and labial surface, and the ISFCD showed no statistical differences with the CG and CCD. The facial collapse in edentulous patients could be restored through oral rehabilitation with an ISFCD similar to those of dentate patients.
Phenotypic diversity, especially that of facial morphology, has not been fully investigated in the Han Chinese, which is the largest ethnic group in the world. In this study, we systematically analyzed a total of 14,838 facial traits representing 15 categories with both a large-scale three-dimensional (3D) manual landmarking database and computer-aided facial segmented phenotyping in 2379 Han Chinese individuals. Our results illustrate that homogeneous and heterogeneous facial morphological traits exist among Han Chinese populations across the three geographical regions: Zhengzhou, Taizhou, and Nanning. We identified 1560 shared features from extracted phenotypes, which characterized well the basic facial morphology of the Han Chinese. In particular, heterogeneous phenotypes showing population structures corresponded to geographical subpopulations. The greatest facial variation among these geographical populations was the angle of glabella, left subalare, and right cheilion (p = 3.4 × 10⁻¹⁶¹). Interestingly, we found that Han Chinese populations could be classified into northern Han, central Han, and southern Han at the phenotypic level, and the facial morphological variation pattern of central Han Chinese was between the typical differentiation of northern and southern Han Chinese. This result was highly consistent with the results revealed by the genetic data. These findings provide new insights into the analysis of multidimensional phenotypes as well as a valuable resource for further facial phenotype-genotype association studies in Han Chinese and East Asian populations.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43657-023-00109-x.
Introduction: Stature is defined as natural height of human being in standing position. Each and every part are related with each other i.e. face, trunk, head and extremities. Stature estimation is important parameter when human remain such as mutilated body or facial remain of skull is brought for medicolegal examination for person's identity. This correlation will also be helpful in anthropological and geographical research. Our study aimed to determine the stature from facial parameters that were morphological facial length, upper facial length, and lower facial length. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted in department of Anatomy, SN Medical College, Agra, on 300 medical students aged between 18yrs to 25yrs out of which 164 are males & 136 are females. Stature of person was measured by anthropometric rod & morphological facial length, upper facial length and lower facial length were measured by digital Vernier caliper. The mean, standard deviation, regression equation, were calculated. Result: We observed correlation between stature &facial parameter and developed regression equation for it. The morphological facial length, upper facial length and lower facial length was found to be significantly higher in males compared to females.
Context: Facial appearance is largely governed by the periorbital characteristics. The appearance of periorbital tissues varies with age, sex, and most importantly the region. Ethnic and racial difference in the appearance of eyelids is common. Anthropometric data of various populations has been studied in the past. However, there is little information on various periocular parameters of population of North India,hence our study was conducted to determine the average values of the same in people with North Indian ethnicity. Methods: Frontal view photographs were acquired for 200 North Indian adults between the ages 21 and 60 years. Anthropometric measurements done included palpebral fissure width (PFW), palpebral fissure height (PFH), inter pupillary distance (IPD), intercanthal distance (ICD) and outer canthal distance (OCD). Data was categorized by demographic variables and analyzed. Results: The mean value obtained were-palpebral fissure width (males:31.17±3.65mm; females:29.54±2.38 mm), palpebral fissure height (males:11.14±1.51mm; females:11.08±1.16 mm), inter pupillary distance (males:67.38±6.51mm; females:65.74±3.50 mm), intercanthal distance (males:35.67±3.20mm; females:34.72±2.65 mm) and outer canthal distance (males:96.26±6.73mm; females:94.37±4.99 mm) in the 21-30 years age group. Higher mean values were obtained in males in PFW,IPD and OCD. Gender based similar values were obtained in PFH and ICD. Conclusion: Significant gender based difference in the periocular measurements was found in our study. Our study will help to create a database of these parameters which will be useful to the clinician for evaluation and planning of various aesthetic and post traumatic surgical interventions. Key message: Various surgeries planned in the periocular area should be undertaken after due consideration to the geographically prevalent anthropometric characteristics. This will ensure cosmetically appealing outcomes and better patient acceptability.
Pre-surgical evaluation of facial morphometry is frequently warranted for children with facial dysmorphism. Though many methods utilized previously for such purposes, data is scarce on using magnetic resonance (MRI) brain images for such purposes. The purpose of this study was to appraise the feasibility of utilizing MRI brain scans done in epilepsy imaging protocol to assess facial morphometry. Measurements of the face; orbit, mouth, and nose of children aged 1 to 7 years were obtained using T1 sagittal, T2 axial and three dimensional (3D) MRI images of the brain (n=20). Ability to obtain facial measurements, inter and intra-observer variability calculated. The mean age of the studied children was 4±2 years, of which 40% (n=8) were boys, and 60% (n=12) were girls. Obtaining facial measurements were reliable with high intra-observer (α=0.757 to 0.999) and inter-observer agreements (α=0.823 to 0.997). The landmarks of the cranium, upper face, and upper nose could be identified (100%) in both two dimensional (2D) and 3D images when such landmarks were contained in the imaging field of view (FOV). Landmarks of lower nose, (subalar width = 0%) or mouth (0%) were not contained in the FOV of 2D images, but contained in 3D images (100%). Both 2D and 3D images did not allow assessment of lower face or the mandible as such landmarks were not contained in the FOV.We conclude thatBrain MRIs performed to evaluate cerebral pathology can be executed to assess facial measurements, provided the FOV of the scan is adjusted to include all significant landmarks.
Alexandra Mills and Professor Syed Haq provide an overview of lip augmentation procedures using hyaluronic acid-based dermal filler, injection technique and the role of the ageing process
Visitors to the museum may have varying levels of interest, language and comprehension depending on their age. Here, a common computer-aided addressing system cannot describe effectively without considering their nature. Hence the efficient assessment of whole facial skin details is an important role in facial age group classification. To address this issue, Bins of Gradients over Gradient Hessianspace (BOGGH) is proposed. Here we first compute gradient space for the detected face and then apply Hessian filter to obtain imprinted edge and curve details. Second, over the gradient Hessianspaced facial images, Bins of Gradients (BOG) technique is applied in multiple directions chosen. Finally, the age features of the facial images are then trained and classified using RBF-based SVM technique. The proposed BOGGH method achieves the classification rate of 99.39% for the FGNET database and 99.72% for the MORPH database which is superior than other existing methods.
In der Attraktivitätsforschung gilt die sogenannte „Durchschnitts-Hypothese“ als die wichtigste Theorie zur Erklärung von Gesichter-Attraktivität. Hochattraktive Gesichter, die deutlich vom mathematischen Durchschnitt einer Population abweichen, werden hingegen typischerweise als statistische Ausreißer abgetan. In diesem Kapitel wird genau diesen vermeintlichen „Ausreißern“ systematisch nachgegangen. Dazu werden in einer qualitativen Untersuchung gemorphte Gesichter aus den attraktivsten Einzelgesichtern verschiedener Stichproben (Männer- und Frauengesichter in der Frontal- und Profilansicht) mit den jeweiligen Gesamt-Durchschnittsgesichtern systematisch verglichen und Merkmalsunterschiede beschrieben. Die analysierten Unterschiede stehen im Widerspruch zur Durchschnitts-Hypothese und unterstreichen die Bedeutung der Globalfaktoren „Jugendlichkeit“ und „geschlechtstypisches Aussehen“ für Attraktivität.
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