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The application of parameters designed to measure nature conservation and landscape development on Irish farms
Abstract
Research has not been previously carried out in Ireland on methods of measuring nature conversation and landscape development on Irish farms.Parameters for measuring the development and improvement of farm landscapes in the EU were applied on two organic farms and two conventional farms to test their suitability for measuring nature and landscape development under Irish conditions. In all 86 parameters were evaluated. All the parameters were applied successfully. Some were more useful than others in this investigation but all were retained so that all the situations which influence nature and landscape in Ireland could be covered. Application of the parameters showed that organic farming has an overall positive effect on landscape and nature production on farms and has no negative effects. Conventional farming can have some positive environmental effects but has neutral or negative effects in most cases. The results show that the methodology used in this paper provide a suitable prototype for measuring landscape development on Irish farms.
... Enfin, des critères de cohérence saisonnière et de cohérence historique peuvent également être appréciés ; ils sont souvent en faveur de l'AB, surtout pour le premier (Hendriks et al., 2000 ;MacNaeidhe et Culleton, 2000 ;Rossi et Nota, 2000). ...
... Les études comparatives réalisées dans différents pays du nord au sud de l'Europe font intervenir divers critères ressortant d'appréciations physiques et psychologiques. Pour la vingtaine d'exploitations en AB comparées avec autant d'exploitations en AC(van Mansvelt et al., 1998 ; Hendriks et al., 2000 ;MacNaeidhe et Culleton, 2000 ;Rossi et Nota, 2000), la diversité et la cohérence apparaissent comme des critères particulièrement importants pour caractériser et différencier la qualité des paysages résultant de l'AB et de l'AC (tableau 6.3). 6.3 -Comparaison d'exploitations en agriculture biologique (AB) et en agriculture conventionnelle (AC) d'après différents critères de qualité du paysageNotation des comparaisons ; « + » : AB > AC ; « 0 » : AB comparable à AC ; « +0 » : l'une des 4 exploitations AB n'est pas supérieure aux exploitations AC ; en blanc : absence d'informations Source : van Mansvelt et al. 1998, modifié et complété La diversité du paysage De façon générale, la diversité apparaît plus grande sur les exploitations agrobiologiques que sur les exploitations conventionnelles. ...
... Certaines constituent des éléments de continuité spatiale facilitant la communication entre les différentes parties de l'exploitation, utiles pour le déplacement de certains êtres vivants. L'ensemble de ces conditions, avec l'absence d'intrants chimiques, favorise le développement d'une diversité biologique plus grande en AB qu'en AC, comme beaucoup d'études l'ont montré(MacNaeidhe et Culleton, 2000 ; ...
... Enfin, des critères de cohérence saisonnière et de cohérence historique peuvent également être appréciés ; ils sont souvent en faveur de l'AB, surtout pour le premier (Hendriks et al., 2000 ;MacNaeidhe et Culleton, 2000 ;Rossi et Nota, 2000). ...
... Certaines constituent des éléments de continuité spatiale facilitant la communication entre les différentes parties de l'exploitation, utiles pour le déplacement de certains êtres vivants. L'ensemble de ces conditions, avec l'absence d'intrants chimiques, favorise le développement d'une diversité biologique plus grande en AB qu'en AC, comme beaucoup d'études l'ont montré (MacNaeidhe et Culleton, 2000 ;Stolze et al., 2000 ;The Soil Association, 2000 ;Alföldi et al., 2002). Cette diversité biologique peut être appréhendée selon trois principales composantes : la biodiversité spécifique, la biodiversité génétique et la biodiversité fonctionnelle. ...
La protection de l'environnement (pris dans toutes ses composantes physiques, chimiques, biologiques, humaines) est l'un des objectifs majeurs mis en avant par les défenseurs de l'agriculture biologique (AB), au même titre que la qualité des aliments, la santé des exploitants ou encore la rentabilité économique de l'exploitation. En ce sens, l'AB est souvent qualifiée d'agriculture durable et apparaît comme un mode de production à promouvoir. L'agriculture biologique tente de créer, par ses pratiques, des conditions telles que les problèmes de fertilité et de gestion des nuisibles soient maîtrisés en évitant de recourir autant que possible aux intrants chimiques exogènes. Voilà pourquoi le succès de cette agriculture dépend beaucoup des conditions locales. En effet, les problèmes agricoles potentiels et la disponibilité des ressources peuvent différer grandement d'un endroit à un autre et les facilités ou difficultés de la mise en pratique de l'AB, qui en découlent, peuvent aussi varier considérablement.
... Stolze et al. (2000 use the DSR model in their study of the environmental impacts of organic farming in Europe. The performance rating of organic farming in each of a list of environmental areas using this method is shown inTable 5. Broad-scope methodologies for assessment of agriculture's impacts have been developed (Andreoli and Tellarini 2000; Antrop 2000; Bosshard 2000) and implemented (Kuiper 2000; MacNaeidhe and Culleton 2000; Rossi and Nota 2000;), many driven by EU policy directives that mandate the development of broad-scope approaches (Stobbelaar and van Mansvelt 2000). Methodologies for assessment of the ethical treatment of livestock have been developed as part of the broadening of OF environmental accounting (Halberg 1996; Vaarst 2000). ...
... On-farm biodiversity is generally higher on OFs than comparable CFs systems in all categories (MacNaeidhe and Culleton 2000; Stolze et al. 2000; The_Soil_Association 2000) -non-crop plant species (Albrecht and Walters 1975; Moreby et al. 1994; Stopes et al. 1995; Hald 1999; Rydberg and Milberg 2000; van Elsen 2000; Hansen et al. 2001), soil biota (Jaffee et al. 1998; Paoletti 1999a; Stolze et al. 2000), invertebrate species (Paoletti 1999b; Stolze et al. 2000; Letourneau and Goldstein 2001), and non-pest butterflies (Feber et al. 1997; The_Soil_Association 2000). Non-pest bird abundance is higher on OFs (Hald 1999; Stolze et al. 2000; The_Soil_Association 2000), in some cases 10-fold (vanMansvelt et al. 1998), and bird habitat area higher (Stolze et al. 2000), sometimes 5-40-fold higher on OFs than comparable CFs (vanMansvelt et al. 1998). ...
Sustained high rates of growth in sales of certified organic products (OPs) in the U.S. and worldwide, averaging 20-25% yr -1 since 1990, have spurred concomitant growth and activities in production, processing, research, regulation and trade agreements, and exports. The global OP market value in 2001 is estimated to be $20B, and the OP share of total food sales is near 2% in the U.S. and 1-5% in EU countries. Processed OPs have shown particularly rapid growth, often over 100% yr -1 . Commercial certified organic agriculture (OA) has spread to over 130 countries worldwide. Demand for OPs is driven by belief that OPs are more healthful, tasty, and environmentally friendly than conventional products (CPs). Evidence for these beliefs is reviewed. While many of the health claims for OPs remain unresolved, there is sufficient evidence to give OPs the edge in healthfulness. Comparative research is needed, particularly bioassays of animal health parameters, particularly reproduction, and analyses of the functional components of foods (nutraceuticals). OP/CP taste comparisons are often inconclusive, as cultivar and location are generally more important factors in taste than growing system. Evidence for significant environmental amelioration via conversion to OA is overwhelming – pesticides are virtually eliminated and nutrient pollution substantially reduced. Loss of biodiversity, wind and water erosion, runoff, and fossil fuel use and greenhouse warming potential are all reduced in OA relative to comparable conventional agriculture (CA) systems. The agroecological characteristics of OA are reviewed -weed, invertebrate, disease, and soil fertility management practices. Yield reductions of OA systems average 10-15% relative to CA, however these are generally compensated for by lower input costs and higher gross margins. Large-scale conversion to OA would not result in food shortages and could be accomplished with a reduction in meat consumption. OA systems consistently outperform CA in drought situations, out-yielding CA crops by up to 100%. Also reviewed are: methodologies for comparing productivity and sustainability of OA/CA; the core concept that OA is a structurally different system than CA; the characteristics, sociology, and practices of U.S. organic farmers and farms; OA's origins, its pioneers, major institutions; international certification standards and the new (2000) USDA National Organic Program Final Rule; institutional and media support for and biases against OA; OA's increased involvement with social accountability and animal ethics.
... An analysis has shown the positive influence of small-scale organic farming in this region [76]. Some of the more important papers demonstrate the intensive research activities on the relationship between landscapes and biodiversity [76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87]. A bibliography, containing a total of more than 300 papers dealing with the impact of ecological agriculture on landscapes and vice versa can be found in [88]. ...
... The most dramatic mistakes in organic farming are the low yield, documented in many long term monitoring experiments and the eco-imperialist attitude towards farmers of the developing world [135][136][137][138]167,168]. On the positive side is some pioneering work in developing recycling loops in agriculture [139][140][141][142][143][144][145] and also in better landscape management [76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][146][147][148][149]. (For further documentation, see the previous paragraph on landscape management and organic farming.) ...
In the previous article [Ammann, K. (2008) Feature: integrated farming: why organic farmers should use transgenic crops. New Biotechnol. 25, 101-107], in a plea for the introduction of transgenic crops into organic and integrated farming, it was announced that the complementary topic, namely that high tech farmers should integrate elements of organic agriculture, will be a follow up. Some selected arguments for such a view are summarised here. Basically, they comprise a differentiated view on agro-biodiversity outside the field of production; landscape management methods to enhance biodiversity levels. Both elements are compatible with basic ideas of organic farming. First, Precision Farming is given as one example of the many ways to support agricultural production through high technology, with the aim of reducing energy input, maintaining excellent soil conditions and enhancing yield. It is clear from this analysis that modern agriculture and certain elements of organic-integrated agriculture are compatible. There are sectors of high tech farming, such as the introduction of a better recycling scheme and also a better focus on socio-economic aspects, which need to be taken up seriously from organic-integrated farming, a system which puts a lot of emphasis on those elements and for which important research data are available. In the final part a new concept of dynamic sustainability is presented.
... Most efforts in linking agriculture and biodiversity protection are being directed toward the development of evaluation schemes oriented to provide either broad-scale overviews, i.e. with a spatial scale of 1:250,000 or coarser (EEA, 2001;OECD, 2002;Wascher, 2000), or farmlevel assessments, i.e. with a scale on the order of 1:1000 (MacNaeidhe and Culleton, 2000;Stobbelaar and Mansvelt, 2000). Less attention is being paid to intermediatescale analyses (1:10,000-1:25,000), which are most suited for local and regional planning. ...
... The first criterion relates to the farming practice and the agricultural landscape type that characterise each elementary unit. The intensity of farming and the methods of production influence the spatial heterogeneity and composition of farmland, the use of chemicals, the presence of disturbance activities (ploughing, mowing, weeding, etc.), and therefore they are deeply related to the ecological relevance of rural areas (Stobbelaar and Mansvelt, 2000;MacNaeidhe and Culleton, 2000). In CEC (2000), the following classification of agricultural landscape types according to the intensity of farming practice was proposed: ...
Knowledge of the nature conservation value of agricultural land provides a useful input to land-use planning. However, the scarcity of suitable data causes this component to rarely play a role. The paper proposes a methodology based on commonly available data to assess the nature conservation value of agricultural landscapes, and to generate cartographic results to be used as decision variables in planning. The approach relies on landscape ecological indicators and on the application of multicriteria analysis in a Geographical Information System (GIS) context. Four criteria were selected: the agricultural landscape type, the cover of vegetation remnants and marginal features, the length of forest-agriculture ecotones, and the proximity to nature reserves. These criteria were assessed directly or by means of specific indicators, generating maps that were subsequently aggregated through spatial multicriteria analysis. The approach was tested in an alpine area located in Trentino (northern Italy).
... In his overview of the studies conducted, Levin (2007) A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t 5 al. 1998; Rossi and Nota 2000;MacNaeidhe and Culleton 2000;Stobbelaar et al. 2000;Kuiper 2000;Hendriks et al. 2000;Clemetsen and van Laar 2000;Norton et al. 2009;Steiner and Pohl 2009) confirmed the positive impact of organic farming on landscape composition and found higher densities of natural and semi-natural landscape elements on organic farms. However, these results must be seen in the light of the methods applied -the small number of farms, the lack of temporal scale, and data collection based on field observation can all significantly influence the interpretation of outcomes. ...
Organic farming is credited as having numerous positive influences on the environment, among others the support of greater landscape diversity. This potential benefit is of particularly great relevance in the case of countries in Central and Eastern Europe, in which the agricultural landscape was damaged by the process of homogenization as a result of the collectivization of agricultural production. This article presents research focusing on the relationship between organic farming and landscape composition in selected locations with varying natural conditions within the Czech Republic. The first part of the research evaluates the overall development of landscape structure during the period of transition from socialist mass-production to farm management based on private companies and family farms. Analysis making use of the landscape metrics proved an increase in the heterogeneity and diversity of landscape between the years 1985 and 2006. The second part of the analysis focused on the relationship between farm management and changes in landscape use. The results showed differing trends in the studied locations, which do not depend on farm management alone, but also on other factors, especially natural conditions in agricultural landscape.
... En cuanto al control de la flora adventicia competidora, la olivicultura ecológica recurre a un conjunto de alternativas: laboreo, siega mecánica, pastoreo, cubiertas vegetales, etc.[78,79, 80].La agricultura ecológica es considerada como una gran oportunidad para la agricultura europea[81]. Se ha enfatizado su papel en la conservación del paisaje y su potencialidad para conservar y favorecer la biodiversidad, aunque son necesarios estudios particulares para poder demostrar esta hipótesis en cultivos específicos[82] pues los supuestos beneficios han sido escasamente cuantificados[83].El olivar parece especialmente indicado para su transformación en agricultura ecológica debido a la comparativamente escasa intensificación de este cultivo, al menos en lo que se refiere a las plantaciones previas al surgimiento de la olivicultura superintensiva. Las condiciones de marginalidad territorial, sin ser determinantes, pueden incentivar el cambio hacia la olivicultura ecológica, al considerar esta modalidad de producción una oportunidad económica en un contexto de baja productividad.5.3.3. ...
... Several studies about the performance of organic agriculture all giving the impression that organic agriculture (in those situations) adds a higher quality to the landscape and seems to be a way to create synergy between the various landscape values (Rossi and Nota, 2000;MacNaeidhe and Culleton, 2000;Kuiper, 2000). For those familiar with the research, theory and practices of organic agriculture, it will be clear that most of the recommendations made, most targets set and most parameters proposed in order to warrant a sustainable landscape management, are fully in line with those set in the guidelines for organic agriculture. ...
In an EU concerted action a checklist with criteria for the development of sustainable rural landscape was created. The idea of the concerted action was to bring together experts from various disciplines involved in management of the countryside. They represented disciplines from β, γ and α oriented sciences, ranging form environmentalists over sociologists to cultural geographers. They were all asked to list their (discipline’s) criteria and parameters for a sustainable management of the landscape. From all these criteria and parameters a checklist has been established. This checklist is presented in this paper, accompanied by an explanation of its basic concept that draws upon Maslow, its context, its methodology and its use. Finally summaries are presented of the ways the checklist, in various stages of its development, has been used in several European country countrysides. It can be concluded that the checklist is a useful tool for valuing the contribution of farms viz. farming systems to the regional development and the sustainability of the landscape. It was found that organic farms included in the sample of our research often performed rather well in that perspective as compared to the non-organic farms in that region.
... A comparative study on the influence of the farm management system on nature and landscape in Ireland revealed that organic farming had a positive effect in every respect (MacNaeidhe & Culleton, 2000). Organic farming contributes distinctly to nature conservation on different levels: it stimulates the micro-flora and micro-fauna in the soil, yields a higher number and biodiversity of meso, macro and mega-fauna (Pfiffner, 2004). ...
Summary Conventional agriculture is associated with problems such as pesticide residues in soils and plants, contamination of meat with antibiotics and hormones, and eutrophication of water bodies. An alternative for consumers is the consumption of products from organic farming. Organic farming can contribute to environmental protection and nature conservation in many ways, for instance by improving soil porosity which yields higher infi ltration rates and thus contributes signifi cantly towards mitigating fl ooding peaks. It is the objective of this contribution to provide a holistic appraisal of what organic farming is going to deliver.
... Multifunctionality of farmland has become a central issue in landscape research (van Mansvelt 1997;Vos and Meekes, 1999;). The different landscape functions and values have been identified and analysed (e.g.Hendriks et al., 1997;Clemetsen and van Laar, 2000;MacNaeidhe and Culleton, 2000;Kuiper, 2000;Dolman et al., 2001;Dramstad et al., 2001;Højring 2002). To resolve the complex issue of how to manage landscapes for different interests an interdisciplinary approach is needed (Palang et al., 2005). ...
LANDSCAPE EUROPE is an interdisciplinary network of national research institutes with expertise in landscape assessment, planning and management at the interface of policy implementation, education and state-of-the-art science in support of sustainable landscapes. LANDSCAPE EUROPE is based on the strong partnership of about 20 of the leading European institutes and expert groups involved in landscape research and management in more than 15 countries. The majority of the participants are governmental agencies (eight), followed by five university institutes, and two NGOs of which one is national (LAI) and the other is operating strictly at the European level (ECNC). The central mission of LANDSCAPE EUROPE is to enhance the interaction between natural and social sciences while focusing on the multifunctionality of landscapes. The network will co-ordinate research, information exchange or management, education, and policy support in this field. This network builds upon the existing landscape expertise and generates new expertise addressing the major driving forces of landscape development in Europe. LANDSCAPE EUROPE Network specifically aims to: 1. enhance scientific research focusing on the landscape level; 2. co-ordinate data management; 3. support international, regional and national policy; and 4. promote education and training. LANDSCAPE EUROPE Network is being established to act as a focal point for knowledge exchange, strategic planning and project implementation as part of the expert community in the wider field of landscape-oriented disciplines, with the goal to provide European-wide co-operation and – if possible – agreement on key issues of scientific and policy concern. By doing so, LANDSCAPE EUROPE Network seeks to act as a reliable and well-acknowledged expert partner in the field of landscape and countryside research, management, and reporting offering its services for national governments and international institutions such as the Council of Europe, the European Union, the European Environmental Agency (including its Topic Centres for Nature Protection and Biodiversity and Terrestrial topics), OECD, FAO, UNESCO as well as to NGO's active in the area of nature and landscape protection.
... The rating scales in this assessment were not based on an established reference case or speci®c numbers as in Andreoli and Tellarini (2000) and MacNaeidhe and Culleton (2000). By allowing each participant to answer the survey questions based on the hypothetical implementation of the projects on their farm, a reference case was made implicit in the survey method. ...
Participatory research and farmer-led extension principles are employed to conduct meaningful monitoring and evaluation while working within the constraints encountered in the field by farmers and rural agents. This assessment method is characterized as Field Practical, that is, it is (1) quick, (2) inexpensive, (3) easily applied, (4) of direct and immediate relevance, and (5) a tool for stimulating project productivity. It harmonizes external expertise with local experience for biophysical sustainability assessment of proposed production alternatives in the context of the local agricultural system. This is accomplished via a Likert rating survey based on locally defined criteria and indicators and has two outputs: (1) a Summary Measure based on weighted average ratings giving indication of overall patterns of contributions to the biophysical sustainability of the agricultural system and (2) Frequency Distribution Matrices for more detailed analyses of the data. Statistical tests for differences add discriminatory power. This assessment was applied in northern Ecuador, but could be adapted to other locations.
... Several studies about the performance of organic agriculture all giving the impression that organic agriculture (in those situations) adds a higher quality to the landscape and seems to be a way to create synergy between the various landscape values (Rossi and Nota, 2000;MacNaeidhe and Culleton, 2000;Kuiper, 2000). For those familiar with the research, theory and practices of organic agriculture, it will be clear that most of the recommendations made, most targets set and most parameters proposed in order to warrant a sustainable landscape management, are fully in line with those set in the guidelines for organic agriculture. ...
In an EU concerted action a checklist with criteria for the development of sustainable rural landscape was created. The idea of the concerted action was to bring together experts from various disciplines involved in management of the countryside. They represented disciplines from β, γ and α oriented sciences, ranging form environmentalists over sociologists to cultural geographers. They were all asked to list their (discipline’s) criteria and parameters for a sustainable management of the landscape. From all these criteria and parameters a checklist has been established. This checklist is presented in this paper, accompanied by an explanation of its basic concept that draws upon Maslow, its context, its methodology and its use. Finally summaries are presented of the ways the checklist, in various stages of its development, has been used in several European country countrysides. It can be concluded that the checklist is a useful tool for valuing the contribution of farms viz. farming systems to the regional development and the sustainability of the landscape. It was found that organic farms included in the sample of our research often performed rather well in that perspective as compared to the non-organic farms in that region.
... Some scholars argue that organic farming or lowexternal-input agriculture is environmentally sound, economically viable and socio-institutionally acceptable while high-external input agriculture is not so (Tisdell, 1996;MacNaeidhee and Culleton, 2000;Rossi and Nota, 2000). However, Dahal (1996) and Rahman (1998) found that organic farming without proper use of additional mineral fertilizers and pesticides leads to a negative nutrient balance in the soil, with negative impacts on environment and economy. ...
The current pressure on production resources of the People's Republic of China, such as land and water to feed the growing population, necessitates the assessment of farming practices. This is particularly critical in the North China Plain, which is the food bowl of the country. This study assesses the economic, environmental and socio-institutional aspects of the major cropping systems in the NCP, based on selected site-specific indicators and their established threshold limits. Necessary information for this study was obtained through a survey of 270 farm households from four villages in Ningjin County, soil sample analysis, chemical tests of nitrate concentration in groundwater and crop plants, field observation and discussions with key informants, as well as official reports and publications. The findings of the analysis revealed all cropping systems in the study area are economically viable. However, such achievements have been made at a cost to the environment, degradation of natural resources and risk to human health. The real costs of environmental degradation are mounting, taking the forms of groundwater depletion, soil salinization and compaction, and land subsidence over the decades, as well as nitrate contamination in groundwater and agro-products, farmers’ sickness, and loss of insect and pest predators. Sensitivity analysis shows that crop production reacts sensitively to changes of output price and in input costs, which implies an unstable production situation in a long period. Only about 6% of the surveyed farm households applied the recommendations of the corresponding agents for balanced input use. The study stresses that farming practices, which are economically viable, should not be promoted at the cost of the environment, otherwise, it would cause acute damage to the environmental and economic loss for the future. Several recommendations have been outlined for the promotion of sustainable cropping systems in the NCP.
... Other successful approaches (e.g. MacNaeidhe and Culleton, 2000;van Calker et al., 2004;Meul et al., 2009;Müller-Lindenlauf et al., 2010), based on the use of indicators and life cycle assessment (LCA) or linear programming (LP), have studied sustainability of dairy systems in a more holistic way. Their strength was to incorporate sustainability functions to define robust criteria for overall sustainability and to include most mass flows (including pre and post-farm gate flows) of a dairy system. ...
Multiple demands are placed on farming systems today. Society, national legislation and market forces seek what could be seen as conflicting outcomes from our agricultural systems, e.g. food quality, affordable prices, a healthy environmental, consideration of animal welfare, biodiversity etc., Many of these demands, or desirable outcomes, are interrelated, so reaching one goal may often compromise another and, importantly, pose a risk to the economic viability of the farm. SIMS(DAIRY), a farm-scale model, was used to explore this complexity for dairy farm systems. SIMS(DAIRY) integrates existing approaches to simulate the effect of interactions between farm management, climate and soil characteristics on losses of nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon. The effects on farm profitability and attributes of biodiversity, milk quality, soil quality and animal welfare are also included. SIMS(DAIRY) can also be used to optimise fertiliser N. In this paper we discuss some limitations and strengths of using SIMS(DAIRY) compared to other modelling approaches and propose some potential improvements. Using the model we evaluated the sustainability of organic dairy systems compared with conventional dairy farms under non-optimised and optimised fertiliser N use. Model outputs showed for example, that organic dairy systems based on grass-clover swards and maize silage resulted in much smaller total GHG emissions per l of milk and slightly smaller losses of NO(3) leaching and NO(x) emissions per l of milk compared with the grassland/maize-based conventional systems. These differences were essentially because the conventional systems rely on indirect energy use for 'fixing' N compared with biological N fixation for the organic systems. SIMS(DAIRY) runs also showed some other potential benefits from the organic systems compared with conventional systems in terms of financial performance and soil quality and biodiversity scores. Optimisation of fertiliser N timings and rates showed a considerable scope to reduce the (GHG emissions per l milk too).
... Sustainability is not an absolute concept, but with organic farming systems have the potential to be more or less sustainable (Atkinson and McKinlay 1997). For example, many researchers believe that organic farming has an overall positive effect on the landscape and nature production (Rasul 1999, MacNaeidhhee and Culleton 2000, Rossi and Nota 2000. However, Edwards and Howells (2001) argued in their research on the sustainability of crop protection in organic farming systems that organic farming systems are not sustainable in the strictest sense. ...
This paper reviews relevant literature on the sustainability indicators theoretically proposed and practically applied by scholars over the past 15 years. Although progress is being made in the development and critical analysis of sustainability indicators, in many cases existing or proposed indicators are not the most sensitive or useful measures in developing countries. Indicator selection needs to meet the following criteria: relative availability of data representing the indicators, sensitivity to stresses on the system, existence of threshold values and guidelines, predictivity, integratability and known response to disturbances, anthropogenic stresses, and changes over time. Based on these criteria, this paper proposes a set of operational indicators for measuring agricultural sustainability in developing countries. These indicators include ecological indicators involving amounts of fertilizers and pesticides used, irrigation water used, soil nutrient content, depth to the groundwater table, water use efficiency, quality of groundwater for irrigation, and nitrate content of both groundwater and crops. Economic indicators include crop productivity, net farm income, benefit-cost ratio of production, and per capita food grain production. Social indicators encompass food self-sufficiency, equality in food and income distribution among farmers, access to resources and support services, and farmers' knowledge and awareness of resource conservation. This article suggests that the selection of indicators representing each aspect of sustainability should be prioritized according to spatial and temporal characteristics under consideration.
Le recenti politiche agricole comunitarie invitano a considerare il ruolo svolto dallo spazio rurale in termini di conservazione della natura e tutela della biodiversità. Si pone pertanto la necessità di valutare e cartografare la rilevanza naturalistica delle aree agricole, così da poter utilizzare tale informazione nell'ambito della pianificazione (ad esempio nelle procedure di VIA, VAS, Agenda 21, etc.). La presente ricerca propone un approccio metodologico volto alla redazione di carte della valenza ecologica degli ambiti agrari. Il metodo si richiama ai principi dell'ecologia del paesaggio ed è basato sulla valutazione di una serie di caratteristiche del paesaggio rurale, quali la presenza di elementi naturali residui (filari, macchie boscate) e di ecotoni, la vicinanza a biotopi ed aree protette, la diversità e complessità dell'agroecosistema. Utilizzando un GIS, queste caratteristiche sono state mappate e sintetizzate per le diverse particelle agrarie, permettendo la redazione di una carta tematica integrabile con il sistema informativo locale. Il metodo è stato applicato ad alcune aree campione situate all'interno della Provincia Autonoma di Trento e caratterizzate da diverse tipologie di paesaggio rurale e da diversi gradi di pressione antropica.
Das Konzept der nachhaltigen Entwicklung ist die zentrale Vision für die Zukunft der Menschheit im 21. Jahrhundert. Ausgehend vom Brundtland-Report (WCED 1987) und dem Abkommen von Rio 1992 (Agenda 21) hat das Konzept der nachhaltigen Entwicklung inzwi- schen eine große internationale Bedeutung erhalten. Aus Verantwortung für die sozialen und materiellen Lebensumstände künftiger Generationen sollen danach bei gesellschaftlichen Entscheidungsprozessen gleichermaßen ökonomische, ökologische und soziale Belange be- rücksichtigt werden. Der Landwirtschaft kommt im Rahmen einer globalen nachhaltigen Entwicklung eine herausragende Bedeutung zu. Die Sicherstellung der Nahrungsversorgung, der Erhalt der biologischen Vielfalt, sowie der Schutz natürlicher Ressourcen wie Boden, Wasser und Luft ist ohne entsprechende Berücksichtigung der Landwirtschaft undenkbar. Kein anderer Bereich der Volkswirtschaft ist so eng mit allen drei Teilaspekten der Nach- haltigkeit verbunden (CHRISTEN 1996, 1999).
Ein wesentlicher Beweggrund für die Beschäftigung mit der Frage der nachhaltigen Ent- wicklung liegt darin begründet, dass David Ricardos "unsichtbare Hand" des freien Marktes sämtliche Einflüsse auf die Umwelt unberücksichtigt läßt, obwohl natürliche Ökosysteme zweifellos Leistungen erbringen, die für alle Gesellschaften absolut notwendig sind. In eini- gen Teilbereichen läßt sich dies zwar korrigieren, indem freie Güter (Luft- und Wasser- qualität, Kohlenstoffbindung durch Vegetation usw.) mit Preisen belegt werden und so auch auf Märkten handelbar sind. Das Problem der Internalisierung externer Kosten liegt aber ein- deutig in Gütern, deren Veränderungen außerhalb des menschlichen Erfahrungshorizontes liegt. Hier ergeben sich bei streng ökonomischer Betrachtung durch die Vorgehensweise der Abzinsung aktuell extrem geringe Werte, so dass ein ökonomischer Reiz für die Veränderung von heutigen Handlungen nach ökonomischen Kriterien kaum noch zu begründen ist. Selbst bei einer moderaten Abzinsungsrate von nur 5 Prozent schrumpft beispielsweise ein Wert von 100 DM innerhalb eines Zeitrahmens von nur 100 Jahren auf eine aktuelle Größe von knapp 70 Pfennig. Da im Umweltbereich die relevanten Zeitspannen durchaus länger als 100 Jahre sein können, verdeutlicht dies klar die Grenzen eines ausschließlich ökonomischen ori- entierten Ansatzes in der Sicherstellung einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung (MARSH 1997, HEAL 1999, 2000, LUDWIG 2000, STARRETT 2000).
Die Diskussion über die verschiedenen Facetten einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung in der Land- wirtschaft hat sich in den letzten Jahren deutlich gewandelt. Ausgangspunkt waren zuerst um- fangreiche Analysen und Situationsbeschreibungen, wobei meist Ressourcenschutz und Bio-
9
diversität im Vordergrund standen. Daneben wurde intensiv über die vermeintlich beste De- finition einer nachhaltigen Landwirtschaft kontrovers diskutiert. Hinweise darauf, wie eine nachhaltige Entwicklung in der Landwirtschaft tatsächlich in der Praxis auszusehen hat, waren jedoch in den entsprechenden Publikationen kaum zu finden und Empfehlungen für eine konkrete Umsetzung beschränkten sich häufig auf Appelle an das ethisch-moralische Gewissen der beteiligten gesellschaftlichen Gruppen (LOWRANCE et al. 1986, HARWOOD 1990, KIRSCHMANN 1990, SENANAYAKE 1991, BLATZ 1994, HARTEL 1994, REID 1995, ROBERTS 1995, HÄRDTLEIN et al. 1998, STARRETT 2000).
Wenn Nachhaltigkeit mehr sein soll als ein ethisch anspruchsvolles jedoch praxisuntaugliches Konzept, müssen entsprechende Maßzahlen, sogenannte Indikatoren, zur Bewertung der unterschiedlichen Aspekte einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung gefunden werden (BOSSHARD 2000). Die Auswahl von Indikatoren ist hierbei aus zweierlei Gründen von herausragender Bedeutung. Zum einen müssen entsprechende Maßeinheiten identifiziert werden, um eine nachhaltige Entwicklung im nationalen wie auch im internationalen Rahmen als Grundlage für Abkommen im Wirtschafts- aber auch im Umweltbereich vergleichen zu können. Zum anderen sind Indikatoren eine zwingend notwendige Voraussetzung, um eine nachhaltige Entwicklung auf nationaler wie auch auf internationaler Ebene zu operationaliseren.
Es gab daher in den letzten Jahren eine Vielzahl von Anläufen, geeignete Parameter für die Beurteilung einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung für verschiedene wirtschaftliche oder soziale Zusammenhänge zu etablieren. Neben Publikationen in der wissenschaftlichen Literatur gibt es auf der Ebene der nationalen und internationalen Organisationen (UN, FAO, Commission of Sustainable Development, Umweltbundesamt usw.) eine Reihe von Vorschlägen für Ein- zelindikatoren oder umfassende Indikatorkonzepte, die Bezug zur Umweltqualität, zur land- wirtschaftlichen Produktion oder zur Landnutzung aufweisen.
Die vorliegende Studie hat daher folgende Zielstellungen:
• Dokumentation des aktuellen Diskussionsstandes zur Bewertung einer nachhaltigen
Entwicklung in der Landwirtschaft
• Kritische Bewertung der vorgeschlagenen Einzelindikatoren im Hinblick auf Rele-
vanz, methodische Absicherung, Möglichkeiten der Modellierung und Grenzwert-
fähigkeit
• Entwicklung eines Vorschlages zur Systematisierung und Verbesserung der Indikator-
konzepte
This article presents an investigation of relationships between organic farming and landscape composition in Denmark. Landscape composition was analysed in terms of density of uncultivated landscape elements (I), number of land uses per hectare (II), diversity of land use (III) and mean field size (IV). Two analytical approaches were used. The first was based on an examination of the national agricultural registers for 1998, 2001 and 2004. The second approach used aerial photo interpretation for an analysis of 72 conventional and 40 organic farms within three sample areas for 1982, 1995 and 2002. The national analysis indicated that organic farming has a direct effect on landscape composition. In 2001, organic farms were characterised by a higher number of land uses per ha, a higher land use diversity and smaller mean field sizes. From 1998 to 2004, conversion to organic farming was related to an increasing number of land uses per ha, increasing land-use diversity and decreasing mean field sizes. Relationships between organic farming and landscape composition were independent of variations in regional location, farm size or farm size change. At the level of sample areas, a significant relationship between organic farming and landscape composition was only found for densities of small biotopes. However, when differences in farm size and physical geographical conditions between conventional and organic farms were taken into account, several significant differences in landscape composition were clarified in two of the three sample areas. Furthermore, changes in landscape composition following conversion to organic farming were largely biased by the characteristics of the sample areas. Thus, in contrast to the national level, the sample area study indicated that differences in landscape composition between organic and conventional farms were not a direct implication of organic farming practices, but were related to variations within other parameters and to the location of organically farmed land.
Landscape structure in rural areas reflects natural preconditions, types of farms present and their structure. However, these factors are often correlated, which blurs their separate effects. In this study, landscape composition was compared between organic and conventional farms, and between crop and dairy farms, situated in two geological regions (ground moraine and outwash plain) in Denmark. The 40 farms included in the study were stratified in eight groups with all combinations of region and farm types. The land units on the farms were typified, the coverage of each type assessed, and farm activities to establish new non-production land units during the last 10 years were registered. Average field size increased with farm size and was larger on crop farms than on dairy farms. Crop and dairy farms differed in coverage of fallow land and building area — land unit types closely linked to the agricultural production, and crop farmers were more active in establishing small plantings than dairy farmers. Conventional and organic farms did not differ in landscape characteristics, in contrast to conclusions of previous studies in Europe.
Agrobiodiversity Enhancement (ABDE) is a strategy that has been advanced for preventing environmental degradation without losing agricultural productivity. However, there is not yet sufficient evidence to support the important role that ABDE might have for managing agricultural land use in the tropical uplands. This research is an attempt to help fill this knowledge gap. The general aim of the thesis was to explore the potential of ABDE as a management alternative for agricultural land use in the uplands in terms of environmental protection, productivity and farmer acceptability. To achieve the aim, a methodological framework for evaluating agricultural land use in the uplands was developed. The methodology aimed at allowing one to understand the influence of agricultural land use on natural resources and farm productivity and the social factors that will most likely influence land users to enhance agrobiodiversity of their production. The methodological framework provided a minimum set of criteria and indicators that can be used for assessing agricultural land uses in the uplands. Main criteria for the evaluation included protection, productivity, viability security and acceptability. The following indicators were included: Shannon Diversity Index, Depth of Topsoil, Soil Organic Matter, Soil Nitrate, Crop Yields, Net Income, Trend in Income and Harvest Loss, Farmer Traits, Farm Characteristics and Farmer perceptions on the influence of farming on the health of natural resources and of the farm workers. The methodological framework also includes a range of methods and techniques for gathering environmental, economic and social data in the uplands and indicates circumstances under which each might best be utilized. Using the methodological framework, agricultural land use in an upland area in Liliw, Laguna Philippines was evaluated for protection of natural resources, specifically of the soil quality and for farm productivity and for the social factors that influence the way agricultural lands are managed. Results showed integration of horticultural trees and crops have potential for protecting thickness of the topsoil, reducing nutrient wastage and is more economically profitable than monocropping systems. Specifically, coconut exhibited importance in maintaining thickness of topsoil while lanzones played major role in augmenting farm income and as buffer to income losses from annual crops. Older farmers and women were found associated with agricultural land use with diversified production in the case study area. The Logit model analysis further showed that leadership quality and land ownership are the social factors that will likely influence integration of horticultural trees and crops in the uplands. Other personal characteristics like years of experience in farming, access to other sources of livelihood, land size, awareness of land degradation and effect of agrochemicals on heath of the farm workers have no likely influence on agricultural lands with integration of horticultural trees and crops. SWOT analysis of agricultural land use in the case study site showed that despite the environmental and economic advantages of agricultural lands with diversified production, there are weaknesses and barriers to its further development and implementation. From this assessment, implications for developing and implementing an ABDE intervention program for the tropical uplands were drawn.
This second progress report focuses on designing a theoretical prototype by linking parameters to methods and designing the methods in this context until they are ready for initial testing. The report focuses also on testing and improving the prototype in general and the methods in particular until the objectives as quantified in the set of parameters have been achieved by pilot groups, regional networks and national networks
This chapter focuses on agronomy of white clover (Triflium repens L.). White clover is the most important pasture legume in temperate zones of the world. It is of value because of its wide climatic range, the high nutritional quality and digestibility of its herbage, and the significant contribution it makes to the economy of grass/white clover pastures by fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, especially in the absence of fertilizer nitrogen. White clover is normally described as a creeping, much-branched perennial. White clover grows on roadside verges and in natural pastures throughout the world where climatic and soil conditions are suitable, but it is seeded deliberately in pastures mainly in North America, New Zealand, and northern Europe. White clover is used principally as a component of mixed grass/clover swards, which are usually grazed in situ. It is not grown in monoculture because of the difficulties of keeping such swards weed free, low annual herbage production, its short growing season, and concern about bloat and possible reproductive problems in grazing livestock. In the European Economic Community (EEC) countries, about 3,000 tons of white clover seed is used each year, of which the United Kingdom sows about one-third. This chapter is based largely on work in northwestern Europe and New Zealand, but literature on work from other countries is also cited where relevant.
A Concerted Action has been initiated to discuss the assessment of sustainable agro-landscape values in the EU. The objective is to find out how criteria and parameters can be defined that would help farmers, authorities and politicians to manage the agro-landscape towards sustainability and socio/cultural appreciation. Such parameters should most probably consist of a general mainframe with compatible regional specifications. They could eventually be a base for income support/cross-compliance type of payments that farmers receive for their landscape management performance. Referring to the papers presented in this special issue, an effort is made to integrate the values proposed by the wide range of participating disciplines into a consistent and knowledgeable system. This is done by linking the different values as mentioned by the participants to the human motivations, phrased according to Maslow, that they are meant to serve. The disciplines present have been provisionally clustered into three areas with two main issues: (1) environment (resource conditions) and ecology (biological relations); (2) economy (flows of finances and services) and sociology (participative procedures); (3) psychology (appreciation and aesthetics) and anthropology (history and ethics). In these three realms, they are perceived as representing a double hierarchy of priorities: from the environment onward they represent the evolutionary option of basic human needs, evolving from sheer survival to the development of the individual potentials (food first, then ethics). From the cultural aspect of ethics to the environmental conditions they represent a more humanistic (humane), immaterial priority of ethical values, leading social and economic priorities to their environmental impacts. From this effort, indications are derived pointing at options for a coherent system of agro-landscape values, especially when seen in the perspective of sustainable land use. A table showing the various agro-landscape quality aspects is presented. Throughout this paper, the agro-landscape is perceived as an integrated product of human actions, of agro-technical, political and mental (ethical) character.
Standards for Organic Agriculture. The Irish Organic Farmers and Growers Association Symbol Scheme
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Rural environment protection scheme Farm Development Service: Agri-environmental Specifications. Implementation of Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2078/92. Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry
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Anonymous, 1994. Rural environment protection scheme. Farm Development Service: Agri-environmental Specifications. Implementation of Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2078/92. Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry. 75 pp.
Irish Agriculture in Figures
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Anonymous, 1997b. Irish Agriculture in Figures. Teagasc, Dublin, pp. 24.
Mineral balance in organic agriculture Potential and Limits of Organic Farming
- F S Macnaeidhe
MacNaeidhe, F.S., 1992, Mineral balance in organic agriculture. Peeters and Van Bol (Eds.). Potential and Limits of Organic Farming. Proc. EU Workshop. Louvain-la-Neuf, Belgium. 17–18 Sep, 1992. Commission of the European Communities, Brussels, pp. 93–97.
Biodiversity of soil biota in biodynamic, organic and conventional farming systems
- P Mader
- L Pfiffner
- A Fliebbach
- U Niggli
Mader, P., Pfiffner, L., Fliebbach, A., Niggli, U., 1995. Biodiversity of soil biota in biodynamic, organic and conventional farming systems. Isart, J., Llerema, J. J., (Eds.), Biodiversity and Land Use: The Role of Organic Farming Proc. ENOF Workshop Bonn, Dec. 1995, pp. 45–58.
Advanced Ecological Farming Systems (EFS) based on best practices with Organic Farmers Pilot Groups Hedgerow management in organic farming — impact on biodiversity
- F S C Macnaeidhe
- M Measures
- C Smith
- L Foster
MacNaeidhe, F. S., 1997. Advanced Ecological Farming Systems (EFS) based on best practices with Organic Farmers Pilot Groups. 4th Individual Progress Report of the Cost Shared Project. AIR3-CT92-0051. Teagasc, Wexford, 30 p. Stopes, C., Measures, M., Smith, C. Foster, L., 1995. Hedgerow management in organic farming — impact on biodiversity. Isart, J., Llerema, J. J., (Eds.), Biodiversity and Land Use: The Role of Organic Farming Proc. ENOF Workshop, Bonn, Dec. 1995, pp. 121–126.
Designing and testing prototypes An inter-disciplinary approach to integrate a range of agro-landscape values as proposed by representatives of various disciplines
- P Vereijken
Vereijken, P., 1995. Designing and testing prototypes, Progress Report 2. Concerted Action AIR3-CT92-0775. AB-DLO, Wageningen, 90 p. Van Mansvelt, J.D., 1997. An inter-disciplinary approach to integrate a range of agro-landscape values as proposed by representatives of various disciplines. Agric. Ecosys. Environ.
Advanced Ecological Farming Systems (EFS) based on best practices with Organic Farmers Pilot Groups
- F S Macnaeidhe
Farm Development Service: Agri-environmental Specifications. Implementation of Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2078/92. Department of Agriculture, Food and Forestry
- Anonymous
Management Data for Farm Planning
- Anonymous
Hedgerow management in organic farming - impact on biodiversity
- C Stopes
- M Measures
- C Smith
- L Foster
Potential and Limits of Organic Farming
- F S Macnaeidhe